Urgent! 2-3 Pages concerning Workplace Competencies

In this chapter, we will discuss basic workplace competencies and then review some of the types of training programs used to improve these competencies. There are many ways that skills training programs can be categorized. For this chapter, we organize our discussion around three categories: basic skills/literacy education, tech- nical training, and interpersonal skills training. Basic skills/literacy education refers to training that focuses on upgrading the reading, writing, and computation skills needed to function in most any job. Technical training refers to training that involves the process of upgrading a wide range of technical skills (such as computer skills) needed by particular individuals in an organization. Interpersonal skills training refers to training that focuses on an individual’s relationships with others, including interpersonal topics like communication and teamwork. Training in all of these areas can be critical to organizations. Table 9-1 lists the categories of skills training programs and the subcategories included within them. We will discuss pro- grams used in each of these categories and subcategories. BASIC WORKPLACE COMPETENCIES As mentioned in Chapter 1, a major problem facing employers today is the skills gap—the difference between the skill requirements of available jobs and the skills possessed by job applicants.2 In the United States, the skills gap is the result of at least three factors: (1) the skill level achieved by many high school and college graduates; (2) the growing number of racial minorities and non- English-speaking immigrants in the labor market (many of whom are concen- trated in the worst-performing schools and school systems in the country); and (3) the increased sophistication of jobs due to increased reliance on information technology. 3 The skill levels of high school—and even some college—students, particularly at a time when organizations require increasingly skilled workers, has generated much criticism of public education systems in the United States, as well as in other nations. 4 One survey found that 73 percent of employers said that recent high school graduates lack grammar and spelling skills, 63 percent of employers feel graduates lack basic math skills, and 47 percent of employers say these students can’t speak English properly; similar percentages are obtained when professors rate college freshman.5 Many employers are finding that graduates with basic skill deficiencies must be given remedial training before they are job- ready. This remains an urgent issue for both school administrators and society to address. The number of racial minorities in the U.S. labor market is predicted to exceed one-third of the labor force by 2018.6 This change in the demographics of the labor force is expected to be gradual. By 2018, Hispanics are predicted to increase to 17.6 percent of the labor force; African-Americans will make up about 12.1 percent; and Asians will be 5.6 percent, with 2.9 percent other (non-white/multiple racial categories).7 Furthermore, a sizable portion of these new workers will be immigrants who lack proficiency in English, and who also may lack basic skills. Thus, two kinds of training may be necessary to get them job-ready: basic skills and basic English-as-a-second-language training (ESL).8 These deficiencies represent a major challenge to potential employers who must rely on these workers. The increased sophistication of jobs, particularly as a result of the information technology explosion, affects almost every industry. The trend toward increas- ingly powerful computer technology and software systems has led to a prolifera- tion of high-technology applications, including robotics, decision-support systems, e-mail systems, and communications networks. Continuous technical training will likely be necessary for those occupations that rely on information technology and are directly affected by the constant changes in hardware and software.9 BASIC SKILLS/LITERACY PROGRAMS As discussed earlier, the basic competency skills include reading, writing, and computational skills. While the assessment of these skills is not always standardized, deficiencies in these skills are widely reported. In 2007, the U.S. Department of Education estimated U.S. adult literacy levels in three broad categories: 1. Prose literacy—skills and strategies needed to understand and use information from texts that are frequently found in the home and the community 2. Document literacy—skills and strategies required to locate and use information contained in nontextual materials that include tables, graphs, charts, indexes, forms, and schedules 3. Quantitative literacy—knowledge and skills needed to apply the arithmetical operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division (either singly or sequentially) in combination with printed materials, as in balancing a checkbook or completing an order form Using these categories, it was estimated that 14 percent of U.S. adults were “below basic” in prose literacy, 12 percent were below basic in document literacy, and 22 percent were below basic in quantitative literacy. The greatest number of adults were at the “basic” and “intermediate” levels across all three types of literacy measures, with only 13 percent of adults at the “proficient” level (across all three categories).10 Two other national surveys found results that were similar, or worse in particular areas. 11 It is distressing that so many adults could be classi- fied as functionally illiterate, that is, lacking sufficient literacy skills to meet daily needs in their workplaces and families. 12 Literacy issues pose major challenges for employers. If employees cannot read or compute at sufficient skill levels, it is extremely difficult to install new equipment that requires operators to read instructions and make decisions.13 Worldwide, the greatest number of illiterate adults can be found in develop- ing nations, especially in rural areas. However, many industrialized nations also face literacy challenges, including Great Britain and Canada.14 For example, a 1995 report by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development estimated that 21 percent of U.S. adults had reading proficiency levels below primary school; this figure was worse than the estimates for most other countries surveyed.15 When creating a program to address basic skill deficiencies, employers should operationally define each basic skill. Kirsch and Jungeblut studied literacy among young adults (ages twenty-one through twenty-five) using the same three categories as shown above. The measurement of these skills was accomplished by devising a large number of simulated tasks that are then administered to a nation- wide sample. A sizable number of young adults had low literacy scores, with an even greater number of young minority adults ranking below average.16 A more recent book presents similar evidence.17 Addressing Illiteracy in the Workplace Many organizations recognize literacy issues among their workers. It is estimated that 4.8 percent of the money spent on formal learning by organizations is used to conduct basic skills programs–though this encompasses more than literacy training.18 Companies like Motorola, Ford, DaimlerChrysler, Xerox, Polaroid, and Kodak have instituted comprehensive basic skills programs. 19 The following are examples of some programs. 1. The California State Department of Education assisted nineteen area compa- nies by developing a literacy program, involving 600 hours of development time, aimed at improving employee skills for reading work materials, enter- ing required data, making numerical calculations, and using correct technical vocabulary in their speech.20 2. Ten Canadian organizations were highlighted in a 2010 report by the Conference Board of Canada for their efforts to increase worker literacy in the interests of workplace safety and health. This included addressing literacy issues for immigrants and Aboriginal employees in northern Canada. 21 The good news in this report is that the larger group of Canadian organizations surveyed were spending an average of 10 percent of their training budgets on safety and health issues; the bad news is that these same organizations were only spending an average of two percent of their training budgets on addressing literacy and basic skills upgrading.22 Designing an In-House Basic Skills/Literacy Program The design of basic skills/literacy programs varies widely from organization to organization. There are at least two common characteristics: (1) an aptitude test and (2) small-group and one-on-one instruction. An aptitude test is important for assessing the current ability level of each trainee. For example, a basic skills program developed by the Palo Verde Nuclear Generating Station begins with an assess- ment of each trainee’s learning ability before he or she is assigned to an intensive six-month study skills program.24 These data are essential for developing an indi- vidualized lesson plan that allows the trainer to pinpoint learning objectives and to select the best training methods, techniques, and materials for each trainee. Small-group instruction and one-on-one tutoring are important for supplying feedback to the trainee, as well as for conducting remedial work in any areas of deficiency. Zaslow suggests using supervisors as writing coaches by training them to give feedback to employees on writing techniques. 25 To supplement small- group instruction, some organizations are using self-paced, computer-interactive programs that provide opportunities for employees to practice basic concepts. Many organizations now offer these programs in CD-ROM format or through their intranet. Self-pacing allows a trainee to practice at his or her own rate, without the pressures of a classroom, and to repeat or skip steps or sequences in the program as necessary. Perhaps this is obvious, but this approach is best used for trainees who are highly motivated to learn. The methods used for in-house basic skills training programs also vary. Training manuals, tutorial disks, and videotapes/DVDs are the least costly meth- ods to use because they do not require a classroom or an instructor, although these methods also have significant disadvantages.26 But when a trainer and class- room are used, the cost increases. The most costly programs are those that are customized, because they require considerable time and expertise to design.27 As with most HRD interventions, support from management is an important ingredient of a successful basic skills training program. But that support is not always easy to obtain. For example, an ASTD survey reports that the majority of HRD professionals believe “there is a problem and that many people in the orga- nization are affected,” while the majority of top management believe “there is a problem but that few people are affected.”28 This suggests that HRD professionals will likely need to inform and educate top management about the extent of the basic skills problem in their own organization if they expect to receive the neces- sary funding and support for their basic skills programs. Federal Support for Basic Skills Training The U.S. federal government has long recognized its role in supporting private training initiatives targeted toward the unemployed, displaced, and economically disadvantaged. From 1983 to 2000, the Job Training and Partnership Act (JTPA) was the largest federal skills training program. The JTPA replaced the Compre- hensive Employment and Training Act (CETA). The goal of Title IIA of the JTPA was to provide training opportunities to the unemployed, displaced, and economically disadvantaged in order to help them obtain permanent jobs. In 2000, the JTPA was replaced by the Workforce Investment Act (described more fully later in this section). Under the JTPA, approximately $4 billion was available every year from the federal government. This money was funneled through 600 individual private industry councils (PICs) to private training institutes and employers in order to fund skills training.29 Local government officials appointed the PICs, which were composed of representatives from business, education, community-based agencies, and others. The role of a PIC is to oversee the distribution of the funds and to ensure that state JTPA standards and guidelines are followed. Most employer-based training programs involve basic skills and job-specific training. While most of the training is conducted on-site in a classroom, JTPA sponsored on-the-job training programs, as long as the employer agreed to hire the trainees once they completed their training. The success of JTPA programs was dependent, in part, on how well these programs were coordinated with the work of other social service agencies. For example, potential trainees could be identified and referred to a training agency by a community-based social agency that served the economically disadvantaged target population. This was the case when the Atlanta Marquis Hotel trained fifty-nine people; thirty-nine were referred by Goodwill Industries, a community-based non-profit agency, and twenty were referred by the local PIC.30 In addition, the JTPA was tied to the Worker Adjustment and Retraining Notification (WARN) Act. The WARN Act requires employers with 100 or more employees to give sixty days advance notice of a plant closure to both employees and unions. When plant closings or mass layoffs were imminent, JTPA funds were to be made available to set up rapid response teams that worked with unions and companies to administer retraining and worker-displacement programs.31 Despite successful JTPA programs, such as that of the Atlanta Marquis, two problems were identified. First, several private institutions and employers received funds fraudulently, that is, some employers used JTPA funds to hire workers they would have recruited even under normal conditions. 32 Second, JTPA funds provided training for only a fraction of the eligible displaced and unemployed workers. This was due in part to the JTPA budget being decreased from $1.4 billion in 1983 to $0.9 billion in 1997. The funding of JPTA-type programs was also affected by the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996. A main goal of this act was to move people from welfare to work through a process known as workfare. The act mandated that welfare recipients work a minimum of twenty hours per week (the minimum was increased to thirty hours in 2002). The JPTA was one of 150 federal education and training programs that together cost the taxpayers $25 billion a year. According to Judy and D’Amico, these programs were “notoriously ineffective ... or at least extremely expensive, when their meager results are considered” (p. 133). 33 For example, a federal pro- gram attempted to retrain 4,500 laid-off garment workers in El Paso, Texas. While the program spent $25 million in two years, only 375 trainees were placed in jobs.34An empirical study of sixteen JTPA sites studied the impact of JTPA training on post training earnings. Eligible individuals were randomly assigned to either a training or a control condition, and JTPA training was found to have a positive, but modest (and statistically nonsignificant) impact on earnings ten months after training.35 Beyond these concerns, the U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO) found that the narrow focus of the patchwork of federal education and training programs frustrates and confuses employers, program administrators, and those seeking assistance.36 The GAO recommended that these programs be overhauled and consolidated to streamline services and make program admin- istrators more accountable. In response, the Workforce Investment Act (WIA) passed in 1998. The goal of this act was to consolidate more than seventy federal education and training programs into block grants designed to give states more flexibility in meeting their constituents’ education and training needs. The three major funding streams are for youth, adults, and displaced workers (that is, workers who have lost their jobs through layoffs, downsizing, etc.). The Act is designed to give greater con- trol to local boards and the private sector, and to increase the accountability of all training providers for the outcomes of their efforts. The goal is to see more positive use of federal training dollars; it is imperative that these funds be used as effectively as possible to reach the populations targeted for assistance. 37 The per- formance standards and performance management system built into the WIA are meant to encourage greater accountability and successful outcomes for federally funded job training programs. In 2009, over eight million individuals were served by WIA programs.38 Presently, the resources available to adults through the WIA are administered by the Office of Workforce Investment within the U.S. Department of Labor.39 A summary of results by the U.S. Employment & Training Administration, as well as two recent independent reviews of data con- cerning the effectiveness of the WIA are relatively optimistic concerning the impact this act is having on adult participants in WIA-sponsored activities.40 TECHNICAL TRAINING Technical training, as discussed earlier, is a generic term that can encompass a wide range of programs. For convenience, we limit our discussion to five categories of technical training programs: apprenticeship training, computer training, technical skills/knowledge training, safety training, and quality training. Apprenticeship Training Programs Apprenticeship training began during the Middle Ages as a way to pass on the knowledge of individuals working in skilled trades and crafts. The primary pur- pose of these early programs was preservation of the industrial and crafts guilds. Today, the focus of apprenticeship programs is to provide trainees with the skills needed to meet continually changing job requirements. With the challenges of the global economy and the scarcity of skilled employees, it is imperative that apprenticeship programs be more responsive to these needs.41 Apprenticeship programs represent a unique partnership between employers, labor unions, schools, and government agencies. In the U.S., there are roughly 28,000 different apprenticeship programs enrolling over 460,000 registered apprentices across over 700 job categories. 42 Of this total, the largest number of all apprenticeships are in construction trades, and then manufacturing. A typical apprenticeship program requires a minimum of 2,000 hours of on-the-job training (OJT) experience.43 In addition to the OJT experience, all programs require a min- imum of 144 hours of classroom training. Classroom training may be given at a local vocational/technical school or community college. For example, the Community College of Rhode Island conducts the classroom portion of the Plastics Process Technician Apprenticeship Program for area employers. The four-year program is broken into 1,050 hours of classroom training, plus 8,000 hours of OJT training.44 At the end of the program, the students receive not only certification as journey- men, but also an associate’s degree in plastics process technology. The U.S. apprenticeship system is regulated by the Office of Apprenticeship, which is housed within the Employment & Training Administration of the U.S. Department of Labor (DOL). It was formerly called the Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training (BAT). There is an Office of Apprenticeship location in most states.45 In addition, many states have apprenticeship councils that oversee appren- ticeships in their state. A well-planned, properly administered apprenticeship program should lead to many positive outcomes for employers and employees, including decreasing turnover, potential financial support from tax incentives, and networking opportunities with other employers who make use of apprentices.46 There are, however, some problems with the present apprenticeship system. Some major concerns are: (1) learning is based on time requirements rather than competency, (2) programs are isolated from other education and training institu- tions, (3) programs are concentrated in traditional blue-collar occupations, and (4) the system has not adjusted to requirements for the period after the initial apprenticeship. 47 In addition, issues have been raised as to whether females and minorities benefit as much from traditional apprenticeship programs as males and white individuals.48 It is also the case that most apprenticeship programs begin after someone completes high school, that is, they can be considered “adult” apprenticeships. Data collected by the U.S. Department of Labor indicate that formal apprenticeships also have an “image problem” with employers, parents, and students alike.49 Some of these problems were addressed in the United States by an initiative called Apprenticeship 2000, started by the U.S. Department of Labor. Based on the successes of countries like Germany, one purpose of the program was to expand the apprenticeship concept and link it to secondary schools. For example, in 1991, the Wisconsin legislature passed an act that emphasized youth appren- ticeships and technical preparation programs. Also around this time, Oregon redesigned its vocational high school curriculum to allow eleventh-grade students to enter an apprentice-type training program with businesses that guaranteed the students jobs after they graduated.50 Such efforts are referred to as school-to-work programs. The success of the programs in Wisconsin and Oregon prompted other states, such as Rhode Island, New York, North Carolina, and South Carolina, to seek similar reforms. These programs are distinct from more traditional adult apprenticeship programs, in that they target high school students, particularly those who are not likely to enroll in four-year colleges. In response to the success that many states have with school-to-work initia- tives, the U.S. Congress enacted the School-to-Work Opportunities Act in 1993. This federal act was in effect from 1994 until 2001.51 The act created a fund through which the federal government made grants available to states to cover the costs of implementing school-to-work programs. For example, Wisconsin received $27 million to support implementation of a variety of school-to-work programs, including youth apprenticeship, over a five-year period.52 The Wisconsin youth apprenticeship program offers apprenticeships in twenty-two occupational areas, including engineering, manufacturing, health services, automotive technician, and banking. First-year enrollment in the program was 700 (representing only 1 percent of high school students). 5 3 In 2008, roughly 1,800 students were involved in youth apprenticeships, with more students in co-op education pro- grams. Funding cuts are blamed for the relatively low numbers of students involved. 5 4 This is unfortunate, given the many positive outcomes found for this program, as well as those in other states. 5 5 School-to-work programs continue in many states. The success of a school- to-work program depends on the coordinated effort of all participants. 56 Schools should administer vocational assessment tests so that they can properly advise students on which program is best for them. In addition, schools should also ensure that their curriculum adequately prepares students in the fundamentals needed to learn advanced skills in an apprenticeship program. Other organiza- tions involved in program administration, such as state government and labor unions, should provide technical support and advice to employers and help coordinate activities to ensure that programs run smoothly. Finally, employers should ensure that the work assignments provide meaningful learning experiences for each student to build the competencies needed to complete an apprenticeship program. Benefits to employers from school-to-work programs include access to a trained labor pool, a better public image, and potential eligibility for wage subsidies and tax credits. 5 7 These benefits, however, should be weighed against the potential costs. The direct costs include wages and benefits paid to students. The indirect costs include the time spent on the programs by HRD professionals and other employees who are responsible for coordinating the program, orienting and training the staff, and training and supervising the students. However, given the continuing shortage of skilled workers, school- to-work programs would seem to be a vital element in the effort to reduce the skills gap noted earlier. 5 8 In 2009, England passed the Apprenticeships, Skills, Children and Learning Act, which provides considerable new direction and support for youth apprenticeships, as well as adult learning and retrain- ing efforts. Computer Training Programs Computer-skills training is extremely popular. Some computer training is more introductory in nature. Introductory programs introduce trainees to computer hard- ware and software. Such programs focus primarily on mastering basic software application, such as how to navigate the operating system. They do this through the use of manuals and tutorials (software programs themselves) that provide hands-on, interactive learning. These courses are designed to help trainees over- come their fear of computers and better understand how computers work. Applica- tions training covers specific software applications available within an organization.60 Unlike introductory courses, which can be offered to an entire organization, appli- cations training is typically provided on an as-needed basis. With the availability of online capabilities via an intranet, employees can access online computer training at any time of the day (or any day of the week—24/7).61 Given the range of options for conducting computer skills training, which approaches do employees prefer? One survey reveals that both experienced and less experienced trainees prefer to learn to use software by experimenting or through trial and error. 62 The more traditional training methods, including lectures and seminars, rank near the bottom of the list of trainee preferences. Gupta and Bostrom have recently provided a theoretical framework that seeks to explain such preferences for technology-mediated learning. 63 Researchers are exploring a number of learning issues involved in computer skills training. For example: • Self-efficacy—self-efficacy is an individual’s belief that he or she can successfully perform a given behavior (recall our discussion of self-efficacy in Chapter 3). Computer self-efficacy is an important prerequisite for successful computer training.64 Research shows that a behavior modeling approach to software training results in higher self-efficacy scores and higher scores on an objective measure of computer software mastery than a tutorial approach.65 • Cognitive playfulness—cognitive playfulness includes the spontaneity, imagi- nation, and exploratory approach that a person brings to task performance and learning. 66 Martocchio and Webster found that trainees higher in cog- nitive playfulness were more likely to exhibit higher learning, positive mood, and satisfaction with feedback.67 However, they also found that positive feed- back was more beneficial for employees who were lower in cognitive playfulness. • Training format—the use of behavior modeling for software training is gener- ally more effective in producing computer skills learning and application than either of the more commonly used self-paced and lecture approaches.68 Behavior modeling has also been found to be effective in online learning. 69 The results of empirical studies like the ones cited here can provide useful guidelines for designing and implementing computer skills training programs. This kind of ongoing research on learning-related issues underscores the need for HRD professionals to keep abreast of developments that can help them improve the design and implementation of computer skills training (and all HRD programs). Technical Skills/Knowledge Training When organizations introduce new technology (e.g., by modernizing facilities or computerizing operations), they typically need to update the skills of the workers who must use it. Organizations often do this through job-specific technical skills/ knowledge training programs. Such training is often specific to a job, process, or piece of equipment, but can also be more general. For example, a training program used to teach clerical workers how to operate a new telephone system is classified as job-specific. A training program used to train employees on new policies and pro- cedures pertaining to waste disposal and given to all workers is classified as general. There are different levels of technical skills/knowledge training. At the lowest level, the goal is to prepare entry-level employees to perform basic func- tional responsibilities. These programs are similar to basic skills programs and combine classroom instruction with on-the-job training (OJT). As an example, Stanley-Bostitch Inc., a manufacturer of staples and fasteners, conducts a twenty-eight-week, entry-level operator training program of six modules, encom- passing basic math, basic measurement skills, blueprint reading, shop practices, basic tooling, and basic machines. The last three modules involve intensive OJT. Successful trainees are expected to operate new, advanced equipment. In a similar situation, IBM assigns entry-level clerical workers to a two-week, sixty-eight-hour training program divided into fourteen modules that include automated pro- cedures, time management, problem solving, and stress management. 7 0 Beyond apprenticeship training, unions may also help provide training, such as with joint labor-management training programs designed to update union members’ skills. For example, the Laborers’ International Union and the Associ- ated General Contractors (AGC) formed the Laborers-AGC Education and Training Fund. One example of training provided by the Laborers-AGC group is an eighty-hour certificate course in hazardous-waste removal. Goodman reports that almost 9,000 of 500,000 union members completed the training qualifying them to work on hazardous-waste removal projects.71 Michael Gorman provides an interesting case study where a large organization provided specific training programs to their IT managers, in an effort to expand upon their current expertise with technology. These included separate programs on spreadsheet skills, financial evaluation of projects, decision making, and technology consulting, with positive responses from the managers completing evaluations.