PSY 270_FINAL

Learning Theories

Multiple Choice Questions (Enter your answers on the enclosed answer sheet)

1. "Men can't cook." This is all that Jim heard for the week leading up to his first attempt at making Thanksgiving dinner for his family, despite the fact that he had plenty of experience cooking for these same people. When he finally attempted to cook the dinner, he panicked, and burnt the turkey. Such a result is a demonstration of:

(a) latent learn i ng (b) a forgetting curve (c) stereotype threat

(d) performance dissociation

2. The term is used to describe the study of how we have come to

have knowledge.

(a) nativism

(b) rationalism (c) epistemology

(d) none of the above

3. Latent learning occurs when a behavioral change:

(a) is observed at the time of initial learning

(b) is not observed until some time has passed between initial learning and demonstration of that learning

(c) is never observed

(d) none of the above

4. In the past, the term "learning" has been used in reference to:

(a) conditioning and reinforcement tasks (b) verbal recall tasks

(c) the conscious recollection of past experiences (d) material presented for study on one occasion

5. In the past, the term "memory" has been used in reference to:

(a) conditioning and reinforcement tasks

(b) skills requiring repeated trials for acquisition (c) the conscious recollection to past experiences (d) none of the above

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6. Changes due to maturation are excluded from the definition of learning be- cause:

(a) they may arise from innate forces

(b) they may involve neural growth that occurs at its own rate (c) all of the above

(d) none of the above

7. Schmidt and Bork argue that learning and memory

(a) are entirely separate from one another and cannot be studied together (b) measure the same thing

(c) cannot be studied because they cannot be observed

(d) should be studied together, as one's degree of memory depends on one's level of learn i ng

8. When one learns very quickly at the start of a training period, but the amount of learning slows down during later trials, what type of learning curve is produced?

(a) an "S" shaped curve

(b) a positively accelerated curve (c) a power curve

(d) a negatively accelerated curve

9. The rats in Dr. Smith's experiment on maze running took a few trials before they started to show any learning ability, although this "slow" early period was followed by a dramatically quick improvement in performance, followed by a slowi ng down of learn i ng. Th is data pattern suggests wh ich of the follow- ing types of learning curves?

(a) an "S" shaped curve

(b) a positively accelerated curve (c) a power curve

(d) a negatively accelerated curve

10. Dr. Woods is conducting basic research on the different types of sensory neu- rons that carry input to spinal neurons. Her research on these neurons will most likely lead to an increased understanding of the biological nature of:

(a) habituation (b) sensitization

(c) orienting responses

(d) response generalization

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11. In describing the nature of the relationship between habituation and sensiti- zation, Dual- Process theory argues that:

(a) habituation plays a more dominant role in learning than sensitization

(b) habituation may be a more dominant process in some learning situations, but sensitization may be more dominant in others

(c) sensitization plays a more dominant role in learning than habituation

(d) habituation and sensitization are always equally balanced in any learning envi ron ment.

12. Gibson & Walk's classic perceptual learning experiment found that:

(a) infants exposed to English phonemes demonstrate language skills earlier

than Hindi infants

(b) preexposure to stimuli inhibits later learning (c) preexposure to stimuli facilitates later learning

(d) the more one knows about a learning environment, the less one can learn in the future

13. As a result of his past experiences with police, whenever Pat hears a police siren, he expects that he will soon be arrested. This type of a reaction arises from which model of habituation?

(a) behavioral (b) non-learning (c) cogn itive

(d) physiological

14. Aplysia have been used to study the physiological properties of learning because:

(a) they only have one neuron, which makes it easy to see and study (b) they only have a few neurons, which are relatively large in size

(c) they have the same number of neurons as humans, so generalizations can be made from Aplysia to humans

(d) none of the above

15. An Aplysia's siphon, when stimulated by touch, withdraws into its body.

Repeated tactile stimulation produces:

(a) sensitization (b) habituation

(c) effector fatigue

(d) response generalization

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16. Studying the interaction between neurons in Aplysia has led to the conclu- sion that habituation occurs:

(a) within sensory neurons (b) within motor neurons

(c) at synapses between neurons (d) within neuronal receptors

17. In a classical conditioning experiment, an experimenter declares a flash of light to be the CS, an electric shock as the US, and a fear reaction as the UR (as well as, eventually, the CR). The acquisition phase of this experiment would involve presenting:

(a) the shock by itself (b) the light by itself

(c) the light with the shock (d) none of the above

18. Using the situation described above in question #17, an unpaired control condition would involve:

(a) havi ng the I ight presented after the shock

(b) always presenting the light and shock separate from each other (c) presenting the light and shock at the same time

(d) presenting the light by itself

19. Using the situation described above in question #17, a truly random control condition would involve:

(a) having the light presented after the shock

(b) always presenting the light and shock in distant temporal orders

(c) presenting the light and shock in an completely non-correlated manner (d) presenting the light by itself

20. Using the situation described above in question #17, after conditioning has been completed, the occurrence of spontaneous recovery suggests that:

(a) presenting the shock by itself suppresses the CS-US association

(b) presenting the light by itself causes the CS-US association to be unlearned (c) presenting the light by itself causes the CS-US association to be suppressed (d) none of the above

2l. After using classical conditioning to train a child to stand whenever a teacher calls their name, the child begins to stand whenever any adults refer to them. What has occurred?

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(a) generalization

(b) spontaneous recovery (c) extinction

(d) discrimination

22. A dog is trained to salivate in the presence of a blue light, but not in the presence of a green light. What has occurred?

(a) generalization

(b) spontaneous recovery (c) extinction

(d) discrimination

23. Research on people with PTSD shows that when attempting to classically condition a response in these individuals, their anxiety:

(a) inhibits learning

(b) heightens a learning response (c) has no effect on learning ability

(d) only inhibits learning after prolonged exposure to CSs

24. Once extinction has occurred, previously-learned Pavlovian associations can:

(a) never be recovered

(b) only be recovered if the es and US are presented in close temporal order (c) be recovered by re-exposure to the es alone

(0) only De recovered If the US is presented

25.

____ pairings are effective in producing a es that will elicit conditioned

responses.

(a) si m u Itaneous (b) backward

(c) forward

(d) all of the above lead to equally strong eRs

26. Skinner, concerning reinforcement, made the argument that reinforcers:

(a) only have their reinforcing qualities in their originally-used context (b) lead to satisfaction

(c) increase the frequency of the operant response (d) possess transsituationality

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27. A reinforcer:

(a) possesses transsituationality

(b) does not always lead to satisfaction

(c) decreases the frequency of the operant response

(d) only has its reinforcing qualities in its originally-used context

28. James has an intense, physiological desire for a hamburger. Which of the following approaches could offer the best explanation for the effect that a hamburger would have on James at this moment?

(a) incentive motivation (b) reinforcer priming

(c) the Premack Principle (d) drive reduction

29. Which is NOT a theory of reinforcers as stimuli?

(a) incentive motivation (b) brain stimulation

(c) drive reduction

(d) biofeedback

30. Professor Smith is conducting an experiment where she is studying the degree to which drives can be increased in young lab rats. This experiment seems to be testing the basic idea underlying which approach to reinforce- ment?

(a) incentive motivation (b) brain stimulation

(c) the Premack Principle (d) drive reduction

3l. The idea that reinforcers can be behaviors, and not stimuli, is central to which reinforcement approach?

(a) incentive motivation (b) brain stimulation

(c) the Premack Pri nc i pie (d) drive reduction

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32. James loves candy and hates vegetables. However, his father wants to make sure that James eats his vegetables, since they're good for him. To ensure vegetable consumption, James is only allowed to have candy after he has eaten his vegetables. This situation illustrates the application of:

(a) intrinsic motivation (b) reinforcer priming

(c) the Premack Principle (d) drive reduction

33. The idea that reinforcers allow previously-established neural connections to become stronger is an attempt to connect the concept of reinforcement to:

(a) incentive motivation (b) memory consolidation (c) biofeedback

(d) drive reduction

34. Which of the following is the reinforcement-related role that biofeedback is said to play?

(a) informational (b) drive-reducing (c) strengthen i ng (d) all of the above

35. James has found that whenever he talks back to a school bully, the bully leaves him alone, but when he ignores the bully, the bully attacks him. Talking back to the bully would be an example of:

(a) active avoidance (b) two-process theory (c) punishment

(d) passive avoidance

36. Two-Process theory suggests which of the following procedural orders when training avoidance?

(a) instrumental conditioning followed by classical conditioning (b) classical conditioning followed by instrumental conditioning (c) punishment followed by reinforcement

(d) passive avoidance followed by active avoidance

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37. Which of the following can be found within the context of Two-Process theory?

(a) escape learning (b) helplessness (c) punishment

(d) all of the above

38. Eric is trying to teach a pigeon to peck at a lighted pad in order to avoid receiving a shock while in a operant learning chamber, but is finding that the pigeon is having a difficult time learning this association. This problem is expected, according to which theory of avoidance learning?

(a) cognitive

(b) approach-avoidance (c) functional

(d) learned helplessness

39. Samantha has decided to change her fear of multiple choice exams by alter- ing her expectancies of what will happen to her when she takes such a test. Such an occurrence is a critical element of:

(a) active avoidance (b) two-process theory (c) escape learning

(d) a cognitive approach to avoidance

40. An approach-avoidance conflict involves:

(a) having an approach tendency that is stronger than an avoidance tendency (b) having an approach tendency that is weaker than an avoidance tendency (c) having an approach tendency that is equal to an avoidance tendency

(d) not knowing if one should escape or avoid a stimulus

41. Which of the following is characteristic of an avoidance coping style?

(a) selective attention (b) intrusion

(c) blunting

(d) sensitization

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42. As a result of taking this test today, you are having a difficult time recalling the material you studied yesterday, for a test in tomorrow's calculus class. The memory deficit described here illustrates:

(a) retroactive interference (b) proactive interference (c) anchoring

(d) remote associations

43. The stimulus-response nature of learning can be seen most directly in which of the following memory tasks?

(a) the serial position effect (b) proactive interference (c) anchoring

(d) paired associate learning

44. The occurrence of highly similar items on a paired-associate learning task tends to:

(a) enhance one's generalization ability (b) lead to cognitive elaboration

(c) inhibit one's generalization ability (d) all of the above

45. A group of children are presented with a list of 20 words that they are told to remember. upon engaging In a free-recall task after the list is presented, which of the following children is likely to recall the most words?

(a) Joe, a lO-year-old boy (b) Toni, an 8-yearold girl (c) Susan, a 5-year-old girl (d) Bob, a 5-year-old boy

46. Which of the following groups of words has the highest chance of being recalled perfectly?

(a) cat, automobile, phone, I ight, word

(b) garbage, wood, television, basket, carpet (c) apple, orange, banana, pear, watermelon (d) all have equal chances of being recalled

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47. Which of the following is not an effect that organization has on memory?

(a) directs memory search during recall

(b) provides stronger primacy and recency effects (c) reduces one's memory load

(d) influences the sequence in which items are recalled

48. Recalling the words DOG, CAR, SNEAKER, BIKE, CAT, and SANDAL as "DOG, CAT, CAR, BIKE, SNEAKER and SANDAL" is an example of:

(a) categorical clustering (b) matrix recall

(c) associative clustering (d) all of the above

49. Mary's knowledge of how to drive a car is most likely originating from her:

(a) procedural memory (b) explicit memory

(c) episod ic memory (d) semantic memory

50. A common finding obtained when comparing the memory abilities of normal individuals to amnesics is:

(a) the normals and amnesics have equal explicit memory skills

(b) the amnesics have better irnpucrt memory abilities than the normals (c) the normals and amnesics have equal implicit memory skills

(d) the amnesics have better explicit memory abilities than the normals

5l. The contamination of an implicit memory test with explicit retrieval can be reduced by:

(a) making sure subjects understand their implicit memory instructions (b) using subliminal presentations

(c) using amnesia patients as subjects

(d) using individuals below the age of 18 in experiments

52. Which of the following can be taken as evidence that implicit memories arise from a different memory system than explicit memories?

Learning Theories

(a) performance on implicit and explicit tests are positively correlated

(b) individual differences seem to affect explicit, but not implicit, abilities

(c) experimental treatments tend to have equal effects on implicit and explicit memory

(d) all of the above

53. Episodic and semantic LTM have been suggested to be elements within:

(a) declarative memory

(b) non-declarative memory (c) working memory

(d) implicit memory

54. Which of the following is not a step in the Stage Model of memory?

(a) storage (b) retrieval (c) encod i ng

(d) none of the above

55. Forgetting where you placed your car keys can be due to a deficit during which stage of memory?

(a) storage (b) retrieval (c) encoding

(d) forgetting could arise from problems at anyone of these stages

56. Studies of Delayed Matching to Sample are used to assess which memory system in animals?

(a) sensory memory

(b) procedural memory (c) short-term memory (d) long-term memory

57. As stated in your text, animal research shows that animals possess which of the following human-like skills? (Box 8.1)

(a) STM

(b) control processes (c) LTM

(d) A and B only

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58. Which is NOT listed in your text (Box 8.2) as a condition which can cause memory loss?

(a) alcohol poisoning

(b) toxic poisoning from bad shellfish (c) Lyme disease

(d) overexposure to high altitudes

59. Which of the following is NOT a component of Working Memory?

(a) phonological loop (b) central executive

(c) visuospatial sketchpad (d) sensory memory

60. Joe is having a hard time taking notes in Professor Jones's class, because he can't repeat the professor's words fast enough to hold them in his mind and write them down. Joe's memory difficulty is most likely stemming from a difficulty within which working memory component?

(a) phonological loop (b) central executive

(c) visuospatial sketchpad (d) sensory memory

61. Mary is at a party, talking to Tom. However, in the middle of her conversa- tion, she hears her name mentioned across the room, and almost immediate- ly turns her attention to the place in the room from where she believes she heard her name. The element of Working Memory most responsible for this shifting of attention is most likely the:

(a) phonological loop (b) central executive

(c) visuospatial sketchpad (d) sensory memory

62. Professor Smith believes that one's immediate memory can hold a variety of pieces of information, from different domains, simultaneously. Such an ability would be possible only if which system functions properly?

(a) Short-Term Memory (b) Long-Term Memory (c) Worki ng Memory (d) Sensory Memory

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63. Mary suffered a stroke, the result of which damaged the Episodic Buffer of her Working Memory. As a result, Mary will likely have difficulty when she:

(a) tries to connect the contents of Working Memory to Sensory Memory

(b) attempts to retrieve data from Long Term Memory to use in Working Memory (c) retain visual images

(d) allocate her attentional skills across a variety of tasks

64. At the start of his gO-minute lecture on child development, Professor Mentyl shows his class a 10 minute home video of his own young children playing with their pet dog. When students later take an exam on this lecture, Pro- fessor Mentyl finds that the students didn't remember the details of the criti- cal child development theories that were the focus of the above lecture. This effect has come to be known as:

(a) the spacing effect

(b) the seductive detail effect (c) the generation effect

(d) verbal overshadowing

65. Which of the following is not an explanation for the spacing effect?

(a) encod i ng variabi I ity (b) retrograde amnesia (c) attention deficit

(d) anterograde amnesia

66. One should not study information in a massed manner on more than one occasion because the second session may interfere with the processing of the first session. This statement is consistent with which explanation of the spacing effect?

(a) encoding variability (b) retrograde amnesia (c) attention deficit

(d) anterograde amnesia

67. Mary finished studying for her physics exam at lOpm last night. Upon re- turning to the library to continue studying this morning, Mary found it dif- ficult to focus on the task at hand. This is illustrative of which explanation of the spacing effect?

(a) encoding variability (b) retrograde amnesia (c) attention deficit

(d) anterograde amnesia

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68. John is studying for his psychology exam on 4 successive nights, and each night he studies in a different location, at a different time of day, and comes up with different examples of the theories he is trying to learn. This is illus- trative of which explanation of the spacing effect?

(a) encod i ng variabi I ity (b) retrograde amnesia (c) attention deficit

(d) anterograde amnesia

69. Depth of processing explicit memory and implicit memory.

(a) enhances; has little or no effect on (b) inhibits; enhances

(c) enhances; enhances

(d) inhibits; has no effect on

70. Which of the following scenarios is most likely to produce the best retention of studied material, according to the optimal spacing theory?

(a) spacing 2 study periods 1 day apart from each other, followed by a test 3 days later

(b) spacing 2 study periods 1 day apart from each other, followed by a test 4 days later

(c) spacing 2 study periods 2 days apart from each other, followed by a test 10 days later

(d) spacing 2 study periods 4 days apart from each other, followed by a test 5 days later

7l. The generation effect gets its name from:

(a) comparing performances on a memory test between groups from older and

younger generations

(b) forcing an experimenter to generate stimuli that a subject must attend to (c) forcing a subject to generate their own stimuli in a memory experiment (d) none of the above

72. An experimenter presents a subject with the words CAR and CLOUD. If this was an experiment studying the generation effect, the subject's task would involve:

(a) repeati ng the words CAR and CLOU D over and over

(b) counting the number of letters in the words CAR and CLOUD

(c) Using the letters in the words CAR and CLOUD to form a new word (d) none of the above

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73. The idea that remembering actually improves over successive attempts and reproduction of the studied material is illustrated by the notion of:

(a) d isti nctiveness

(b) encoding specificity (c) hypermnesia

(d) all of the above

74. To have the best chance of retrieving information during an exam, students should:

(a) study the examples their teachers used in class (b) only study in a happy mood

(c) create their own examples related to material that was presented in class

(d) study in a room that is different from the room where they'll take their exam

75. Encoding specificity refers to the idea that:

(a) retrieval is enhanced when multiple recall attempts are made

(b) retrieval is enhanced when retrieval cues are similar to encoding cues (c) retrieval is inhibited when multiple recall attempts are made

(d) retrieval is inhibited when retrieval cues are similar to encoding cues

76. Since John drank 10 cups of coffee while studying for his chemistry exam, he drinks 10 more while taking the test in order reinstate the physiological state he was under while studying. This behavior suggests that John is a firm bel iever in:

(a) d isti nctiveness

(b) encoding specificity (c) hypermnesia

(d) state dependent learning

77. Whenever Julie is sad, she can only remember sad events. In these cases, Julie's memory ability seems to be based on:

(a) dependent memory (b) encoding specificity (c) hypermnesia

(d) mood-congruent memory

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7B. Not all scientists are convinced of the validity of encoding-retrieval paradigm effects because:

(a) not all cues/states become connected to all targets

(b) state-dependent effects are not always found in experiments investigating these effects

(c) tests of recognition tend to not yield encoding-retrieval effects (d) all of the above

79. While working at her desk, Mary remembers that it is her turn to cook dinner tonight. She then writes a quick reminder note to herself to stop by the su- permarket on the way home to pick up some groceries to use for dinner. Mary's actions here are illustrative of:

(a) encoding specificity (b) hypermnesia

(c) spreading of activation (d) prospective memory

BO. Which of the following is NOT an example of prospective memory?

(a) rememberi ng that one has a dentist appoi ntment next week

(b) remembering that one has to pick up one's child from football practice tomorrow

(c) remembering that you were sexually abused 15 years ago, as a child (d) none of the above

Bl. The existence of partial retrieval is supported by effects.

(a) tip-of-the-tongue and feeling-of-knowing (b) tip-of-the-tongue and prospective memory (c) feeling-of-knowing and prospective memory

(d) tip-of-the-tongue, feeling-of-knowing, and prospective memory

B2. If you were presented with the words NURSE, SICK, HOSPITAL, and MEDI- CI NE, and when asked to recall these words at a later time, which of the following words has the highest likelihood of being FALSELY recalled?

(a) DOCTOR

(b) HOMEWORK (c) MOUNTAIN (d) BUS

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83. The beliefs and self-knowledge that individuals possess about what they've learned are central to:

(a) metacogn ition

(b) knowledge of results

(c) practice-i ndependent learn i ng (d) implicit learning

84. Implicit learning:

(a) is the same as implicit memory (b) tends to be impaired in amnesics

(c) involves unconscious learning of complex information (d) all of the above

85. The lO-year rule applies to the amount of time it takes to:

(a) become an expert in a given field (b) extinct conditioned responses

(c) develop implicit learning abilities (d) become a Psychologist

86. When damaged, this part of the brain impairs skill learning, but leaves word priming intact. It is also the area of the brain which is affected in Hunting- ton's and Parkinson's diseases.

(a) hippocampus (b) basal ganglia (c) amygdala

(d) all of the above

87. Implicit learning ability:

(a) can only be used in the context it was initially acquired (b) tends to be impaired in amnesiacs

(c) can be transferred to new contexts

(d) only involves motor skill ability

88. Joe, a normal high school sophomore, has just started to learn how to play chess, although his goal is to become a world-class chess expert. Joe will most likely be able to attain this goal:

(a) a few years after he graduates from college (b) immediately after graduating high school

(c) before he graduates from high school if he practices hard enough

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(d) none of the above-- either you are born with expert skills or you're not

89. Huntington's and Alzheimer's patients show patterns of ability across

different implicit tests of their knowledge.

(a) identical (b) similar (c) different

(d) none of the above-- these individuals lose their implicit processing skills

90. Which of the following notions concerning expertise tends to be disputed?

(a) it is a function of practice (b) it is inherited

(c) proper motivation to become am expert is essential

(d) experts need to persevere in learning their specific skill

91. Developmental disabilities can be caused by:

(a) birth defects (b) head injury (c) malnutrition

(d) all of the above

92. The cognitive impairment of Down Syndrome is the result of:

(a) lack of formal education (b) a genetic defect

(c) head injury

(d) malnutrition

93. Barry has three copies of chromosome 21. Which of the following tasks will he most likely have d ifficu Ity with?

(a) reciting his telephone number

(b) tracing the correct path though a maze

(c) stating the names of his brothers and sisters (d) stating the names of his cat and dog

94. Julie, a ten year old, has impairment with visual-spatial tasks, but performs quite well with verbal tasks. Her diagnosis is most likely:

(a) Dyslexia

(b) Down Syndrome (c) Williams Syndrome (d) all of the above

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95. The mnemonist "S." can be said to have had a memory problem in the sense that he had problems:

(a) encod i ng information

(b) retrieving information (c) forgetti ng information (d) with Korsakoff's Disease

96. Learning disabled children tend to exhibit problems with:

(a) memory encoding (b) memory retrieval (c) attention

(d) all of the above

97. While sitting in class, Jamie, a lO-year-old girl with a learning disability, is very distracted, fidgeting in her chair and not focusing on the lesson being delivered by the teacher. Which approach is most consistent with Jamie's behavior?

(a) the comprehension deficit hypothesis (b) the attentional deficit hypothesis

(c) disconnection syndrome

(d) classical conditioning

98. Which type of cognitive process has not been found to be dysfunctional in learning disabled individuals?

(a) working memory (b) implicit learning (c) short term memory (d) semantic memory

99. Dual-task experiments using learning-disabled individuals as participants have suggested that the problems experienced by people with learning dis- abilities is due to a problem with:

(a) attention (b) retrieval

(c) working memory (d) LTM