Cyber Bullying Final Paper

Psychological Bulletin

Bullying in the Digital Age: A Critical Review and Meta-Analysis of Cyberbullying Research Among Youth Robin M. Kowalski, Gary W. Giumetti, Amber N. Schroeder, and Micah R. Lattanner Online First Publication, February 10, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0035618

CITATION Kowalski, R. M., Giumetti, G. W., Schroeder, A. N., & Lattanner, M. R. (2014, February 10). Bullying in the Digital Age: A Critical Review and Meta-Analysis of Cyberbullying Research Among Youth. Psychological Bulletin. Advance online publication. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0035618

Bullying in the Digital Age: A Critical Review and Meta-Analysis of Cyberbullying Research Among Youth

Robin M. Kowalski Clemson University

Gary W. Giumetti Quinnipiac University

Amber N. Schroeder Western Kentucky University

Micah R. Lattanner Duke University

Although the Internet has transformed the way our world operates, it has also served as a venue for cyberbullying, a serious form of misbehavior among youth. With many of today’s youth experiencing acts of cyberbullying, a growing body of literature has begun to document the prevalence, predictors, and outcomes of this behavior, but the literature is highly fragmented and lacks theoretical focus. Therefore, our purpose in the present article is to provide a critical review of the existing cyberbullying research. The general aggression model is proposed as a useful theoretical framework from which to understand this phenomenon. Additionally, results from a meta-analytic review are presented to highlight the size of the relationships between cyberbullying and traditional bullying, as well as relationships between cyberbullying and other meaningful behavioral and psychological variables. Mixed effects meta-analysis results indicate that among the strongest associations with cyberbullying perpetration were normative beliefs about aggression and moral disengagement, and the strongest associations with cyberbullying victimization were stress and suicidal ideation. Several methodological and sample characteristics served as moderators of these relationships. Limitations of the meta-analysis include issues dealing with causality or directionality of these associations as well as generalizability for those meta-analytic estimates that are based on smaller sets of studies (k � 5). Finally, the present results uncover important areas for future research. We provide a relevant agenda, including the need for understanding the incremental impact of cyberbullying (over and above traditional bullying) on key behavioral and psychological outcomes.

Keywords: cyberbullying, bullying, perpetration, victimization, general aggression model

As more people turn to the Internet for school, work, and social use, so too do more people turn to the Internet to take out their frustrations and aggression. One form of cyber aggression has been gaining the attention of both researchers and the public in recent years: cyberbullying. Cyberbullying is typically defined as aggres- sion that is intentionally and repeatedly carried out in an electronic context (e.g., e-mail, blogs, instant messages, text messages) against a person who cannot easily defend him- or herself (Ko- walski, Limber, & Agatston, 2012; Patchin & Hinduja, 2012). Many researchers have noted that cyberbullying is occurring at widespread rates among youth and adults, with some studies showing nearly 75% of school-age children (Juvonen & Gross, 2008; Katzer, Fetchenhauer, & Belschak, 2009) experiencing this

form of aggression at least once in the last year. The experience of cyberbullying has been linked with a host of negative outcomes for both individuals and organizations (e.g., schools), including anx- iety, depression, substance abuse, difficulty sleeping, increased physical symptoms, decreased performance in school, absenteeism and truancy, dropping out of school, and murder or suicide (Beran & Li, 2005; Mitchell, Ybarra, & Finkelhor, 2007; Privitera & Campbell, 2009; Ybarra, Diener-West, & Leaf, 2007).

Our purpose in the current article is threefold: (a) to provide a narrative review of the extant research on cyberbullying among youth,1 including a look into the prevalence and antecedents of this behavior and associated outcomes; (b) to synthesize the relation- ships among cyberbullying, cybervictimization, and meaningful behavioral and psychological variables with meta-analytic tech- niques; and (c) to critique the existing research, noting areas where findings conflict and gaps remain, thereby allowing us to provide

1 Although research has been conducted on cyberbullying in the work- place, we focus on adolescents and young adults herein. First, the majority of the research under review has focused on this particular group of individuals. Second, because so little research has examined cyberbullying in the workplace, we do not know whether the predictors/consequences of cyberbullying are similar across the different samples.

Robin M. Kowalski, Department of Psychology, Clemson University; Gary W. Giumetti, Department of Psychology, Quinnipiac University; Amber N. Schroeder, Department of Psychology, Western Kentucky Uni- versity; Micah R. Lattanner, Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University.

Correspondence regarding this article should be addressed to Robin M. Kowalski, Department of Psychology, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634. E-mail: [email protected]

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Psychological Bulletin © 2014 American Psychological Association 2014, Vol. 140, No. 2, 000 0033-2909/14/$12.00 DOI: 10.1037/a0035618

1

future researchers with directions where additional attention is needed.

Electronic Communication and the Importance of Studying Cyberbullying

There is no question that the Internet and related technologies have revolutionized the way that our world operates (Li, Smith, & Cross, 2012; Ybarra, Diener-West, & Leaf, 2007). The popularity of the Internet among school-age children and adolescents has become apparent to most, as nearly all youth between 12 and 17 use the Internet, and 68% of school pupils use the Internet at school (Hitlin & Rainie, 2005; Lenhart, 2010). Further, youth spend an average of about 17 hours per week on the Internet, with some spending more than 40 hours per week online (Center for Digital Future at the USC Annenberg School, 2010). Although most youth spend time communicating with their friends online, including forging new online friendships (Katzer et al., 2009), online interpersonal interactions can be particularly valuable for those who experience anxiety in face-to-face interactions.

Although the Internet has certainly provided many benefits, it may be responsible for a host of negative outcomes as well (Holfeld & Grabe, 2012). Among youth who venture online, almost a third report being contacted by someone they did not know through the Internet, and many report that this contact made them feel uncomfortable (Kowalski, Giumetti, Schroeder, & Re- ese, 2012). Other research has found a link between duration of Internet use and psychiatric symptoms, with those reporting more Internet use also experiencing more depression, obsessive compul- sion, and anxiety (Kelleci & Ìnal, 2010; Madden & Jones, 2008). The question of directionality with respect to this association clearly bears scrutiny, but the association appears robust. Further- more, the Internet has provided some with an avenue through which to commit various counterproductive behaviors, such as cyber-hacking (i.e., using the Internet to gain access to information or resources illegally), cyber-stalking (i.e., using the Internet to spy on or watch another person), and various forms of cyber aggres- sion including cyberbullying (i.e., using the Internet to harm an- other person; Kowalski, Limber, & Agatston, 2012). Additionally, some individuals may develop “pathological technology use” (PTU; Gentile, Coyne, & Bricolo, 2013). PTU refers to obsessive and addictive behaviors in response to technological media, such as the Internet or gaming, that resemble behaviors characteristic of addictions to alcohol or drugs.

Certain features of online communications, including reproduc- ibility, lack of emotional reactivity, perceived uncontrollability, relative permanence, and 24/7 accessibility, make it more likely for online misbehavior to occur (Kiesler, Siegel, & McGuire, 1984; Pearson, Andersson, & Porath, 2005). With regard to repro- ducibility, the core issue is that a person can easily copy all of his or her friends on a message or forward gossip to his or her entire address book. This reproducibility may make it easy for deviant individuals to harm others and to repeat the harm over and over again with the click of a button. Communications over the Internet also feature a lack of emotional reactivity. When people commu- nicate face-to-face, they provide many verbal and nonverbal cues about how they are feeling. For example, frowns or eyebrow raises are common nonverbal cues that are used when a conversation has upset the receiver. If such a cue is accurately perceived by the

message sender, the sender might soften his or her message or seek clarifying feedback. In an online context, communicators do not have this instant emotional reactivity, and they might more easily offend others in their communications (Kowalski, Giumetti, et al., 2012; Kowalski, Limber, & Agatston, 2012).

There is also a perception of uncontrollability on the Internet. Many modes of communicating online do not have a moderator to intervene if an interaction becomes aggressive, whereas in a face- to-face context, other people might be more likely to step in. Additionally, online communications, especially those on discus- sion boards or blogs, feature relative permanence because the messages can remain online indefinitely or until someone erases them, perhaps after downloading them. Finally, online communi- cations feature 24/7 accessibility that makes it possible to send and receive harmful messages at all hours of the day, which may make it seem as though one cannot escape (Kowalski, Limber, & Agat- ston, 2012). Each of these features might help to explain why cyberbullying is becoming more of a problem in today’s society.

Defining Cyberbullying

As noted earlier, most researchers agree that cyberbullying involves the use of electronic communication technologies to bully others. However, as will be seen, assessments of the prevalence of cyberbullying have proven difficult because there is a lack of consensus regarding the more specific parameters by which cy- berbullying should be defined (Olweus, 2013; P. K. Smith, del Barrio, & Tokunaga, 2012; Ybarra, Boyd, Korchmaros, & Oppen- heim, 2012). Table 1 presents an expansive although not exhaus- tive list of research in the field and reports on both the assessment methods and prevalence rates of cyberbullying across varying samples.2 As noted in the table, although there are commonalities across operational definitions, they differ in terms of specificity versus generality. Whereas some simply define cyberbullying as bullying that occurs via the Internet or mobile phones, others are more specific in terms of the taxonomy of technology, with clear implications for measurement, as discussed later.

Conceptualizing cyberbullying is compounded by the fact that cyberbullying can take so many different forms and occur through so many different venues. Willard (2007) has created a taxonomy of types of cyberbullying that includes flaming (i.e., an online fight), harassment (i.e., repetitive, offensive messages sent to a target), outing and trickery (i.e., soliciting personal information from someone and then electronically sharing that information with others without the individual’s consent), exclusion (i.e., blocking an individual from buddy lists), impersonation (i.e., pos- ing as the victim and electronically communicating negative or inappropriate information with others as if it were coming from the victim), cyber-stalking (i.e., using electronic communication to stalk another person by sending repetitive threatening communi- cations), and sexting (i.e., distributing nude pictures of another individual without that person’s consent).

The media through which cyberbullying can occur are equally diverse, including instant messaging, e-mail, text messages, web pages, chat rooms, social networking sites, digital images, and online games. Which of these media is the most frequently used

2 Table 1 includes only published, empirical studies in which cyberbul- lying was assessed.

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tr us

iv en

es s,

el ec

tr on

ic hu

m ili

at io

n, an

d el

ec tr

on ic

ex cl

us io

n

✓ L

as t

ye ar

43 7

18 –2

2 ye

ar s

U .S

. 92

.0 —

—

B er

an &

L i

(2 00

5) C

yb er

-h ar

as sm

en t/

cy be

rb ul

ly in

g W

he n

a st

ud en

t, or

se ve

ra l

st ud

en ts

, sa

ys m

ea n

an d

hu rt

fu l

th in

gs or

m ak

es fu

n of

an ot

he r

st ud

en t

or ca

lls hi

m or

he r

m ea

n an

d hu

rt fu

l na

m es

, co

m pl

et el

y ig

no re

s or

ex cl

ud es

hi m

or he

r fr

om th

ei r

gr ou

p of

fr ie

nd s

or le

av es

hi m

or he

r ou

t of

th in

gs on

pu rp

os e,

te lls

lie s

or sp

re ad

s fa

ls e

ru m

or s

ab ou

t hi

m or

he r,

se nd

s m

ea n

no te

s an

d tr

ie s

to m

ak e

ot he

r st

ud en

ts di

sl ik

e hi

m or

he r,

an d

ot he

r hu

rt fu

l th

in gs

lik e

th at

.. .

[t ha

t] ha

pp en

re pe

at ed

ly ,

an d

it is

di ff

ic ul

t fo

r th

e st

ud en

t be

in g

ha ra

ss ed

to de

fe nd

hi m

se lf

or he

rs el

f ..

. [a

nd ]

tw o

st ud

en ts

[a re

no t]

of ab

ou t

eq ua

l st

re ng

th or

po w

er

✓ L

if et

im e/

no ne

pr ov

id ed

43 2

12 –1

5 ye

ar s

C an

ad a

57 .7

25 .5

—

B er

an &

L i

(2 00

7) C

yb er

bu lly

in g

H ar

as si

ng be

ha vi

or s

in vo

lv in

g te

ch no

lo gy

✓ L

if et

im e/

no ne

pr ov

id ed

43 2

12 –1

5 ye

ar s

C an

ad a

57 .7

25 .5

—

(t ab

le co

nt in

ue s)

T hi

s do

cu m

en t

is co

py ri

gh te

d by

th e

A m

er ic

an Ps

yc ho

lo gi

ca l

A ss

oc ia

tio n

or on

e of

its al

lie d

pu bl

is he

rs .

T hi

s ar

tic le

is in

te nd

ed so

le ly

fo r

th e

pe rs

on al

us e

of th

e in

di vi

du al

us er

an d

is no

t to

be di

ss em

in at

ed br

oa dl

y.

5CYBERBULLYING REVIEW AND META-ANALYSIS

T ab

le 1

(c on

ti nu

ed )

St ud

y

C on

ce pt

ua liz

at io

n M

ea su

re m

en t

T im

e pa

ra m

et er

Sa m

pl e

ch ar

ac te

ri st

ic s

Pr ev

al en

ce

C on

ce pt

O pe

ra tio

na l

de fi

ni tio

n Si

ng le

ite m

(s )

M ul

ti- ite

m Q

ua lit

at iv

e N

A ge

or gr

ad e

L oc

at io

n %

V %

P %

V /P

B er

an et

al .

(2 01

2) C

yb er

-h ar

as sm

en t

R ep

ea te

dl y

do in

g on

e or

m or

e of

th e

fo llo

w in

g to

an ot

he r

pe rs

on fo

r w

ho m

it w

as di

ff ic

ul t

to de

fe nd

hi m

/h er

se lf

: (1

) sa

yi ng

m ea

n an

d hu

rt fu

l th

in gs

, te

as in

g, m

ak in

g fu

n, or

ca lli

ng hi

m /h

er m

ea n

an d

hu rt

fu l

na m

es ;

(2 )

ig no

ri ng

or ex

cl ud

in g

hi m

/ he

r; (3

) te

lli ng

lie s

or sp

re ad

in g

fa ls

e ru

m or

s ab

ou t

hi m

/h er

; or

(4 )

tr yi

ng to

m ak

e ot

he r

pe op

le di

sl ik

e hi

m /h

er ..

. us

[i ng

] te

ch no

lo gy

✓ L

if et

im e/

no ne

pr ov

id ed

1, 36

8 M

ea n

of 21

.1 ye

ar s

U .S

. an

d C

an ad

a 13

.8 (h

ig h

sc ho

ol );

8. 6

(c ol

le ge

)

8. 0

(h ig

h sc

ho ol

); 4.

1 (c

ol le

ge )

—

B er

so n

et al

. (2

00 2)

C yb

er -m

is co

nd uc

t T

he ex

ch an

ge of

su gg

es tiv

e or

th re

at en

in g

e m

ai l

m es

sa ge

s

✓ L

if et

im e/

no ne

pr ov

id ed

10 ,8

00 12

–1 8

ye ar

s O

nl in

e re

cr ui

tm en

t 15

.0 3.

0 —

B os

sl er

& H

ol t

(2 01

0) O

n- lin

e ha

ra ss

m en

t So

m eo

ne ha

ra ss

in g

yo u

in a

ch at

ro om

, In

te rn

et re

la y

ch at

, or

in st

an t

m es

sa gi

ng

✓ L

as t

ye ar

57 3

C ol

le ge

So ut

he as

te rn

U .S

. 18

.8 —

—

B ri

gh i,

G ua

ri ni

, et

al .

(2 01

2) C

yb er

bu lly

in g

B ul

ly [i

ng ]

vi a

a m

ob ile

ph on

e or

th e

In te

rn et

✓ L

as t

2 m

on th

s 2,

32 6

11 –2

1 ye

ar s

It al

y 12

.8 —

—

B ri

gh i,

M el

ot ti,

et al

. (2

01 2)

C yb

er bu

lly in

g B

ul ly

[i ng

] vi

a a

m ob

ile ph

on e

or th

e In

te rn

et

✓ L

if et

im e/

no ne

pr ov

id ed

5, 86

2 G

ra de

s 8,

10 ,

an d

12

It al

y, Sp

ai n,

an d

U ni

te d

K in

gd om

9. 9

— —

C al

ve te

et al

. (2

01 0)

C yb

er bu

lly in

g B

ul ly

[i ng

] vi

a th

e us

e of

th e

In te

rn et

an d

ce ll

ph on

es

✓ L

if et

im e/

no ne

pr ov

id ed

1, 43

1 12

–1 7

ye ar

s Sp

ai n

— 44

.1 —

C as

si dy

et al

. (2

01 2)

C yb

er bu

lly in

g M

ea su

re m

en t

ap pr

oa ch

un cl

ea r

✓ L

if et

im e/

no ne

pr ov

id ed

17 N

ot re

po rt

ed C

an ad

a —

— —

C et

in et

al .

(2 01

2) C

yb er

bu lly

in g

M ea

su re

m en

t ap

pr oa

ch un

cl ea

r ✓

L if

et im

e/ no

ne pr

ov id

ed 25

8 15

–1 8

ye ar

s T

ur ke

y —

— —

C et

in ,

Pe ke

r, et

al .

(2 01

1) C

yb er

bu lly

in g

M ea

su re

m en

t ap

pr oa

ch un

cl ea

r ✓

L if

et im

e/ no

ne pr

ov id

ed 35

0 M

ea n

of 15

.2 ye

ar s

T ur

ke y

— —

—

Ç et

in ,

Y am

an ,

& Pe

ke r

(2 01

1) C

yb er

bu lly

in g

C yb

er fo

rg er

y, cy

be r

ve rb

al bu

lly in

g, [a

nd ]

hi di

ng id

en tit

y

✓ ✓

L if

et im

e/ no

ne pr

ov id

ed 40

4 14

–1 9

ye ar

s T

ur ke

y —

— —

(t ab

le co

nt in

ue s)

T hi

s do

cu m

en t

is co

py ri

gh te

d by

th e

A m

er ic

an Ps

yc ho

lo gi

ca l

A ss

oc ia

tio n

or on

e of

its al

lie d

pu bl

is he

rs .

T hi

s ar

tic le

is in

te nd

ed so

le ly

fo r

th e

pe rs

on al

us e

of th

e in

di vi

du al

us er

an d

is no

t to

be di

ss em

in at

ed br

oa dl

y.

6 KOWALSKI, GIUMETTI, SCHROEDER, AND LATTANNER

T ab

le 1

(c on

ti nu

ed )

St ud

y

C on

ce pt

ua liz

at io

n M

ea su

re m

en t

T im

e pa

ra m

et er

Sa m

pl e

ch ar

ac te

ri st

ic s

Pr ev

al en

ce

C on

ce pt

O pe

ra tio

na l

de fi

ni tio

n Si

ng le

ite m

(s )

M ul

ti- ite

m Q

ua lit

at iv

e N

A ge

or gr

ad e

L oc

at io

n %

V %

P %

V /P

C he

ng et

al .

(2 01

1) C

yb er

bu lly

in g

Sp re

ad in

g ru

m or

s on

lin e,

cr iti

ci zi

ng ot

he rs

on lin

e, an

d po

st in

g di

sg ra

ce fu

l ph

ot os

on lin

e w

ith ou

t pe

rm is

si on

✓ L

as t

6 m

on th

s 86

0 (s

ca le

de ve

lo pm

en t

st ag

e) ;

3, 94

1 (s

ca le

va lid

at io

n st

ag e)

12 –1

8 ye

ar s

C hi

na —

— —

C oy

ne et

al .

(2 00

9) G

ri ef

in g

In te

nt io

na l,

pe rs

is te

nt ,

un ac

ce pt

ab le

be ha

vi or

th at

di sr

up ts

a re

si de

nt ’s

ab ili

ty to

en jo

y Se

co nd

L if

e an

d w

hi ch

m ay

ha ve

ne ga

tiv e

co ns

eq ue

nc es

fo r

re si

de nt

s bo

th in

Se co

nd L

if e

an d

Fi rs

t (o

r R

ea l)

lif e.

M os

tly ,

th is

be ha

vi or

is di

re ct

ed at

a re

si de

nt w

ho ca

nn ot

ea si

ly de

fe nd

hi m

or he

rs el

f

✓ L

as t

ye ar

86 M

ea n

of 37

.1 ye

ar s

8 co

un tr

ie s

95 .0

20 .0

—

C ro

ss et

al .

(2 00

9) C

yb er

bu lly

in g

[B ul

ly in

g vi

a] In

te rn

et or

m ob

ile ph

on e

✓ C

ur re

nt sc

ho ol

te rm

7, 41

8 8–

14 ye

ar s

A us

tr al

ia 6.

6 3.

5 —

D ’A

nt on

a et

al .

(2 01

0) C

yb er

bu lly

in g

M ea

n or

hu rt

fu l

te xt

m es

sa ge

s ✓

L if

et im

e/ no

ne pr

ov id

ed 83

5 G

ra de

s 3–

5 N

or th

ea st

er n

U .S

. 6.

3 —

—

D eh

ue et

al .

(2 00

8) C

yb er

bu lly

in g

B ul

ly in

g on

th e

In te

rn et

or vi

a te

xt m

es sa

ge s

✓ C

ur re

nt sc

ho ol

ye ar

1, 21

1 M

ea n

of 12

.7 ye

ar s

N et

he rl

an ds

22 .9

17 .3

—

D eh

ue et

al .

(2 01

2) C

yb er

bu lly

in g

D oi

ng na

st y

an d

m ea

n th

in gs

to so

m eo

ne el

se us

in g

a co

m pu

te r

or ce

ll ph

on e

.. .

[w ith

a] la

ck of

po w

er on

th e

pa rt

of th

e vi

ct im

, ..

. an

on ym

ity of

th e

bu lly

, an

d th

e ex

cl us

io n

of jo

ke s

✓ C

ur re

nt sc

ho ol

ye ar

1, 18

4 10

–1 4

ye ar

s N

et he

rl an

ds 13

.8 b

7. 7b

8. 2b

(t ab

le co

nt in

ue s)

T hi

s do

cu m

en t

is co

py ri

gh te

d by

th e

A m

er ic

an Ps

yc ho

lo gi

ca l

A ss

oc ia

tio n

or on

e of

its al

lie d

pu bl

is he

rs .

T hi

s ar

tic le

is in

te nd

ed so

le ly

fo r

th e

pe rs

on al

us e

of th

e in

di vi

du al

us er

an d

is no

t to

be di

ss em

in at

ed br

oa dl

y.

7CYBERBULLYING REVIEW AND META-ANALYSIS

T ab

le 1

(c on

ti nu

ed )

St ud

y

C on

ce pt

ua liz

at io

n M

ea su

re m

en t

T im

e pa

ra m

et er

Sa m

pl e

ch ar

ac te

ri st

ic s

Pr ev

al en

ce

C on

ce pt

O pe

ra tio

na l

de fi

ni tio

n Si

ng le

ite m

(s )

M ul

ti- ite

m Q

ua lit

at iv

e N

A ge

or gr

ad e

L oc

at io

n %

V %

P %

V /P

D em

ps ey

et al

. (2

01 1)

C yb

er -a

gg re

ss io

n Se

nd [i

ng ]

a st

ud en

t a

te xt

m es

sa ge

or in

st an

t m

es sa

ge th

at w

as m

ea n

or th

at th

re at

en ed

th at

st ud

en t;

po st

[i ng

] a

co m

m en

t on

a st

ud en

t’ s

w eb

sp ac

e w

al l

th at

w as

m ea

n or

th at

th re

at en

ed th

at st

ud en

t; se

nd [i

ng ]

a st

ud en

t an

e- m

ai l

th at

w as

m ea

n or

th at

th re

at en

ed th

at st

ud en

t; cr

ea t[

in g]

a w

eb pa

ge ab

ou t

a st

ud en

t th

at ha

d m

ea n

or em

ba rr

as si

ng in

fo rm

at io

n an

d/ or

ph ot

os

✓ L

as t

30 da

ys 1,

67 2

G ra

de s

6– 8

So ut

he as

te rn

U .S

. —

10 .0

—

D em

ps ey

et al

. (2

00 9)

C yb

er vi ct

im iz

at io

n Pe

er ag

gr es

si on

in vo

lv in

g in

st an

t m

es sa

gi ng

, te

xt m

es sa

gi ng

, pe

rs on

al iz

ed w

eb si

te s,

w eb

po st

s, an

d e-

m ai

l

✓ L

as t

30 da

ys 1,

68 4

11 –1

6 ye

ar s

So ut

he rn

U .S

. 14

.0 —

—

D id

de n

et al

. (2

00 9)

C yb

er bu

lly in

g B

ul ly

in g

.. .

vi a

In te

rn et

an d

ce ll

ph on

e

✓ a

L as

t 3

m on

th s

11 4

12 –1

9 ye

ar s

N et

he rl

an ds

4. 0–

7. 0a

b 0.

0– 4.

0a b

3. 0–

5. 0a

b

D ilm

ac (2

00 9)

C yb

er bu

lly in

g T

he us

e of

in fo

rm at

io n

an d

co m

m un

ic at

io n

te ch

no lo

gi es

to su

pp or

t de

lib er

at e,

re pe

at ed

, an

d ho

st ile

be ha

vi or

by an

in di

vi du

al or

gr ou

p, th

at is

in te

nd ed

to ha

rm ot

he rs

✓ L

if et

im e/

no ne

pr ov

id ed

66 6

18 –2

2 ye

ar s

T ur

ke y

35 .7

b 3.

0b 19

.5 b

D oo

le ye

t al

. (2

01 0)

C yb

er bu

lly in

g B

ul ly

[i ng

] vi

a th

e In

te rn

et or

m ob

ile ph

on e

✓ L

as t

3 m

on th

s (A

us tr

al ia

); la

st 2

m on

th s

(A us

tr ia

)

7, 48

9 10

–1 5

ye ar

s A

us tr

al ia

an d

A us

tr ia

— —

—

D oo

le ye

t al

. (2

01 2)

C yb

er bu

lly in

g B

ul ly

in g

vi a

th e

In te

rn et

or m

ob ile

ph on

e

✓ M

os t

re ce

nt sc

ho ol

te rm

51 6

10 –1

6 ye

ar s

A us

tr al

ia —

— —

E rd

ur -B

ak er

(2 01

0) C

yb er

bu lly

in g

B ul

ly in

g vi

a th

e In

te rn

et or

ce ll

ph on

e

✓ L

as t

se m

es te

r 27

6 14

–1 8

ye ar

s T

ur ke

y —

— —

(t ab

le co

nt in

ue s)

T hi

s do

cu m

en t

is co

py ri

gh te

d by

th e

A m

er ic

an Ps

yc ho

lo gi

ca l

A ss

oc ia

tio n

or on

e of

its al

lie d

pu bl

is he

rs .

T hi

s ar

tic le

is in

te nd

ed so

le ly

fo r

th e

pe rs

on al

us e

of th

e in

di vi

du al

us er

an d

is no

t to

be di

ss em

in at

ed br

oa dl

y.

8 KOWALSKI, GIUMETTI, SCHROEDER, AND LATTANNER

T ab

le 1

(c on

ti nu

ed )

St ud

y

C on

ce pt

ua liz

at io

n M

ea su

re m

en t

T im

e pa

ra m

et er

Sa m

pl e

ch ar

ac te

ri st

ic s

Pr ev

al en

ce

C on

ce pt

O pe

ra tio

na l

de fi

ni tio

n Si

ng le

ite m

(s )

M ul

ti- ite

m Q

ua lit

at iv

e N

A ge

or gr

ad e

L oc

at io

n %

V %

P %

V /P

E rd

ur -B

ak er

& K

av şu

t (2

00 7)

C yb

er bu

lly in

g B

ul ly

in g

vi a

th e

In te

rn et

or ce

ll ph

on e

✓ a

L if

et im

e/ no

ne pr

ov id

ed 22

8 14

–1 9

ye ar

s T

ur ke

y 3.

1– 30

.1 a

4. 4–

28 .3

a —

E rd

ur -B

ak er

& T

an ri

ku lu

(2 01

0)

C yb

er bu

lly in

g B

ul ly

in g

vi a

th e

In te

rn et

or ce

ll ph

on e

✓ Pa

st se

m es

te r

16 5

10 –1

4 ye

ar s

T ur

ke y

— —

—

E re

nt ai

tė et

al .

(2 01

2) C

yb er

bu lly

in g

B ul

ly [i

ng ]

vi a

ce ll

ph on

e (s

ho rt

m es

sa ge

s (S

M S)

, cl

ip s/

pi ct

ur es

an d

ca lls

) [o

r] vi

a e-

m ai

l, ch

at ,

in st

an t

m es

sa gi

ng (I

M ),

an d

w eb

si te

s

✓ L

as t

fe w

m on

th s

1, 66

7 15

–1 9

ye ar

s L

ith ua

ni a

29 .3

— —

E st

év ez

et al

. (2

01 0)

C yb

er bu

lly in

g B

ul ly

in g

vi a

th e

In te

rn et

, ce

ll ph

on es

, ph

ot os

, or

vi de

os

✓ L

if et

im e/

no ne

pr ov

id ed

1, 43

1 12

–1 7

ye ar

s Sp

ai n

7. 4b

25 .0

b 22

.8 b

Fa nt

i et

al .

(2 01

2) C

yb er

bu lly

in g

Se nd

[i ng

] ..

. a

th re

at en

in g

or ha

ra ss

in g

e- m

ai l,

in st

an t

m es

sa ge

, m

es sa

ge in

a ch

at ro

om or

so ci

al ne

tw or

ki ng

si te

s, an

d sh

or t

te xt

m es

sa ge

(S M

S)

✓ L

if et

im e/

no ne

pr ov

id ed

1, 41

6 11

–1 4

ye ar

s C

yp ru

s —

— —

Fi nn

(2 00

4) O

nl in

e ha

ra ss

m en

t R

ep ea

te d

us e

of e-

m ai

l an

d in

st an

t m

es sa

gi ng

to in

su lt,

ha ra

ss ,

th re

at en

, or

se nd

in ap

pr op

ri at

e m

at er

ia l

su ch

as po

rn og

ra ph

y

✓ a

D ur

in g

te nu

re at

cu rr

en t

un iv

er si

ty

33 9

M ea

n of

20 .3

ye ar

s

N or

th ea

st er

n U

.S .

9. 6–

58 .7

a —

—

Fl em

in g

et al

. (2

00 6)

O nl

in e

bu lly

in g

E xp

os ur

e to

bu lly

in g

[o nl

in e]

✓ L

if et

im e/

no ne

pr ov

id ed

69 2

13 –1

6 ye

ar s

A us

tr al

ia 36

.8 —

—

Fr ed

st ro

m et

al .

(2 01

1) E

le ct

ro ni

c vi

ct im

iz at

io n

B ul

ly in

g [v

ia ]

e- m

ai lin

g, ch

at ro

om in

g, te

xt m

es sa

gi ng

, ph

on e

ca lli

ng ,

on lin

e po

st in

g, or

pi ct

ur e/

vi de

o cl

ip

✓ L

as t

ye ar

80 2

G ra

de 9

So ut

he as

te rn

U .S

. 27

.1 —

—

(t ab

le co

nt in

ue s)

T hi

s do

cu m

en t

is co

py ri

gh te

d by

th e

A m

er ic

an Ps

yc ho

lo gi

ca l

A ss

oc ia

tio n

or on

e of

its al

lie d

pu bl

is he

rs .

T hi

s ar

tic le

is in

te nd

ed so

le ly

fo r

th e

pe rs

on al

us e

of th

e in

di vi

du al

us er

an d

is no

t to

be di

ss em

in at

ed br

oa dl

y.

9CYBERBULLYING REVIEW AND META-ANALYSIS

T ab

le 1

(c on

ti nu

ed )

St ud

y

C on

ce pt

ua liz

at io

n M

ea su

re m

en t

T im

e pa

ra m

et er

Sa m

pl e

ch ar

ac te

ri st

ic s

Pr ev

al en

ce

C on

ce pt

O pe

ra tio

na l

de fi

ni tio

n Si

ng le

ite m

(s )

M ul

ti- ite

m Q

ua lit

at iv

e N

A ge

or gr

ad e

L oc

at io

n %

V %

P %

V /P

G oe

be rt

et al

. (2

01 1)

C yb

er bu

lly in

g R

ec ei

v[ in

g] a

th re

at en

in g

or m

ea n

te xt

m es

sa ge

; re

ce iv

[i ng

] a

th re

at en

in g

or m

ea n

e- m

ai l;

ha v[

in g]

em ba

rr as

si ng

, th

re at

en in

g or

m ea

n in

fo rm

at io

n po

st ed

ab ou

t th

em on

a w

eb si

te ;

ha v[

in g]

a da

tin g

pa rt

ne r

go th

ro ug

h th

ei r

ce ll

ph on

e to

ch ec

k on

ca lls

or te

xt m

es sa

ge s;

an d

ha v[

in g]

a pa

rt ne

r go

th ro

ug h

th ei

r pe

rs on

al w

eb si

te to

ch ec

k up

on th

em

✓ L

as t

ye ar

67 7

G ra

de s

9– 12

H aw

ai i

56 .1

— —

G ra

di ng

er ,

St ro

hm ei

er ,

Sc hi

lle r,

et al

. (2

01 2)

C yb

er -

vi ct

im iz

at io

n B

e[ in

g] in

su lte

d or

hu rt

by re

ce iv

in g

m ea

n ca

lls ,

te xt

m es

sa ge

s, e-

m ai

ls ,

ch at

co nt

ri bu

tio ns

, di

sc us

si on

bo ar

d co

nt ri

bu tio

ns ,

in st

an t

m es

sa ge

s, vi

de os

or ph

ot os

✓ L

as t

2 m

on th

s 66

5 M

ea n

of 11

.6 ye

ar s

A us

tr ia

— —

—

G ra

di ng

er et

al .

(2 00

9) C

yb er

bu lly

in g

O ft

en us

[i ng

] th

e m

ob ile

ph on

e or

th e

co m

pu te

r to

se nd

m ea

n te

xt m

es sa

ge s,

e- m

ai ls

, vi

de os

, or

ph ot

os to

ot he

rs

✓ L

if et

im e/

no ne

pr ov

id ed

76 1

14 –1

9 ye

ar s

A us

tr ia

7. 1

5. 3

—

G ra

di ng

er ,

St ro

hm ei

er ,

& Sp

ie l

(2 01

2)

C yb

er bu

lly in

g In

su lt[

in g]

or hu

rt [i

ng ]

ot he

r st

ud en

ts by

se nd

in g

m ea

n te

xt m

es sa

ge s,

e- m

ai ls

, vi

de os

, or

ph ot

os to

th em

✓ L

as t

2 m

on th

s 1,

46 1

10 –1

5 ye

ar s

A us

tr ia

10 .4

6. 9

—

H ay

& M

el dr

um (2

01 0)

C yb

er bu

lly in

g [B

ei ng

] th

e ta

rg et

of “m

ea n”

te xt

m es

sa ge

s; se

nt th

re at

en in

g or

hu rt

fu l

st at

em en

ts or

pi ct

ur es

in an

e- m

ai l

or te

xt m

es sa

ge ;

an d

m ad

e fu

n of

on th

e In

te rn

et

✓ L

as t

ye ar

42 6

10 –2

1 ye

ar s

So ut

he as

te rn

U .S

. —

— —

(t ab

le co

nt in

ue s)

T hi

s do

cu m

en t

is co

py ri

gh te

d by

th e

A m

er ic

an Ps

yc ho

lo gi

ca l

A ss

oc ia

tio n

or on

e of

its al

lie d

pu bl

is he

rs .

T hi

s ar

tic le

is in

te nd

ed so

le ly

fo r

th e

pe rs

on al

us e

of th

e in

di vi

du al

us er

an d

is no

t to

be di

ss em

in at

ed br

oa dl

y.

10 KOWALSKI, GIUMETTI, SCHROEDER, AND LATTANNER

T ab

le 1

(c on

ti nu

ed )

St ud

y

C on

ce pt

ua liz

at io

n M

ea su

re m

en t

T im

e pa

ra m

et er

Sa m

pl e

ch ar

ac te

ri st

ic s

Pr ev

al en

ce

C on

ce pt

O pe

ra tio

na l

de fi

ni tio

n Si

ng le

ite m

(s )

M ul

ti- ite

m Q

ua lit

at iv

e N

A ge

or gr

ad e

L oc

at io

n %

V %

P %

V /P

H ay

, M

el dr

um ,

& M

an n

(2 01

0)

C yb

er bu

lly in

g [B

ei ng

] th

e ta

rg et

of “m

ea n”

te xt

m es

sa ge

s; se

nt th

re at

en in

g or

hu rt

fu l

st at

em en

ts or

pi ct

ur es

in an

e- m

ai l

or te

xt m

es sa

ge ;

an d

m ad

e fu

n of

on th

e In

te rn

et

✓ L

as t

ye ar

42 4

M ea

n of

15 .0

ye ar

s

So ut

he as

te rn

U .S

. —

— —

H em

ph ill

et al

. (2

01 2)

C yb

er bu

lly in

g B

ul ly

[i ng

] an

ot he

r st

ud en

t us

in g

te ch

no lo

gy ,

su ch

as m

ob ile

te le

ph on

es ,

th e

In te

rn et

, co

m pu

te rs

, an

sw er

in g

m ac

hi ne

s, or

ca m

er as

✓ L

as t

ye ar

69 6

11 –1

4 ye

ar s

(t im

e 1)

; 14

–1 6

ye ar

s (t

im e

2)

A us

tr al

ia —

15 .0

—

H in

du ja

& Pa

tc hi

n (2

00 7)

C yb

er bu

lly in

g [B

ei ng

] ig

no re

d by

ot he

rs ,

di sr

es pe

ct ed

by ot

he rs

, ca

lle d

na m

es ,

th re

at en

ed ,

m ad

e fu

n of

by ot

he rs

, pi

ck ed

on by

ot he

rs ,

sc ar

ed fo

r sa

fe ty

, an

d [h

av in

g] ru

m or

s sp

re ad

by ot

he rs

✓ L

if et

im e/

no ne

pr ov

id ed

1, 38

8 6–

17 ye

ar s

O nl

in e

re cr

ui tm

en t

34 .4

— —

H in

du ja

& Pa

tc hi

n (2

00 8)

C yb

er bu

lly in

g B

ot he

ri ng

so m

eo ne

on lin

e, te

as in

g in

a m

ea n

w ay

, ca

lli ng

so m

eo ne

hu rt

fu l

na m

es ,

in te

nt io

na lly

le av

in g

pe rs

on s

ou t

of th

in gs

, th

re at

en in

g so

m eo

ne ,

an d

sa yi

ng un

w an

te d

se xu

al ly

-r el

at ed

th in

gs to

so m

eo ne

✓ L

as t

6 m

on th

s 1,

37 8

� 18

ye ar

s O

nl in

e re

cr ui

tm en

t 34

.6 16

.8 —

H in

du ja

& Pa

tc hi

n (2

01 0)

C yb

er bu

lly in

g O

nl in

e ag

gr es

si on

[v ia

] co

m pu

te r

te xt

m es

sa ge

s, M

yS pa

ce or

si m

ila r

si te

[s ],

e- m

ai l,

in st

an t

m es

sa ge

[s ],

ch at

ro om

[s ],

or ot

he r

w eb

pa ge

s

✓ L

as t

30 da

ys 1,

96 3

10 –1

6 ye

ar s

U .S

. 29

.4 21

.8 —

(t ab

le co

nt in

ue s)

T hi

s do

cu m

en t

is co

py ri

gh te

d by

th e

A m

er ic

an Ps

yc ho

lo gi

ca l

A ss

oc ia

tio n

or on

e of

its al

lie d

pu bl

is he

rs .

T hi

s ar

tic le

is in

te nd

ed so

le ly

fo r

th e

pe rs

on al

us e

of th

e in

di vi

du al

us er

an d

is no

t to

be di

ss em

in at

ed br

oa dl

y.

11CYBERBULLYING REVIEW AND META-ANALYSIS

T ab

le 1

(c on

ti nu

ed )

St ud

y

C on

ce pt

ua liz

at io

n M

ea su

re m

en t

T im

e pa

ra m

et er

Sa m

pl e

ch ar

ac te

ri st

ic s

Pr ev

al en

ce

C on

ce pt

O pe

ra tio

na l

de fi

ni tio

n Si

ng le

ite m

(s )

M ul

ti- ite

m Q

ua lit

at iv

e N

A ge

or gr

ad e

L oc

at io

n %

V %

P %

V /P

H ol

fe ld

& G

ra be

(2 01

2) C

yb er

bu lly

in g

T he

in te

nt io

na l

an d

re pe

at ed

ha rm

of ot

he rs

th ro

ug h

th e

us e

of co

m pu

te rs

, ce

ll ph

on es

, an

d ot

he r

el ec

tr on

ic de

vi ce

s

✓ L

if et

im e/

no ne

pr ov

id ed

, la

st ye

ar ,

an d

la st

30 da

ys

38 3

M ea

n of

13 .5

ye ar

s

N or

th er

n U

.S .

17 .0 (l

if et

im e)

; 16

.0 (l

as t

ye ar

)

11 .0 (l

if et

im e)

; 9.

0 (l

as t

ye ar

)

—

H ua

ng &

C ho

u (2

01 0)

C yb

er bu

lly in

g Il

l- in

te nd

ed be

ha vi

or s

in cy

be rs

pa ce

(i .e

., e-

m ai

ls ,

in st

an t

m es

se ng

er s,

ch at

ro om

s, on

lin e

po lls

, w

eb fo

ru m

s, w

eb lo

gs ,

an d

ce ll-

ph on

e te

xt m

es sa

ge s)

[t ha

t] in

cl ud

e th

re at

s, ha

ra ss

m en

t, hu

m ili

at io

n, in

su lts

, an

d an

y ot

he r

em ot

io na

l pu

t- do

w ns

by m

ea ns

of w

or ks

, fa

ke pi

ct ur

es ,

pe ep

in g-

T om

vi de

os ,

or an

y co

m bi

na tio

n of

di gi

ta l

co nt

en t

✓ L

if et

im e/

no ne

pr ov

id ed

54 5

G ra

de s

7– 9

T ai

w an

34 .9

20 .4

—

H un

t et

al .

(2 01

2) C

yb er

bu lly

in g

O th

er ki

ds sa

y[ in

g] na

st y

th in

gs to

m e

by SM

S, th

re at

en [i

ng ]

m e

ov er

th e

ph on

e, se

nd [i

ng ]

m e

na st

y e-

m ai

ls ,

ha ra

ss [i

ng ]

m e

ov er

th e

ph on

e, sa

y[ in

g] na

st y

th in

gs ab

ou t

m e

on w

eb si

te s,

se nd

[i ng

] m

e co

m pu

te r

vi ru

se s

on pu

rp os

e, sa

y[ in

g] na

st y

th in

gs ab

ou t

m e

on an

in st

an t

m es

se ng

er or

ch at

ro om

, an

d m

ak [i

ng ]

pr an

k ca

lls to

m e

✓ L

if et

im e/

no ne

pr ov

id ed

94 3

8– 16

ye ar

s A

us tr

al ia

— —

—

Jo se

et al

. (2

01 2)

C yb

er bu

lly in

g Se

nd [i

ng ]

a m

ea n

te xt

m es

sa ge

to so

m eo

ne [o

r] bu

lly [i

ng ]

ot he

rs on

lin e

✓ L

as t

m on

th 1,

77 4

11 –1

6 ye

ar s

N ew

Z ea

la nd

— —

—

(t ab

le co

nt in

ue s)

T hi

s do

cu m

en t

is co

py ri

gh te

d by

th e

A m

er ic

an Ps

yc ho

lo gi

ca l

A ss

oc ia

tio n

or on

e of

its al

lie d

pu bl

is he

rs .

T hi

s ar

tic le

is in

te nd

ed so

le ly

fo r

th e

pe rs

on al

us e

of th

e in

di vi

du al

us er

an d

is no

t to

be di

ss em

in at

ed br

oa dl

y.

12 KOWALSKI, GIUMETTI, SCHROEDER, AND LATTANNER

T ab

le 1

(c on

ti nu

ed )

St ud

y

C on

ce pt

ua liz

at io

n M

ea su

re m

en t

T im

e pa

ra m

et er

Sa m

pl e

ch ar

ac te

ri st

ic s

Pr ev

al en

ce

C on

ce pt

O pe

ra tio

na l

de fi

ni tio

n Si

ng le

ite m

(s )

M ul

ti- ite

m Q

ua lit

at iv

e N

A ge

or gr

ad e

L oc

at io

n %

V %

P %

V /P

Ju vo

ne n

& G

ro ss

(2 00

8) C

yb er

bu lly

in g

A ny

th in

g th

at so

m eo

ne do

es th

at up

se ts

or of

fe nd

s so

m eo

ne el

se ,

in cl

ud in

g na

m e-

ca lli

ng ,

th re

at s,

se nd

in g

em ba

rr as

si ng

/ pr

iv at

e pi

ct ur

es ,

an d

sh ar

in g

pr iv

at e

in fo

rm at

io n

w ith

ou t

pe rm

is si

on ..

. vi

a e-

m ai

l, in

st an

t m

es sa

gi ng

, ce

ll ph

on e

te xt

m es

sa gi

ng ,

in a

ch at

ro om

, bl

og ,

pe rs

on al

pr of

ile si

te ,

an d/

or m

es sa

ge bo

ar ds

✓ L

as t

ye ar

1, 45

4 12

–1 7

ye ar

s O

nl in

e re

cr ui

tm en

t 72

.0 —

—

K at

ze r

et al

. (2

00 9)

C yb

er bu

lly in

g B

ul ly

in g

in In

te rn

et ch

at ro

om s

✓ a

L if

et im

e/ no

ne pr

ov id

ed 1,

70 0

M ea

n of

14 .1

ye ar

s

G er

m an

y 4.

3– 44

.0 a

— —

K es

se l

Sc hn

ei de

r et

al .

(2 01

2) C

yb er

bu lly

in g

U s[

in g]

th e

In te

rn et

, a

ph on

e, or

ot he

r el

ec tr

on ic

co m

m un

ic at

io ns

to bu

lly ,

te as

e, or

th re

at en

yo u

✓ L

as t

ye ar

20 ,4

06 G

ra de

s 9–

12 N

or th

ea st

er n

U .S

. 15

.8 —

—

K ite

et al

. (2

01 0)

C yb

er bu

lly in

g B

ul ly

in g

be ha

vi or

on bo

th M

yS pa

ce an

d in

st an

t m

es se

ng er

si te

s

✓ a

L if

et im

e/ no

ne pr

ov id

ed 58

8 G

ra de

s 7–

8 N

or th

ea st

er n

U .S

. 10

.0 6.

0– 10

.0 a

—

K lo

m ek

et al

. (2

00 8)

C yb

er bu

lly in

g U

s[ in

g] e-

m ai

l or

In te

rn et

to be

m ea

n to

yo u

✓ L

as t

4 w

ee ks

2, 34

1 13

–1 9

ye ar

s N

or th

ea st

er n

U .S

. 7.

3 —

—

K ön

ig et

al .

(2 01

0) C

yb er

bu lly

in g

Fl am

in g,

ha ra

ss m

en t,

de ni

gr at

io n,

im pe

rs on

at io

n, ou

tin g/

tr ic

ke ry

, ex

cl us

io n

an d

cy be

r- st

al ki

ng

✓ L

as t

6 m

on th

s 47

3 11

–1 7

ye ar

s O

nl in

e re

cr ui

tm en

t (G

er m

an fo

ru m

)

— 79

.3 —

K ow

al sk

i &

Fe di

na (2

01 1)

C yb

er bu

lly in

g B

ul ly

[i ng

] th

ro ug

h e-

m ai

l, in

st an

t m

es sa

gi ng

, in

a ch

at ro

om ,

on a

w eb

si te

, or

th ro

ug h

a te

xt m

es sa

ge se

nt to

a ce

ll ph

on e

✓ c

Pa st

co up

le of

m on

th s

42 10

–2 0

ye ar

s U

.S .

21 .4

5. 8

—

(t ab

le co

nt in

ue s)

T hi

s do

cu m

en t

is co

py ri

gh te

d by

th e

A m

er ic

an Ps

yc ho

lo gi

ca l

A ss

oc ia

tio n

or on

e of

its al

lie d

pu bl

is he

rs .

T hi

s ar

tic le

is in

te nd

ed so

le ly

fo r

th e

pe rs

on al

us e

of th

e in

di vi

du al

us er

an d

is no

t to

be di

ss em

in at

ed br

oa dl

y.

13CYBERBULLYING REVIEW AND META-ANALYSIS

T ab

le 1

(c on

ti nu

ed )

St ud

y

C on

ce pt

ua liz

at io

n M

ea su

re m

en t

T im

e pa

ra m

et er

Sa m

pl e

ch ar

ac te

ri st

ic s

Pr ev

al en

ce

C on

ce pt

O pe

ra tio

na l

de fi

ni tio

n Si

ng le

ite m

(s )

M ul

ti- ite

m Q

ua lit

at iv

e N

A ge

or gr

ad e

L oc

at io

n %

V %

P %

V /P

K ow

al sk

i &

L im

be r

(2 00

7)

E le

ct ro

ni c

bu lly

in g

B ul

ly [i

ng ]

th ro

ug h

e- m

ai l,

in st

an t

m es

sa gi

ng ,

in a

ch at

ro om

, on

a w

eb si

te ,

or th

ro ug

h a

te xt

m es

sa ge

se nt

to a

ce ll

ph on

e

✓ c

Pa st

co up

le of

m on

th s

3, 76

7 G

ra de

s 6–

8 So

ut he

as te

rn an

d no

rt hw

es te

rn U

.S .

11 .1

b 4.

1b 6.

8b

K ow

al sk

i &

L im

be r

(2 01

3)

C yb

er bu

lly in

g B

ul ly

[i ng

] th

ro ug

h e-

m ai

l, in

st an

t m

es sa

gi ng

, in

a ch

at ro

om ,

on a

w eb

si te

, or

th ro

ug h

a te

xt m

es sa

ge se

nt to

a ce

ll ph

on e

✓ c

Pa st

co up

le of

m on

th s

93 1

11 –1

9 ye

ar s

N or

th ea

st er

n U

.S .

14 .2

b 16

.8 b

18 .6

b

K ow

al sk

i, M

or ga

n, &

L im

be r

(2 01

2)

C yb

er bu

lly in

g B

ul ly

[i ng

] th

ro ug

h e-

m ai

l, in

st an

t m

es sa

gi ng

, in

a ch

at ro

om ,

on a

w eb

pa ge

, or

th ro

ug h

a te

xt m

es sa

ge se

nt to

a ce

ll ph

on e

✓ Pa

st co

up le

of m

on th

s 4,

53 1

11 –1

9 ye

ar s

U .S

. 10

.9 b

4. 5b

6. 4b

L am

& L

i (2

01 3)

E -B

ul ly

in g

T ea

s[ in

g] ,

ca ll[

in g]

so m

eo ne

ba d

na m

es ,

sa y[

in g]

m ea

n th

in gs

ab ou

t so

m eo

ne ,

sa y[

in g]

yo u

ar e

go in

g to

hi t/h

ur t

so m

eo ne

, th

re at

en [i

ng ]

so m

eo ne

, [o

r] m

ak [i

ng ]

up so

m et

hi ng

ab ou

t so

m eo

ne to

m ak

e ot

he rs

no t

lik e

hi m

/h er

an ym

or e

us in

g e-

m ai

ls ,

te xt

in g,

sh or

t m

es sa

ge s,

on a

w eb

si te

su ch

as R

en re

n, et

c.

✓ L

as t

7 da

ys 48

4 11

–1 6

ye ar

s C

hi na

— —

—

L aw

, Sh

ap ka

, D

om en

e, &

G ag

né (2

01 2)

C yb

er bu

lly in

g/ on

lin e

ag gr

es si

on

M ea

n th

in gs

, ru

m or

s, or

go ss

ip be

in g

sa id

th ro

ug h

th e

In te

rn et

w eb

si te

s, e-

m ai

l, or

te xt

m es

sa gi

ng an

d ..

. em

ba rr

as si

ng pi

ct ur

es or

vi de

o cl

ip s

of yo

ur se

lf or

pe op

le yo

u kn

ow be

in g

se nt

or po

st ed

on th

e In

te rn

et

✓ ✓

L if

et im

e/ no

ne pr

ov id

ed 73

3 10

–1 8

ye ar

s C

an ad

a —

— —

(t ab

le co

nt in

ue s)

T hi

s do

cu m

en t

is co

py ri

gh te

d by

th e

A m

er ic

an Ps

yc ho

lo gi

ca l

A ss

oc ia

tio n

or on

e of

its al

lie d

pu bl

is he

rs .

T hi

s ar

tic le

is in

te nd

ed so

le ly

fo r

th e

pe rs

on al

us e

of th

e in

di vi

du al

us er

an d

is no

t to

be di

ss em

in at

ed br

oa dl

y.

14 KOWALSKI, GIUMETTI, SCHROEDER, AND LATTANNER

T ab

le 1

(c on

ti nu

ed )

St ud

y

C on

ce pt

ua liz

at io

n M

ea su

re m

en t

T im

e pa

ra m

et er

Sa m

pl e

ch ar

ac te

ri st

ic s

Pr ev

al en

ce

C on

ce pt

O pe

ra tio

na l

de fi

ni tio

n Si

ng le

ite m

(s )

M ul

ti- ite

m Q

ua lit

at iv

e N

A ge

or gr

ad e

L oc

at io

n %

V %

P %

V /P

L aw

, Sh

ap ka

, H

ym el

, et

al .

(2 01

2)

C yb

er bu

lly in

g M

ea n

th in

gs ,

ru m

or s,

or go

ss ip

be in

g sa

id th

ro ug

h th

e In

te rn

et w

eb si

te s,

e- m

ai l,

or te

xt m

es sa

gi ng

an d

.. .

em ba

rr as

si ng

pi ct

ur es

or vi

de o

cl ip

s of

yo ur

se lf

or pe

op le

yo u

kn ow

be in

g se

nt or

po st

ed on

th e

In te

rn et

✓ L

if et

im e/

no ne

pr ov

id ed

17 ,5

51 1

14 –1

8 ye

ar sd

C an

ad a

8. 0

6. 0

—

L en

ha rt

(2 00

7) C

yb er

bu lly

in g

R ec

ei vi

ng th

re at

en in

g m

es sa

ge s;

ha vi

ng ..

. pr

iv at

e e-

m ai

ls or

te xt

m es

sa ge

s fo

rw ar

de d

w ith

ou t

co ns

en t;

ha vi

ng an

em ba

rr as

si ng

pi ct

ur e

po st

ed w

ith ou

t pe

rm is

si on

; or

ha vi

ng ru

m or

s ..

. sp

re ad

on lin

e

✓ L

if et

im e/

no ne

pr ov

id ed

93 5

12 –1

7 ye

ar s

U .S

. 32

.0 —

—

L es

te r

et al

. (2

01 2)

C yb

er bu

lly in

g M

ea n

an d

hu rt

fu l

te xt

(S M

S) m

es sa

ge s

(t ex

t m

es sa

ge s,

pi ct

ur es

or vi

de o

cl ip

s) an

d m

ea n

an d

hu rt

fu l

m es

sa ge

s on

th e

In te

rn et

(e -m

ai l;

pi ct

ur es

, w

eb ca

m or

vi de

o cl

ip s;

ch at

ro om

s; M

SN m

es se

ng er

or an

ot he

r fo

rm of

in st

an t

m es

se ng

er ;

so ci

al ne

tw or

ki ng

si te

s lik

e M

yS pa

ce ;

In te

rn et

ga m

e; w

eb lo

g/ bl

og or

w eb

pa ge

/w eb

si te

)

✓ Pr

ev io

us sc

ho ol

te rm

1, 78

2 M

ea n

of 12

(t im

e 1)

; m

ea n

of 14

(T im

e 2)

A us

tr al

ia —

— —

L i

(2 00

6) C

yb er

bu lly

in g

C yb

er bu

lly in

g [v

ia ]

e- m

ai l,

ch at

ro om

, ce

ll ph

on e

✓ c

L if

et im

e/ no

ne pr

ov id

ed 26

4 G

ra de

s 7–

9 C

an ad

a 16

.9 25

.3 —

(t ab

le co

nt in

ue s)

T hi

s do

cu m

en t

is co

py ri

gh te

d by

th e

A m

er ic

an Ps

yc ho

lo gi

ca l

A ss

oc ia

tio n

or on

e of

its al

lie d

pu bl

is he

rs .

T hi

s ar

tic le

is in

te nd

ed so

le ly

fo r

th e

pe rs

on al

us e

of th

e in

di vi

du al

us er

an d

is no

t to

be di

ss em

in at

ed br

oa dl

y.

15CYBERBULLYING REVIEW AND META-ANALYSIS

T ab

le 1

(c on

ti nu

ed )

St ud

y

C on

ce pt

ua liz

at io

n M

ea su

re m

en t

T im

e pa

ra m

et er

Sa m

pl e

ch ar

ac te

ri st

ic s

Pr ev

al en

ce

C on

ce pt

O pe

ra tio

na l

de fi

ni tio

n Si

ng le

ite m

(s )

M ul

ti- ite

m Q

ua lit

at iv

e N

A ge

or gr

ad e

L oc

at io

n %

V %

P %

V /P

L i

(2 00

7a )

C yb

er bu

lly in

g H

ar as

si ng

us in

g te

ch no

lo gy

su ch

as e-

m ai

l, co

m pu

te r,

ce ll

ph on

e, vi

de o

ca m

er as

, et

c. [t

ha t]

oc cu

rs w

he n

pe op

le sa

y m

ea n

an d

hu rt

fu l

th in

gs or

m ak

e fu

n of

an ot

he r

pe rs

on or

ca lls

hi m

/h er

m ea

n an

d hu

rt fu

l na

m es

, co

m pl

et el

y ig

no re

or ex

cl ud

e hi

m /

he r

fr om

th ei

r gr

ou p

of fr

ie nd

s or

le av

es hi

m /h

er ou

t of

th in

gs on

pu rp

os e,

te lls

lie s

or sp

re ad

s fa

ls e

ru m

or s

ab ou

t hi

m /h

er ,

se nd

s m

ea n

no te

s an

d tr

ie s

to m

ak e

ot he

r st

ud en

ts di

sl ik

e hi

m /h

er ,

an d

ot he

r hu

rt fu

l th

in gs

lik e

th at

.. .

[a nd

] it

is di

ff ic

ul t

fo r

th e

pe rs

on be

in g

bu lli

ed to

de fe

nd hi

m se

lf or

he rs

el f

.. .

[a nd

] tw

o pe

op le

[a re

no t]

of ab

ou t

eq ua

l st

re ng

th or

po w

er

✓ c

L if

et im

e/ no

ne pr

ov id

ed 46

1 G

ra de

7 C

an ad

a an

d C

hi na

28 .9

17 .8

—

L i

(2 00

7b )

C yb

er bu

lly in

g C

yb er

bu lly

in g

[v ia

] e-

m ai

l, ch

at ro

om ,

ce ll

ph on

e

✓ c

L if

et im

e/ no

ne pr

ov id

ed 17

7 G

ra de

7 C

an ad

a 24

.9 14

.5 —

(t ab

le co

nt in

ue s)

T hi

s do

cu m

en t

is co

py ri

gh te

d by

th e

A m

er ic

an Ps

yc ho

lo gi

ca l

A ss

oc ia

tio n

or on

e of

its al

lie d

pu bl

is he

rs .

T hi

s ar

tic le

is in

te nd

ed so

le ly

fo r

th e

pe rs

on al

us e

of th

e in

di vi

du al

us er

an d

is no

t to

be di

ss em

in at

ed br

oa dl

y.

16 KOWALSKI, GIUMETTI, SCHROEDER, AND LATTANNER

T ab

le 1

(c on

ti nu

ed )

St ud

y

C on

ce pt

ua liz

at io

n M

ea su

re m

en t

T im

e pa

ra m

et er

Sa m

pl e

ch ar

ac te

ri st

ic s

Pr ev

al en

ce

C on

ce pt

O pe

ra tio

na l

de fi

ni tio

n Si

ng le

ite m

(s )

M ul

ti- ite

m Q

ua lit

at iv

e N

A ge

or gr

ad e

L oc

at io

n %

V %

P %

V /P

L i

(2 00

8) C

yb er

bu lly

in g

H ar

as si

ng us

in g

te ch

no lo

gy su

ch as

e- m

ai l,

co m

pu te

r, ce

ll ph

on e,

vi de

o ca

m er

as ,

et c.

[t ha

t] oc

cu rs

w he

n pe

op le

sa y

m ea

n an

d hu

rt fu

l th

in gs

or m

ak e

fu n

of an

ot he

r pe

rs on

or ca

lls hi

m /h

er m

ea n

an d

hu rt

fu l

na m

es ,

co m

pl et

el y

ig no

re or

ex cl

ud e

hi m

/ he

r fr

om th

ei r

gr ou

p of

fr ie

nd s

or le

av es

hi m

/h er

ou t

of th

in gs

on pu

rp os

e, te

lls lie

s or

sp re

ad s

fa ls

e ru

m or

s ab

ou t

hi m

/h er

, se

nd s

m ea

n no

te s

an d

tr ie

s to

m ak

e ot

he r

st ud

en ts

di sl

ik e

hi m

/h er

, an

d ot

he r

hu rt

fu l

th in

gs lik

e th

at ..

. [a

nd ]

it is

di ff

ic ul

t fo

r th

e pe

rs on

be in

g bu

lli ed

to de

fe nd

hi m

se lf

or he

rs el

f ..

. [a

nd ]

tw o

pe op

le [a

re no

t] of

ab ou

t eq

ua l

st re

ng th

or po

w er

✓ c

L if

et im

e/ no

ne pr

ov id

ed 35

4 11

–1 5

ye ar

s C

an ad

a an

d C

hi na

29 .5

10 .5

—

(t ab

le co

nt in

ue s)

T hi

s do

cu m

en t

is co

py ri

gh te

d by

th e

A m

er ic

an Ps

yc ho

lo gi

ca l

A ss

oc ia

tio n

or on

e of

its al

lie d

pu bl

is he

rs .

T hi

s ar

tic le

is in

te nd

ed so

le ly

fo r

th e

pe rs

on al

us e

of th

e in

di vi

du al

us er

an d

is no

t to

be di

ss em

in at

ed br

oa dl

y.

17CYBERBULLYING REVIEW AND META-ANALYSIS

T ab

le 1

(c on

ti nu

ed )

St ud

y

C on

ce pt

ua liz

at io

n M

ea su

re m

en t

T im

e pa

ra m

et er

Sa m

pl e

ch ar

ac te

ri st

ic s

Pr ev

al en

ce

C on

ce pt

O pe

ra tio

na l

de fi

ni tio

n Si

ng le

ite m

(s )

M ul

ti- ite

m Q

ua lit

at iv

e N

A ge

or gr

ad e

L oc

at io

n %

V %

P %

V /P

L i

(2 01

0) C

yb er

bu lly

in g

In cl

ud es

bu t

is no

t lim

ite d

to se

nd in

g an

gr y,

ru de

, vu

lg ar

m es

sa ge

s ab

ou t

a pe

rs on

to an

on lin

e gr

ou p

or to

th at

pe rs

on el

ec tr

on ic

al ly

; or

se nd

in g

ha rm

fu l,

un tr

ue ,

or cr

ue l

st at

em en

ts ab

ou t

a pe

rs on

to ot

he r

pe op

le or

po st

in g

su ch

m at

er ia

l on

lin e;

or pr

et en

di ng

to be

so m

eo ne

el se

an d

se nd

in g

or po

st in

g m

at er

ia l

th at

m ak

es th

at pe

rs on

lo ok

ba d;

or se

nd in

g or

po st

in g

m at

er ia

l ab

ou t

a pe

rs on

th at

co nt

ai ns

se ns

iti ve

, pr

iv at

e, or

em ba

rr as

si ng

in fo

rm at

io n,

in cl

ud in

g fo

rw ar

di ng

pr iv

at e

m es

sa ge

s or

im ag

es ,

or cr

ue lly

ex cl

ud in

g so

m eo

ne fr

om an

on lin

e gr

ou p

.. .

[t ha

t] m

ig ht

oc cu

r at

ho m

e or

at sc

ho ol

, th

ro ug

h th

e In

te rn

et ne

tw or

k or

a ce

ll ph

on e

✓ L

if et

im e/

no ne

pr ov

id ed

26 9

G ra

de s

7– 12

C an

ad a

— —

—

M ac

D on

al d

& R

ob er

ts -

Pi ttm

an (2

01 0)

C yb

er bu

lly in

g Se

nd in

g or

po st

in g

ha rm

fu l

or cr

ue l

te xt

or im

ag es

us in

g th

e In

te rn

et or

ot he

r di

gi ta

l co

m m

un ic

at io

n de

vi ce

s (d

ir ec

t qu

ot e

fr om

W ill

ar d,

20 07

)

✓ c

Si nc

e st

ar tin

g co

lle ge

43 9

M ea

n of

23 .0

ye ar

s

M id

w es

te rn

U .S

. 21

.9 8.

6 —

(t ab

le co

nt in

ue s)

T hi

s do

cu m

en t

is co

py ri

gh te

d by

th e

A m

er ic

an Ps

yc ho

lo gi

ca l

A ss

oc ia

tio n

or on

e of

its al

lie d

pu bl

is he

rs .

T hi

s ar

tic le

is in

te nd

ed so

le ly

fo r

th e

pe rs

on al

us e

of th

e in

di vi

du al

us er

an d

is no

t to

be di

ss em

in at

ed br

oa dl

y.

18 KOWALSKI, GIUMETTI, SCHROEDER, AND LATTANNER

T ab

le 1

(c on

ti nu

ed )

St ud

y

C on

ce pt

ua liz

at io

n M

ea su

re m

en t

T im

e pa

ra m

et er

Sa m

pl e

ch ar

ac te

ri st

ic s

Pr ev

al en

ce

C on

ce pt

O pe

ra tio

na l

de fi

ni tio

n Si

ng le

ite m

(s )

M ul

ti- ite

m Q

ua lit

at iv

e N

A ge

or gr

ad e

L oc

at io

n %

V %

P %

V /P

M ac

hm ut

ow et

al .

(2 01

2) C

yb er

- vi

ct im

is at

io n

[C yb

er bu

lly in

g be

ha vi

or ]

in vo

lv in

g on

ly th

e bu

lly an

d th

e vi

ct im

(i .e

., te

xt m

es sa

ge s,

M SN

, Fa

ce bo

ok ,

N et

lo g,

et c.

); in

vo lv

in g

co nt

en t

(m es

sa ge

, pi

ct ur

e or

vi de

o) ..

. se

nt to

gr ou

ps of

pe op

le ;

or in

vo lv

in g

co nt

en t

.. .

po st

ed on

th e

In te

rn et

✓ L

as t

4 m

on th

s 76

5 M

ea n

of 13

.2 Sw

itz er

la nd

— —

—

M ar

sh et

al .

(2 01

0) T

ex t

bu lly

in g

[B ul

ly in

g vi

a] te

xt in

g ✓

C ur

re nt

sc ho

ol ye

ar 1,

16 9

M ea

n of

15 .7

N ew

Z ea

la nd

11 .0

7. 0

—

M el

an de

r (2

01 0)

C yb

er ha

ra ss

m en

t M

ea su

re m

en t

ap pr

oa ch

un cl

ea r

✓ n/

a 39

18 –2

3 ye

ar s

M id

w es

te rn

U .S

. —

— —

M en

es in

i et

al .

(2 01

2) C

yb er

bu lly

in g

N as

ty te

xt m

es sa

ge s;

ph on

e pi

ct ur

es /

ph ot

os or

vi de

oc lip

s of

vi ol

en t

sc en

es ;

ph on

e pi

ct ur

es /

ph ot

os or

vi de

oc lip

s of

in tim

at e

sc en

es ;

si le

nt /p

ra nk

ph on

e ca

lls ;

na st

y or

ru de

e- m

ai ls

; in

su lts

on w

eb si

te s;

in su

lts on

in st

an t

m es

sa gi

ng ;

in su

lts in

a ch

at ro

om ;

in su

lts on

a bl

og ;

an d

un pl

ea sa

nt pi

ct ur

es /p

ho to

s on

w eb

si te

s

✓ a

Pa st

co up

le of

m on

th s

70 7

11 –2

1 ye

ar s

It al

y 3.

9– 44

.5 a

2. 7–

36 .6

a —

M en

es in

i, N

oc en

tin i,

& C

al us

si (2

01 1)

C yb

er bu

lly in

g N

as ty

te xt

m es

sa ge

s; ph

on e

pi ct

ur es

/ ph

ot os

/v id

eo of

vi ol

en t

sc en

es ;

ph on

e pi

ct ur

es /

ph ot

os /v

id eo

of in

tim at

e sc

en es

; si

le nt

/p ra

nk ph

on e

ca lls

; na

st y

or ru

de e-

m ai

ls ;

in su

lts on

w eb

si te

s; in

su lts

on in

st an

t m

es sa

gi ng

; in

su lts

in ch

at ro

om s;

in su

lts on

bl og

s; un

pl ea

sa nt

pi ct

ur es

/p ho

to s

on w

eb si

te s

✓ a

L as

t 2

m on

th s

1, 09

2 11

–1 8

ye ar

s It

al y

4. 5–

47 .1

a 0.

0– 38

.5 a

—

(t ab

le co

nt in

ue s)

T hi

s do

cu m

en t

is co

py ri

gh te

d by

th e

A m

er ic

an Ps

yc ho

lo gi

ca l

A ss

oc ia

tio n

or on

e of

its al

lie d

pu bl

is he

rs .

T hi

s ar

tic le

is in

te nd

ed so

le ly

fo r

th e

pe rs

on al

us e

of th

e in

di vi

du al

us er

an d

is no

t to

be di

ss em

in at

ed br

oa dl

y.

19CYBERBULLYING REVIEW AND META-ANALYSIS

T ab

le 1

(c on

ti nu

ed )

St ud

y

C on

ce pt

ua liz

at io

n M

ea su

re m

en t

T im

e pa

ra m

et er

Sa m

pl e

ch ar

ac te

ri st

ic s

Pr ev

al en

ce

C on

ce pt

O pe

ra tio

na l

de fi

ni tio

n Si

ng le

ite m

(s )

M ul

ti- ite

m Q

ua lit

at iv

e N

A ge

or gr

ad e

L oc

at io

n %

V %

P %

V /P

M en

es in

i, N

oc en

tin i,

& C

am od

ec a

(2 01

3)

C yb

er bu

lly in

g N

as ty

te xt

m es

sa ge

s; ph

on e

pi ct

ur es

/ ph

ot os

/v id

eo s

of in

tim at

e sc

en es

; in

su lts

on w

eb si

te s;

in su

lts on

in st

an t

m es

sa gi

ng ;

in su

lts in

a ch

at ro

om s;

[a nd

] in

su lts

on bl

og

✓ L

as t

2 m

on th

s 39

0 14

–1 8

ye ar

s It

al y

— —

—

M es

ch (2

00 9)

C yb

er bu

lly in

g So

m eo

ne sp

re ad

in g

ru m

or s

on lin

e ab

ou t

yo u;

so m

eo ne

po st

in g

an em

ba rr

as si

ng pi

ct ur

e on

lin e

w ith

ou t

yo ur

pe rm

is si

on ;

so m

eo ne

se nd

in g

a th

re at

en in

g e-

m ai

l, in

st an

t m

es sa

ge ,

or te

xt to

yo u;

so m

eo ne

ta ki

ng a

pr iv

at e

e- m

ai l,

in st

an t

m es

sa ge

, or

te xt

m es

sa ge

yo u

se nt

th em

an d

fo rw

ar di

ng it

to so

m eo

ne el

se or

po st

in g

it; an

d ha

vi ng

be en

co nt

ac te

d by

a st

ra ng

er

✓ L

if et

im e/

no ne

pr ov

id ed

93 5

12 –1

7 ye

ar s

U .S

. 40

.0 —

—

M is

hn a

et al

. (2

01 0)

C yb

er bu

lly in

g T

he us

e of

e- m

ai l,

ce ll

ph on

es ,

te xt

m es

sa ge

s, an

d In

te rn

et si

te s

to be

m ea

n to

, m

ak e

fu n

of ,

or sc

ar e

pe op

le

✓ L

as t

3 m

on th

s 2,

18 6

G ra

de s

6, 7,

10 ,

an d

11

C an

ad a

49 .5

33 .7

—

M is

hn a

et al

. (2

01 2)

C yb

er bu

lly in

g C

al lin

g so

m eo

ne na

m es

; th

re at

en in

g; sp

re ad

in g

ru m

or s;

se nd

in g

a pr

iv at

e pi

ct ur

e w

ith ou

t co

ns en

t; pr

et en

di ng

to be

so m

eo ne

el se

; re

ce iv

in g

or se

nd in

g un

w an

te d

se xu

al te

xt or

ph ot

os ;

or be

in g

as ke

d to

do so

m et

hi ng

se xu

al

✓ L

as t

3 m

on th

s 2,

18 6

G ra

de s

6, 7,

10 ,

an d

11

C an

ad a

23 .8

b 8.

0b 25

.7 b

M is

hn a

et al

. (2

00 9)

C yb

er bu

lly in

g M

ea su

re m

en t

ap pr

oa ch

un cl

ea r

✓ L

if et

im e/

no ne

pr ov

id ed

38 G

ra de

s 5–

8 C

an ad

a —

— —

(t ab

le co

nt in

ue s)

T hi

s do

cu m

en t

is co

py ri

gh te

d by

th e

A m

er ic

an Ps

yc ho

lo gi

ca l

A ss

oc ia

tio n

or on

e of

its al

lie d

pu bl

is he

rs .

T hi

s ar

tic le

is in

te nd

ed so

le ly

fo r

th e

pe rs

on al

us e

of th

e in

di vi

du al

us er

an d

is no

t to

be di

ss em

in at

ed br

oa dl

y.

20 KOWALSKI, GIUMETTI, SCHROEDER, AND LATTANNER