Yahoo
Strayer University : 2.13 (Discussion #1) Yahoo! CEO Bans Telecommuting
https://strayer.mindedgeonline.com/content.php?cid=40776[10/11/2013 9:15:57 AM]
Business Ethics (BUS 309)→Week 2: Normative Theories of Ethics→2.13 (Discussion #1) Yahoo! CEO Bans Telecommuting
Business Ethics (BUS 309)
(Discussion #1) Yahoo! CEO Bans Telecommuting
After reading the case study, answer the questions below.
In 2013, the chief executive officer at Yahoo!, Marissa Mayer, announced a policy banning employees from telecommuting. Since assuming her role as CEO less than a year before, Mayer had sought to increase Yahoo!'s productivity and revitalize the company's image.
Mayer's decision to ban telecommuting and demand that employees show up to their desks was seen as part of her effort to revive Yahoo! Some employees were said to be abusing the telecommuting option by not being productive when working from home, and some had even begun running start- ups on the side while still on Yahoo!'s payroll. In general, there was a sense that telecommuting employees generally did less then employees working in the office. This has become a common worry for many employers as telecommuting has grown more popular.
In the memo circulated to Yahoo! employees announcing the company's new policy, the company cited other reasons for the restriction. The memo read:
To become the absolute best place to work, communication and collaboration will be important, so we need to be working side-by-side. That is why it is critical that we are all present in our offices. Some of the best decisions and insights come from hallway and cafeteria discussions, meeting new people, and impromptu team meetings. Speed and quality are often sacrificed when we work from home. We need to be one Yahoo!, and that starts with physically being together. - Jackie Reses, Yahoo head of HR.
Those involved in the decision to ban telecommuting chose to highlight the need for in-person collaboration to spark creativity and productivity. They stressed that in order for Yahoo! to be a cohesive company, employees should physically share a space and see each other on a daily basis.
Yahoo!'s decision to ban telecommuting bucked industry trends. Telecommuting has become increasingly popular in recent years. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, 5.82 million Americans worked from home as of 2010, constituting nearly 4.35 percent of the overall workforce. Many companies cite telecommuting as a reflection of a more family-friendly work environment.
Critics argued that Mayer's ban on telecommuting was misguided. They noted that when employees are not working efficiently, it's likely a problem with management and not with the location of the employees.
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Strayer University : 2.13 (Discussion #1) Yahoo! CEO Bans Telecommuting
https://strayer.mindedgeonline.com/content.php?cid=40776[10/11/2013 9:15:57 AM]
Others have argued telecommuting should be preserved as an option because it allows employees the opportunity to achieve a better work-life balance. Working from home, they claimed, permits employees to make better use of their time by avoiding long commutes and being in a position where they can better respond to non-work responsibilities, like childcare and caring for aging parents. In fact, some studies have shown that employees who work from home generally log more work hours than those who work from an office, indicating that when provided with more flexible options, employees will not shirk their responsibilities.
Optional Further Reading:
Beth Teitell, "No Going Back for Those Working from Home", The Boston Globe, February 27, 2013. ( www.bostonglobe.com/metro/2013/02/27/yahoo-ceo-marissa-mayer-tells-workers- they-can-longer-telecommute-move-that-doesn-over-well- boston/GEteZB4ISvnS4PjeFSPGbP/story.html ) Brandon Bailey, "Marissa Mayer Bans Telecommuting at Yaoo", The Denver Post, February 26, 2013 ( www.denverpost.com/business/ci_22667520/marissa-mayer-bans-telecommuting-at- yahoo) Alvin Lee, "Working from Home: The End of an Era", Forbes, April 17, 2013 ( www.forbes.com/sites/insead/2013/04/17/working-from-home-the-end-of-an-era/) Nancy Collamer, "The Problem with Yahoo's Work-at-Home Ban", Next Avenue, March 1, 2013 ( www.nextavenue.org/blog/problem-yahoos-work-home-ban)
Course discussions will take place in your blackboard learning environment. Once you have reviewed the questions below, close this browser tab to return to your blackboard course and click the Discussion links located at the bottom of this week's content to participate.
Question #1
Analyze Mayer's decision, described in the e-Activity, to prohibit telecommuting at Yahoo! from both a Utilitarian and a Kantian perspective. Imagine the rule instituted at Yahoo! only applied to lower level employees and exempted executives in upper management. Explain how such a hypothetical policy that does not apply to all employees universally might change the way in which a Kantian would respond to the policy. Suggest two additional policies that could be instituted in an office that may be problematic when applied only to lower level employees.
Question #2
Imagine you are the CEO of Yahoo!, and outline the relevant obligations, ideals, and effects that you believe should be taken into consideration before developing a company policy regarding employees working remotely. Examine the ways in which the obligations, ideals, and effects that you have outlined might conflict with one another, and propose how you would resolve those conflicts.
Strayer University : 2.13 (Discussion #1) Yahoo! CEO Bans Telecommuting
https://strayer.mindedgeonline.com/content.php?cid=40776[10/11/2013 9:15:57 AM]
Copyright © 2013 MindEdge Inc. All rights reserved. Duplication prohibited. Some content © 2013 Cengage Learning.
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Business Ethics
Introduction to Consequentialist and Nonconsequentialist Theories
Moral philosophers have developed various theories that propose principles for distinguishing between right and wrong actions. For the most part, normative theories can be divided into two categories: consequentialist and nonconsequentialist.
According to consequentialists, the moral character of an action is determined solely by its results. If an action brings about desirable, good results, then that action is morally good. If an action brings about bad, undesirable results, then that action is morally bad. Consequentialism might seem appealing because it provides a rather straightforward way to determine what is right and wrong. We may also feel intuitively drawn to a theory that aims to bring about good results.
Nonconsequentialists don't ignore the consequences of actions, but they believe more than just those consequences must be taken into consideration when determining what is morally right.
Nonconsequentialists believe facts about the nature of an action also bear on its moral character. Consequentialists believe an action is good if it results in good consequences, but a key question is: Consequences for whom? Some actions have desirable consequences for some but hurt others.
For example, the company that takes advantage of tax loopholes might find the consequences of their actions very desirable. However, tax loopholes cost the government billions of dollars in revenue each year, money that can't be uses to provide needed services.
Different schools of consequentialism respond to this problem in different ways. Utilitarians argue that the consequences for all people affected by an action must be taken into consideration in order to determine if that action is morally permissible. Utilitarians believe we do what is right when we maximize happiness for everyone affected by our actions.
Ethical Egoists, on the other hand, believe that we should only consider our own interests when determining what is right, and morally right acts are ones that most promote our personal interests. A personal egoist believes he or she should abide by egoism but make no claims about what would be right or wrong for other people to do. Impersonal egoists believe everyone should abide by egoism, with every person pursuing his or her own interests.
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Ethical egoism has faced significant criticism and has few contemporary supporters among academics who study philosophy. First, psychological egoism, the view that human beings are inherently selfish creatures, has been criticized as being unsound and not verifiable through the scientific method. Since two people could take two different actions in identical situations and both be said to be acting out of self-interest, it's impossible to establish principles of psychological egoism that can be tested.
While it is possible to embrace ethical egoism without believing in psychological egoism, the position is significantly weakened if we reject the idea that acting out of self- interest is an inherent part of human nature. Furthermore, because many thinkers argue that morality is something that constrains self-interest, they question whether ethical egoism rises to the level of being a moral theory. Finally, ethical egoism seems to provide moral justification for acts we find to be intuitively and blatantly wrong, acts like murder, rape, and theft. We may rightly question in what sense a theory provides principles of morality if it is so permissive of actions that violate near-universal moral convictions.
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Business Ethics
Kant's Ethics
Immanuel Kant is one of the most notable nonconsequentialist moral philosophers in history. Kant argued that moral principles must be necessary and must apply universally to all people. Therefore, he rejected the utilitarian view that right and wrong are contingent on the possible outcomes of a given situation. When they decide on the morality of an action, utilitarians consider what they may have observed and the facts involved. Kant rejected this connection, instead arguing that we should establish morality through the exercise of reason. Kant noted that when we try to decide if someone acted well, we often consider person's intentions.
If a factory manager has ignored requests to cut back on polluting emissions, but accidentally does so one month, we are much less likely to praise the manager than if he had intended that result. Kant's concluded that the only thing that is good in itself is a "good will." If a person has other praiseworthy qualities--like being intelligent, a hard-worker, or generous--it is only because they also have a good will. In order to have a good will, Kant believes a person must act from a sense of duty to the moral law. Those actions that are committed with a good will and stem from a sense of moral duty are of moral worth.
Consider this scenario. A child comes into a shop and gives the shop owner too much money for her purchase. The shop owner knows he could give the child incorrect change, but chooses not to because he believes he'd lose business if anyone found out. Another shop owner down the street finds himself in the same situation, but he chooses to give the child correct change because he recognizes a moral duty to do so. According to Kant, even though both shop-owners appear to behave exactly the same way, only the shop owner who acts out of duty has done something of moral worth. Kant argued that we can never really know for sure if the people we observe are behaving morally. Or even if we are!
Therefore, we should remain reflective and try diligently to insure our actions are motivated by a sense of moral duty. What determines our moral duties? What is the source of the moral law? According to Kant, our moral duties are determined by the categorical imperative. An imperative is a command, and the categorical imperative is a command that is both necessary and universal. It applies to all rational agents, and from it we can derive all moral commands. The categorical imperative contrasts with hypothetical imperatives, which provide commands for individuals who have certain goals.
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For example, if I want to obtain a driver's license, I am bound by a hypothetical imperative to learn to drive a car by the rules. However, it certainly is not the case that everyone is required to learn to drive a car, and if I stop wanting to obtain a driver's license the imperative stops applying to me as well.
The categorical imperatives states that we as rational agents should only act according to maxims that we could will to become a universal law. A maxim is a rule we form when determining how to act. For example, if I borrow money that I know I cannot pay, I might be considering the maxim "I need money, so I will accept loans even if I cannot repay." Problems arise if we try to universalize this maxim on borrowing by imagining everyone in the world adopting it. Who would ever give a loan if everyone practiced this maxim? The idea of loaning money would become laughable. So we cannot both want to obtain a loan and will that this maxim of nonpayment be universalized, without destroying the institution of loan making.
Behaving morally under Kantian principles, then, means rejecting this maxim. When trying to decide what is required by duty, a person should test his or her maxims against the categorical imperative to determine whether they are permissible or prohibited.
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Business Ethics
Other Nonconsequentialist Perspectives
Not all nonconsequentialists are Kantians. Many nonconsequentialists find Kant's categorical imperative to be too absolute. They point out that we often find ourselves in positions where our obligations appear to be in conflict with one another. Philosopher W.D. Ross suggests that we often face multiple obligations at once, and oftentimes these obligations conflict.
Consider a scenario in which a business man has promised his employees a holiday bonus. But he loses a major client and he finds himself in a position where the only way he can pay the bonus is to not pay his suppliers on time. The businessman has conflicting obligations to keep his promise to his employees and to meet the payment terms of his suppliers.
We frequently find ourselves forced to determine which of our moral obligations is most important at any given moment. Ross and other like-minded thinkers believe that all or at least most of our moral obligations are prima facie, meaning they can be overridden by obligations that are more important. Prima facie means sufficient to establish a fact or a case unless disproved. Ross introduces seven basic types of prima facie obligations: duties of fidelity, duties of reparation, duties of gratitude, duties of justice, duties of beneficence, duties of self-improvement, and duties not to injure others.
Other non-Kantian nonconsequentialists question whether the principle of utilitarianism might have the result of enslaving people to the duty of maximizing happiness. After all, isn't it the case most of the time we could be doing something other than what we are doing that would produce more overall happiness in the world? How could we ever justify going to the movies, attending class, or getting more than minimal sleep? However, this sort of self-sacrifice for the sake of the greater good seems misguided. Theoretical individuals who would abide by these strict terms are often referred to as "moral saints." Susan Wolf, a moral philosopher, argues that moral sainthood is undesirable, stating "moral perfection, in the sense of moral saintliness, does not constitute a model of personal well-being toward which it would be particularly rational or good or desirable for a human being to strive." She defends this claim by pointing out that we value well-roundedness.
We also want people to develop their talents, invent new technologies, and provide and indulge in luxuries in life. So how moral should we be? Some nonconsequentialists suggest our negative moral obligations are more important than our positive moral
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obligations. While there are many good things we could do to help others, some of these actions are supererogatory--or above and beyond what's morally required-- meaning it isn't morally wrong if we choose not to do them.
Our moral obligations are limited by other people's rights. People have both negative rights to be free from interference as well as positive rights to receive certain benefits. These rights may originate from a legal source or from the special relationships and circumstances we find ourselves in. The most important rights are human rights, which are universal, equal, natural, and nontransferable. While many moral actions might be supererogatory according to nonconsequentialists, our obligation to observe and respect the human rights of others is not.
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Business Ethics
Moral Decision Making
How can people with fundamentally different beliefs about what is right and wrong arrive at a moral consensus? Moral decision-making does not require that all of us adopt the same fundamental theory. Because moral judgments should be logical, based in facts, and appeal to sound moral principles, agreement can be reached through, calm, rational, and thorough discussion.
The first step in collaborative moral decision-making is for all participants in the conversation agree about the relevant facts. Consider a scenario in which executives at a lumber and forestry company are debating how much lumber they should harvest. At first glance, it may seem like they are disagreeing about the company's moral responsibilities to the environment and to future generations, but in reality they might be disagreeing about the rate of forest regrowth--a factual rather than moral claim.
Next, it is important to identify those moral principles involved in the conversation. Doing so can make it clear if people are making claims that rest on mere hunches or intuitions. Remaining objective and analytical is necessary for productive moral discussions. Therefore, we should avoid presupposing any particular theory of morality is true. V.R. Ruggerio identified three common concerns people have when approaching moral decisions. These are concerns about obligations, ideals, and effects. Obligations arise out of our relationships with others and require that we do some things and avoid doing others. Ideals are morally important goals, virtues, or notions of excellence.
Finally, almost all theories of morality, even nonconsequentialist ones, take the effects of actions to be at least somewhat important when determining what is right and wrong. These three factors synthesize various elements of both consequentialist and nonconsequentialist theories.
Considering obligations, ideals, and effects when making moral decisions leads to a basic two-step procedure for evaluating available choices and actions. First, identify the important obligations, ideals, and effects that are involved in the situation. Who has obligations in the scenario at hand? What ideals are promoted by the actions being considered? Which ideals are neglected? What are the effects of the action under consideration? Would alternative actions bring about effects that are more desirable?
Next, decide which of the factors that have been identified deserves emphasis. At times, obligations, ideals, and effects will conflict with one another. For example, an
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employee might face an obligation to his or her employer, but meeting that obligation might bring about undesirable effects for consumers. In these situations, it can be difficult to determine which morally pertinent factors to respect.
Some basic guidelines can help in reaching a decision when obligation, ideals, and effects collide, according to Ruggerio. When two or more moral obligations conflict, he advises that you choose the stronger one. An engineer designing a water filtration system might face obligations both to the community in which the filtration system will be used and to her employer. These obligations might conflict when the engineer must choose between using disposable filters that would benefit her company or reusable ones that would benefit the consumer. It seems the engineer might face a stronger obligation to her employer, but that might not always be the case--for example she might have a stronger obligation to the community in which the filtration system will be used if that community is one in which access to clean water is seriously lacking.
When two or more ideals conflict, or when ideals conflict with obligations, honor the more important one. An ethics committee hearing arguments in favor of allowing kidneys to be purchased and sold to those on organ transplant lists will likely find themselves torn between an ideal that humans and their body parts should not be treated as commodities and the conflicting ideal that as many human lives should be saved as possible. Current legal standards have identified the ideal that humans and their body parts should not be treated as commodities as the more important one in this scenario, but the issue is hotly debated. And when rival actions will have different results, choose the action that produces the greater good or the lesser harm.
For example, an automobile company approaching a deadline to release a new passenger airbag discovers that a flaw in the airbag design means it could be dangerous for passengers shorter than 5 feet tall. Executives at the company discuss either releasing the airbag on the intended date with a warning label to alert consumers to the potential danger, or postponing the deadline to attempt to reengineer the position of the airbag to reduce the danger. If the cost of releasing the airbag after the deadline is low, or if the danger posed by the current design is high, the company should postpone the airbag's release date.
Of course, these guidelines assume we know which obligations are greater, which ideals are more important, and how much good or harm our actions will produce. Unfortunately, there is no sure way of knowing these things, but thinking critically about the values and principles imbedded in business can make us better able to make these evaluations.
Week 2 Summary
The following is a summary of key information from Week Two of BUS 309 Business Ethics.
Characteristic Egoism Utilitarianism Kant's Ethics Ross's Prima FacieObligations
Definition
The belief that as long as an action is performed out of self-interest, it is morally correct. Personal egoists claim that they personally should make decisions based on their own self-interest; impersonal egoists claim that every person should pursue his or her own self- interest.
The belief that actions that result in the maximization of happiness are morally right and that the improvement of general happiness should be everyone's moral obligation and priority.
According to Kant actions only have moral worth if they are done out of a sense of duty and with a good will. The moral law, the categorical imperative, is universal and necessary. Maxims are morally permissible only if they are universally applicable and do not treat people as mere means to an end.
Ross theorized that everyone has a plurality of moral obligations. These obligations are prima facie, meaning in different circumstances one obligation can override another. The order in which these obligations are prioritized is determined by the unique relationships and circumstances in which they arise.
Consequentialism or Nonconsequentialism
Consequentialist. Egoists believe that the morality of your actions depends on whether they benefit you. As long as an action is in your own best interst, it is morally justifiable.
Consequentialist. Utilitarians believe that an action is moral if it results in the maximization of happiness. Thus, the morality of an action is entirely dependent on the action's consequences.
Nonconsequentialist. Kant's moral theory is not concerned with the outcome of actions, but instead with whether or not actions are committed with a good will and from a sense of moral obligation. Even if in some cases following the moral law, the categorical imperative, brings about undesirable consequences, Kant believes a moral person must act in accordance with it anyway.
Nonconsequentialist. Ross believed that an action was morally justifiable if it fulfilled appropriate moral obligations. Meeting these obligations is the important moral feature of an action, not the results in brings about.
An organization is morally allowed (even
The categorical Since, according to
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Benefits in a Business Setting
obligated) to pursue their own interests when engaged in business. Similar to utilitarianism, egoism determines that the decision that most benefits the organization or individual should be chosen, but with an even more self- interested focus than utilitarianism.
Utilitarianism provides a very clear rule for decision-making. The alternative that most benefits the organization as a whole is the alternative that should be chosen.
The categorical imperative adheres to strict definitions of morality that help in decision-making. The morally correct action should be chosen for the sake of its moral value, not out of self- interest. Further, any decision that would treat people as a means to an end would be considered immoral
Ross, an organization may have multiple moral organizations, it need not prioritize the happiness of the greater good over other obligations. So long as basic moral rights, especially human rights, are respected, an organization is then morally free to pursue its personal goals.
Major Criticisms
Psychological egoism can argue that just about any action is performed out of self-interest and thus morally justifiable. Not only does this excuse arguably wrongful acts, but it cheapens morally good acts. It reduces all actions to the same level of self-interest, thereby making it impossible to resolve moral conflicts.
The calculations required by utilitarianism might not be realistically workable. Further, utilitarianism justifies intuitively immoral actions (such as lying, cheating, or stealing) as long as they benefit the greater good. Because individual happiness may sometimes be sacrificed for the happiness of the greater good, utilitarianism can also be very unfair toward certain individuals.
Kant's definition of "moral worth" can be too narrow; he would not consider a beneficial act to be moral if it was done for a selfish reason or thoughtlessly. Similarly, the categorical imperative may be too strict, in that it may not allow exceptions even in extreme cases.
Ross's nonconsequentialism relies on intuition to determine whether an action is morally right, which can be problematic because intuitions unreliable and often controversial. Further, nonconsequentialism does not offer a definitive resolution for conflicts of moral rights.
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