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1- What is courage and how did Aristotle think we should go about developing this virtue? What did Aristotle think are two ways one can go wrong or miss the mark when trying to develop courage as a permanent trait of our character? The virtue of courage involves facing up to our fears realistically. I develop the virtue of courage in myself by doing the things I fear, like speaking in public or talking with a stranger on an airplane. Aristotle argued that I can go overboard by excess, by speaking in pubic too much when you really have nothing to say, for example, or talking with strangers to the point of making a nuisance of myself; or I can miss the target by lack if I never speak in public or remain too afraid to ever initiate a conversation with a stranger, etc. Somewhere in the middle of these extremes of excess and lack--what Aristotle referred to as the "golden mean"--will be the right target for overcoming the respective fear and thus developing courage as a permanent trait of our character. 2-What is an inductive argument? An inductive argument is one in which the premises only give partial support for the conclusion. Inductive arguments move from a limited observation of cases to a statement about all the cases of that class. 3- Define, describe, and give an example of any two of the following informal fallacies: Appeal to Authority Hasty Generalization Begging the Question False Dilemma Straw Man Appeal to Authority is more than a person saying that you should accept what they say because they have authority over you or an authority. Rather, the Appeal to Authority fallacy is committed when a person argues that you should accept their position because of their authority, but when the person's authority or expertise does not include or cover the subject being argued about. A False Dilemma fallacy occurs when someone argues that "Either A or B" must happen, when actually there are other alternatives. Begging the Question is a fallacy when a person making an argument assumes the truth of the conclusion or thing to be proven or demonstrated, and then uses that supposed knowledge as a premise of the argument. This has the form of circular reasoning. 4- What did Kant mean by the term "maxim"? A maxim, according to Kant, is the subjective principle of our moral actions. It is the principle or rule we cite when justifying an act, what justifies doing a certain act in our minds. "I am going to class because I promised my friend I would go." The maxim of this act is: one should keep promises one makes and always go to class when one promises to do so. 5- What is moral absolutism? What is moral relativism? You should define both of these ideas clearly from an ethical perspective. Distinguish cultural relativism from subjective relativism. Describe one significant problem with the relativist position that was discussed in class and in my notes. Absolutism is the belief that there is a firm, definitive, or absolute moral foundation upon which to make moral judgments. This orientation was prominent in the Middle Ages when religion functioned as an absolute foundation for believers. Relativism is the belief that there is no absolute foundation for making moral judgments. Cultural relativism asserts that the same act can be moral in one culture and not in another. Morality is determined by the norms and practices of each culture. Subjectivism is the belief that each person must determine what is right or wrong for herself or himself without the help of absolute standards. The problem with relativism is that it cannot account for the fact that we do seem to widely hold and universally affirm some trans-cultural or trans-personal values, like the belief that it is absolutely wrong to unnecessarily harm an innocent person, wherever this might occur. 6- Write a one paragraph description of the ethical theory Utilitarianism explaining what it is and how it works. Include a description of the basic principle that Utilitarianism thinks we should use to make ethical judgments and an example of a utilitarian argument. Be concise, but be as clear and complete as possible also. Utilitarianism is an ethical theory that looks to the consequences of an action to determine the rightness or wrongness of that action. Sometimes called Consequentialism. John Stuart Mill is founder. Always act such that the consequences of your act will produce the greatest good for the greatest number. Cost/benefit analysis. Argument: "We should not build this bridge here because it will cause damage to the ecosystem of this fragile river and will not be as beneficial to the community as repairing the old bridge." 7- Write a one paragraph description of Kant's ethical theory called Deontology. Include the following: What does the term "deontology" mean? Explain briefly how Deontology argues that we should go about making ethical judgments. What is the general principle for making ethical judgments that is argued for by this theory? Be concise, but also as clear and complete as possible. Deontology is duty ethics. Kant thought that there were two realms, sensible and intellectual. The sensible realm is guided by inclinations, what we feel like doing. The intellectual realm is guided by the rational mind. Conflict arises between inclination and pure reason (duty). The rational mind free from inclinations (pure thinking) establishes what our duty is. Hence, the Categorical Imperative: Act always such that the maxim of your act can be generalized into a law for all. This is a strict ethical system. Lying is wrong. Period. It is your duty to yourself and others to not lie. But it is for your own good to do what is right because it is what is right, regardless of the consequences, since moral worth builds strong character. An alternative form of Kant's categorical imperative is that we should always treat rational beings as ends in themselves and not merely means to an end. My Email: [email protected]