So you Do you feel that school uniforms should or should not be a requirement? Finally discuss why this is an important issue to consider."

Commentaries

Should School Uniforms be Mandated in Elementary Schools? Keith A. King

iolence among today’s young people, especially at V school, has been labeled by many health professionals as a potential threat to the overall health and academic success of children.’-6 Approximately one in four students reports worrying about becoming a victim of crime or threats at school, and one in eight reports having been victimized at school.’ In light of such reports, schools have implemented violence prevention programs, which have shown moderate

As these programs continue, teachers, principals, parents, and students have also noted a possible connection between school violence and the type of clothing students wear in school. The fashion trend at schools, especially urban schools, is largely dominated by children wearing gang-related or gang-like clothing. The problematic issue of gangs and school violence has been addressed in several studies.*,’ With respect to gang-related clothing, gang members frequently roam streets near schools and often enter schools. Hence, the color of clothing that students wear can result in their becoming targets of intentional or unintentional violence.’’ In addition, the style of clothing popular among children today arose from the clothing of inner-city gangs, who have worn baggy pants and oversized shirts that could hide weapons and drugs from law enforce- ment officials. With such clothing glamorized by music videos and television sitcoms, more children wear similar styles of baggy, oversized shirts and pants to school. Such clothing can become a means of transporting weapons or drugs into school and thus indirectly increase school violence. Add to this the finding that one in three youths reports easy access to handguns, and the concern for school safety becomes especially crucial.’

Children’s hunger to be fashionable brings another dimension to the connection between clothing style and school violence. Children may envy other children’s cloth- ing and lack the financial resources to purchase similar styles. Subsequently, children have been violently injured or even murdered for their designer clothes, sneakers, or professional sport-team paraphernalia. School uniforms may reduce these occurrences. In addition, requiring chil- dren to wear the same clothing could send them a message that they all belong to the same team, which may decrease violence toward other “team members.”

Keith A. King. MSEd, Graduate Assistant, Dept. of Health Promotion and Human Performance, The University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43606. This article was submitted April 24, 1997, and revised and accepted f o r publi- cation August 29, 1997.

Long Beach (Calif.) Unified School District - compris- ing 56 elementary middle schools, and nearly 60,000 students - was the first large urban school district in the United States to require school uniforms for all students, kindergarten through grade eight. Since 1994, when mandatory uniform policies were adopted in this school district, district officials have found that violence and discipline problems dramatically decreased. In the first year following implementation, overall school crime decreased by 36%; sex offenses, by 74%; physical fights between students, by 51 %; weapons offenses, by 50%; assault and battery offenses, by 34%; school suspensions, by 32%; and vandalism, by 18%.”.’*

A proposal calling for mandatory uniforms in elemen- tary schools as a means to reduce youth violence has arisen and has found support among numerous individuals. The President of the United States mentioned the worth of school uniforms in his 1995 State of the Union Address.” However, those who oppose the proposal include highly regarded individuals and organizations, the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) most notedly among them.”

THE CASE FOR UNIFORMS The school should provide a safe and disciplined learn-

ing environment for students.I3 Violence in schools destroys such an environment and can negatively affect student motivation for learning. Everett and Price l 4 found that due to increased prevalence of school violence, one in five public school students feels less eager to go to school every day, one in seven feels less inclined to pay attention to learning in school, and one in 10 stays home from school or cuts class. In unsafe school environments, teachers cannot teach to their maximum potential, and students cannot learn to their full capability.6

Youths who feel safe, secure, and free from threats of violence perform better academically. I’ Those who fear for their safety in school or on the way to school may not learn effectively, and they may turn to truancy as a viable alter- native to facing the daily threats of violence. One of every 10 to 12 youths who stays away from school does so because of fear.6.14 In their response to increasing school violence, several teachers, principals, parents, and students believe uniforms could help reduce violence.

Many people believe adoption of school uniform poli- cies will lead to increased school safety, student discipline, and student learning.” More specifically, many have argued that school uniforms assist in reducing school violence and theft; preventing gang activity, such as students wearing gang colors and gang insignia; providing discipline in

32 Journal of School Health January 1 9 9 8 , Vol. 68, No. 1

students; helping students to concentrate on their school work; helping students to resist peer pressure; and helping school officials easily recognize school intruders.'2.'5

In a survey of the United Teachers of Dade County, Florida, approximately 60% of the group's members supported mandatory uniforms for school children.ls Similarly, of the 5,500 principals surveyed as attendees of the National Association of Secondary School Principals' annual conference in February 1996, more than 70% believed that requiring students to wear uniforms to school would reduce violent incidents and discipline problems.16 Moreover, greater than 80% of Long Beach P r e s s - Telegram readers supported school uniforms.17

Some school personnel believe students and teachers tend to behave the way they are allowed to dress.6 Instead of adopting a policy for mandatory school uniforms, several schools have adopted a mandatory dress code policy for teachers as well as students, which aims to estab- lish clear appearance and behavioral standards for

As mentioned previously, Long Beach Unified School District was the first large urban school district i n the United States to require school uniforms for all students in grades kindergarten through grade eight, and it subse- quently experienced great decreases in school violence, crime, and Despite allowing parents the option to request exemption from school uniforms, fewer than 500 parents - less than 1 % of all parents - requested exemption in the first year of implementation.'* Fewer than 400 parents - again, less than 1% of all parents - requested exemption during the 1995- 1996 academic year.I7

Other schools have followed the Long Beach example. To date, 12 states (California, Indiana, Iowa, Louisiana, Massachusetts, Minnesota, New Jersey, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Virginia, and Washington) have state policies that permit individual schools or districts to adopt school uniform policies or dress codes (Figure l).I9 Nonetheless, Long Beach Unified and Oakland are the only two school

Figure 1 State Policies Concerning School Uniforms and School Dress Codes

State

California

Iowa

Indiana

Louisiana

Massachusetts

Minnesota

New Jersey

Tennessee

Texas

Utah

Virginia

Washington

Date Enacted

1994

1995

1995

1 992

1996

1995

1996

1 995

1995

1994

1995

1994

Summary of State Policy

Law allows school uniforms. Students cannot be barred from attending schools for failure to wear uniforms. Provisions must be made to obtain uniforms for low-income students.

Board of directors is allowed to adopt dress code policy that prohibits students from wearing gang-related or other specific apparel if board determines the policy is necessary for health, safety, or positive educational environment of students and staff.

School discipline bill allows schools to adopt dress codes.

School boards are allowed to implement dress codes that include school uniforms and allow parents to opt-out.

Local school districts are allowed to establish dress codes after "reasonable consultation."

Amended law permits school boards to require students to furnish or buy uniforms if boards adopt uniform requirements.

School boards may adopt dress codes that include school uniforms if policies are "requested by the principal, staff, and parents and will enhance the school learning environment."

School boards are allowed to form rules that prohibit secondary school students from wearing clothing that has gang associations.

School boards are allowed to require school uniforms "if the board determines that the requirement would improve the learning environment of the school." Parents may opt-out. Uniforms are provided to students who are "educationally disadvantaged."

Local boards and public schools are allowed to adopt dress codes that require uniforms.

School districts are allowed to require school uniforms.

School district boards are allowed to require dress codes with school uniforms. Accommodations must be made for special circumstances, and parents may opt-out.

Journal of School Health January 1 9 9 8 , Vol. 68, No. 1 33

districts to have adopted mandatory uniform policies at the district 1evel.l’ Most school uniform policies are determined at the individual school level. The White House Manual on School U n i f o r m s ” revealed that several schools with m a n d a t o r y u n i f o r m p o l i c i e s h a v e s h o w n s u b s e q u e n t decreases in school violence and truancy and increases in positive student demeanor (Figure 2).

THE CASE AGAINST UNIFORMS While most parents and teachers seek t o ensure the

safety and security of their school children, some believe adopting a mandatory school uniform policy is not the appropriate method for ensuring such safety. Two groups opposing mandatory school uniforms are civil libertarians and older students.”’ Loren Siegel, who is director of the ACLU Public Education DepartmenLiz has stated no one knows for certain whether school uniforms are actually beneficial. While Long Beach Unified School District c l a i m s t h a t m a n d a t o r y s c h o o l u n i f o r m s r e s u l t e d i n d e c r e a s e d s c h o o l c r i m e a n d v i o l e n c e , o t h e r s t e p s t o i m p r o v e s t u d e n t b e h a v i o r - s u c h a s m o r e t e a c h e r s patrolling hallways during class changes - were imple- mented at the same time as the school uniform policy. Due t o these possible confounding variables, the ACLU has stated that it is currently impossible to determine whether uniforms were responsible for the results. In addition, no empirical studies show that uniforms consistently produce positive changes in student behavior over time.

The ACLU has also labeled mandatory school uniform policy as not constructive, since such a policy only serves as a “band aid” to a set of serious problems that require m u l t i f a c e t e d , m u l t i d i s c i p l i n a r y a c t i o n s . ’ * T h e A C L U stresses that, instead of being directed toward uniforms, resources should be directed toward creating more attrac- tive, clean, and safe school buildings; smaller classes; well- stocked libraries; easily accessed computers; more elective courses, such as music, drama, and art. Such measures could help schools foster long-lasting, positive changes among school children.l*

Some individuals feel that mandatory school uniforms may teach students a negative lesson about conformity.Is Some believe that students should base life choices on their own internal values, rather than on rules and regulations arbitrarily set for them, and that this is vitally important to their future health and discipline.2’ S u c h a n argument touches directly upon the rights of freedom of expression for all U.S. citizens. In turn, the ACLU has argued that mandatory uniforms violate students’ f r e e expression rights.2”

Although most younger children seem to be amenable to uniforms and even like them, many older students, espe- cially adolescents, respond very negatively t o school uniforms.” One Long Beach seventh grader stated, “It’s like we’re all in jail.””’ Adolescence is a period when youths attempt to find their own uniqueness and individual- ity in various ways. One way is through fashion. While many political cartoonists joke that today’s youths already wear uniforms of baggy pants, T-shirts, and baseball caps worn backward, these uniforms are acquired by free choice, not enforced by authority figures.“’

T h e A C L U conducted a series of focus groups and discussions with high school students t o identify what students believed to be solutions to the problem of school

violence. School uniforms were not among the solutions students mentioned. Their suggestions did include schools seriously confronting and discussing issues of racial and cultural conflict; providing “safe corridor” programs, which protect student safety t o and from school; securing their entrances; providing them more extracurricular activities and clubs; establishing open forums to give them opportu- nities for self-expression; helping them find part-time jobs; and teaching them conflict resolution skills.”

In October 1995, working o n behalf of low-income families, the ACLU of Southern California filed a lawsuit a g a i n s t t h e L o n g Beach Unified School District. T h e lawsuit claimed that the district fails to help low-income students purchase uniforms and has punished students who d o not wear It also claimed the district does not adequately inform parents about their rights t o request exemption from the program.lX ACLU attorneys assert that low socioeconomic families are going without food, utili- ties, and rental payments in order to purchase mandatory school uniforms.** In response to these claims, Long Beach Unified School officials state that the district has spent more than $1 00 thousand in donations from individuals and organizations to purchase uniforms and other supplies for financially burdened s t u d e n t ~ . ’ ~ The officials quickly point out that typically, a set of three school uniforms for the year costs between $70 and $90, an amount far less than many students spend for one item of designer clothing.*2

A n o t h e r a r g u m e n t a g a i n s t i m p l e m e n t i n g s c h o o l uniforms involves using student clothing as a barometer for possible personal problems, such as drug use, gang involve- ment, or sexual abuse.2’ Students’ school uniforms may cover up such problems that their clothing might.otherwise reveal. In addition, some argue that a mandatory uniform policy tends to penalize everyone as opposed to addressing the children who cause the majority of problems.

I M PL I CAT I 0 N S FOR RE S E A RC H Paliokas and Rist2’ noted that for manv individuals. the

appeal of mandatory school uniforms is based on conven- tional wisdom and an intuitive belief that increased struc- ture results in improved child behavior. Nevertheless, there is not much empirical data to support a cause-and-effect relationship between school uniforms and violence. Other variables may be intervening with and responsible for p o s s i b l e d e c l i n e s i n v i o l e n c e i n s c h o o l s m a n d a t i n g uniforms, and Paliokas and Rist2’ posed several questions that must first be a n s w e r e d before declines in school violence can be specifically attributed to the implementa- tion of school uniform programs. Was the implementation of the uniform policy only one aspect of a comprehensive safety plan that included heightened security and stricter rules? Were local community-policing programs imple- mented at the same time? Was the trend of violence in the school at its peak and ready to decline? Was there an analy- sis of the trends of violence within that specific school or school district? Were the decreases in school violence attributed t o the Hawthorne Effect in which short-term attention to and visibility of a problem caused the decline? Was parental involvement a crucial factor in the reduction of violence?

Three research techniques have been suggested to ensure validity and credibility of data.” First, an analysis of trends occurring within the school a n d o r school district must be

34 Journal of School Health January 1998, Vol. 68, No. 1

Figure 2 Model School Uniform Programs

School Iistrict

3altimore, Aaryland

(ansas City, Missouri

-ong Beach, 2alifornia

Memphis, Tennessee

Year Size of Type of Enacted Program Program

1989 950 Voluntary elementary and uniform policy middle school at Mt. Royal students Elementary/

Middle School.

1990 320 Mandatory elementary uniform policy school students at George

Washington Carver Elementary School.

1994 5,800 Mandatory elementary and uniform policy middle school in all students elementary

and middle schools. Each school determines the uniform its students will wear.

1993 532 Voluntary elementary uniform policy school at Douglas students Elementary

School.

Option Out of Program

Uniforms are are voluntary. (All students elect to participate in the program.

No option out. Carver is a magnet school to which parents and students apply knowing about the policy.

May opt out of the program with parental consent. (Less than 1% opt out of the uniform policy to this point.)

Uniforms are voluntary. 90% of students elect to wear uniforms.

support Disadvantage Students

Mt. Royal School provides uniforms to students who cannot afford them. 98% of graduating 8th graders donate their uniforms to the school.

Students receive uniforms at no cost to them. The state and school district pay for uniforms primarily with magnet school funding

Assistant plan for financially disadvantaged families. In most cases, graduating students donate or sell used uniforms to families in need.

Business partners in Memphis have contributed financial support to purchase uniforms for needy families.

Results of Program

Assistant principal states the policy "has enhanced the climate of our building. It brings about a sense of seriousness about work."

Principal states, "The children feel good about themselves, as school uniforms build a sense of pride. It forces adults to know a child."

In the year following implementation, there are decreases in overall crime rate (36%), sex offenses (74%), fights (51 %), weapons offenses (50%), assault and battery(34%), suspensions

(32%), vandalism (18%).

School guidance counselor states, "The tone of the school is different. There is not the competitiveness, especially in grades 4, 5, and 6, about who is wearing what."

Journal of School Health January 1998, Vol. 68, No. 1 35

Figure 2 Model School Uniform Programs (continued)

School District

Norfolk, Virginia

Phoenix, Arizona

Richmond, Virginia

Seattle, Washington

Year Enacted

1995

1995

1994

1995

Size of Program

977 middle school students

1,174 middle school students

262 elementary school

900 middle school students

Type of Program

Mandatory uniform policy at Ruffner Middle School.

Mandatory uniform policy at Phoenix Prep. Academy.

Voluntary uniform policy at Maymount Elementary School for the Arts and Humanitites.

Mandatory uniform policy at South Shore Middle School.

Option Out of Program

No option out. Students who come to school without a uniform are sent home with detention.

May opt out with parental consents. Students who opt out must attend another school in the district.

Uniforms are voluntary.

May opt out with parental consent. Students who opt out must attend another school in the district. (Only five students have opted out

support Disadvantage Students

School provides uniforms for students who cannot afford them.

Local foundation grant covers the cost of uniforms for famililes who cannot afford to buy them.

Business and community leaders donate financial aid to support the program. As a result, the percentage of students wearing uniforms rose 30% in the first year of program; 85% in second year.

Local businesses financially support the program. Administrators state the average cost of clothing a child in a a school requiring uniforms can be 80% less expensive as clothing a child in a school not requiring uniforms.

Results of Program

School has found that leaving class without permission decreased 47%, throwing objects decreased 68%, and fighting decreased 38%.

Principal states, "The main result is an overall improvement in the school climate and a greater focus on positive behavior. A big portion of that is uniforms."

Principal states, uniforms have resulted in improved behavior, increased attendance rates, and higher student achievements.

Principal states, "The demeanor in school has improved 98%, truancy and tardies are down, and we have not had one reported incident of theft."

36 Journal of School Health January 1998, Vol. 68, No. 1

performed to determine whether the decline in violence represents a true change or a predictable change in trend. Second, data should be obtained from both an experimental group (those required to wear uniforms) and a control group (those not required to wear uniforms). Third, data pertaining to possible intervening variables should be obtained and controlled for during statistical analyses.

Lack of empirical evidence supporting school uniforms does not mean that school uniforms do not work. The following recommendations can assist researchers in exam- ining the effectiveness of school uniforms in preventing and/or reducing school violence:

1) Studies should be conducted which investigate parent, teacher, and student perceptions regarding school uniforms and violence prevention.

2) Studies should use trend analyses to determine whether any decline in violence represents true change or predictable change in trend within the school and/or school district.

3) Studies should statistically control for possible inter- vening variables associated with violence reduction to determine cause-and-effect relationships between school uniforms and violence reduction.

4) Studies should compare the prevalence of violence in schools mandating uniforms with schools mandating dress codes.

5) Studies should obtain data from both experimental groups (those required to wear uniforms) and control groups (those not required to wear uniforms).

6) Studies should examine how schools mandating uniforms address the issue of providing school uniforms to low-income families.

7) Studies should focus on identifying the means to adequately evaluate the effect of mandatory uniform

w programs on the prevalence of school violence.

References 1 , American Psychological Association. V i o l e n c e a n d Y o u t h :

P s y c h o l o g y ’ s Response, Volume I : Summary Report of the American P s y c h o l o g i c a l A s s o c i a t i o n C o m m i s s i o n o n V i o l e n c e a n d Y o u t h .

Washington, DC: American Psychological Association; 1993:42. 2. Callahan CM, Rivara FP. Urban high school youth and handguns.

3. Koop CE, Lundberg GD. Violence in America: a public health emergency. JAMA. 1992;267:3075-3076.

4. Durant RH, Getts AG, Cadenhead C. Woods ER. The association between weapon carrying and the use of violence among adolescents living in and around public housing. J Adol Health. 1995; l7:376-380.

5 . Coben JH, Weiss HB, Mulvey EP, Dearwater SR. A primer on school violence prevention. J Sch Health. 1994;64(8):309-3 13.

6 . Stephens RD. T h e art of safe school planning. S c h A d m i n .

7. N o h MJ, Davies E, Chandler K. Student victimization at school. J Sch Health. 1996;66(6):216-22 I .

8. Torok WC, Trump KS. Gang intervention: police and school collab- oration. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin. 1994;63(5): 13-1 7.

9. Sorrentino A, Whittaker D. The Chicago area project: addressing the gang problem. FBI L a w Enforcement Bull. 1994;63(5):8-12.

10. Orpinas P, Parcel GS, McAlister A, Frankowski R. Violence prevention in middle schools: a pilot evaluation. J A d o l H e a l t h .

1 1 .The White House Office of the Press Secretary. Memorandum for the Secretary of Education. Subject: Manual on School Uniforms, online. http://inet.ed.gov/PressReleases/02- 1996/whpr.26.html. Feb 23, 1996.

12. Siege1 L. Point of View: S c h o o l U n i f o r m s , online. http://www.aclu.org/congress/uniform.html. March I , 1996.

13. US Dept of Education. Manual on School Uniforms, online. http://inet.ed.gov/updates/uniforms.html. Feb 29, 1996.

14. Everett SA, Price JH. Students’ perceptions of violence in the public schools: the MetLife survey. J Adol Health. 1995; 17:345-352.

15. Gursky D. Uniform improvement? Am Teacher. 1996;80:8-9. 16. Portner J. Department to issue guidelines on school uniforms. Educ

Week. 1996;15(24):27. 17. Long Beach Unified School District. School Uniform Fact Sheet,

online. http://www.Ibusd.kl2ca.us/uniform/uniforma.htm. 1996. 18. Portner J. Dressing for success: California district touts uniforms

for putting focus on learning. Educ Week. 1996;15(21):1,12. 19. Education Commission of the States. Education Watch - School

Uniforms, online. http://www.ecs.org/ecs/2356.htm. Sept 30, 1996. 20. Editorial Projects in Education. Uniforms. Education Week on the

Web, online. http://www.edweek.org/context/topics/uniforms.htm. 1996. 21. Paliokas KL, Rist RC. Do They Reduce Violence - Or Just Make

Us Feel Better? online. http://www.edweek.org/we/vol- 1 Y28rist.h 15. April 3, 1996.

22. Cohn CA. Mandatory school uniforms: Long Beach’s pioneering experience finds safety and economic benefits. Sch A d m i n . 1996;

JAMA. 1992;267:3038- 3032.

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Job Opportunities Dept. of Health Science, Towson University. Entry-level assistant professor, tenure-track position to begin Fall 1998. Salary commensurate with entry-level position. Applicants must have major emphasis in health education and possess doctorate at time of employment. Applicants must also show potential for superior teaching, service and scholarship. Ability to use new technologies and CHES desirable. Send letter of application; curriculum vitae; names, addresses and telephone numbers of three references; and official transcript(s) to Dr. Susan M. Radius, Dept. of Health Science, Towson University, 141 Burdick Hall, Towson, MD 21 252. Applications will be reviewed beginning April 1,1998 and continue until the position is filled. Towson University is an equal opportunity/affirmative action employer and has a strong institutional commitment to

diversity. Women, minorities, persons with disabilities and veterans are encouraged to apply.

Announcements of available or desired positions are published monthly in the Job Opportunities section of the Journalof SchoolHealth. The section is available to all health professionals and all institutions employing health professionals. The fee for institutions is $100 for a 10-line ad (approx. 60 characters per line) and $10 for each additional line after the tenth. The fee for an individual is $50 and $5 for each additional line after the tenth. Send payment, purchase order or insertion order with the ad copy to: Job Opportunities, Journalof School Health, P.O. Box 708, Kent, OH 44240; 3301678-1 603, ext. 122; 330167789-4526 (fax); [email protected],

Journal of School Health January 1998, Vol. 68, No. 1 37

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