computer sys analysis and design

Chapter 1 – Systems, Roles and Development Methodologies An introduction of methodologies that will be further developed in future chapters

Objectives

Comprehend SDLC (system development life cycle), the agile approach and object-oriented methods of systems analysis and design

Introduction

Information is a resource at the same level as staff, inventory and expertise. It is not free.

Organizations that are successful in leveraging information have competitive advantage.

Image the importance of physical record keeping for organizations 25+ years ago. Now multiply that importance, benefit and liability by multiple factors. Such is the explosion of information and it will continue.

(Provide my corporate computer example from 1981).

It is critical to analyze and design a match of systems to need. An inadequate approach (garbage in garbage out) will result in waste, disuse and business or objective failure. Good analysis and design up front is the most critical element of success.

Would one build a bridge without study and planning? In fact building the bridge should be the easiest aspect.

Let discuss the health care web site start up.

Historically “code” or machine instructions were created to meet a specific unit-by-unit need. However, the approach now in support of web development and related languages such as Java script, XML Web format source generators, and proprietary languages require strong and effective analysis since the generated machine instructions are now applied at the object level as opposed to the unit level. Introduce CASE (Computer-aided software engineering)

Role of a systems analyst

The systems analyst systemically accesses how users interact with technology and how businesses function by examining the inputting and processing of data and the outputting of information with the intent of improving organizational processes.

Main roles include

Consultant bring knowledge of technology to an organization but may not be aware of the unique entity challenges as well as the people challenge.

Support expert the skill of improving an information based system that better matches the requirement or need.

Agent of change a professional that knows the business as well as the technology and recommends major new strategies and improvements.

Most people dislike change. They must see the benefit. So an agent of change must be an excellent communicator.

What are the differences between management and users?

A proficient systems analysis must be

A problem solver

An agent of change

A good communicator

Humble make sure to see it from the user’s perspective

An existing or evolving business expert

Structured and organized

A constant student of technology

It pays well.

SDLC (systems development life cycle)

1. Problem definition feasibility report why is it needed

2. Human Information requirements interview, questionnaires, watching, prototyping be on guard for “we have always done it this way”

3. Systems needs always begin with a picture, a process flow, a data flow diagram, structured decision points are identified sometimes referred to as a decision tree output is a proposal

4. Design the solution the entry, processing and exit points of data the importance of data organization (data dictionaries) definitions, and consistency in data naming and use Technical controls, backups, restores, security, roles of usage. The guidelines of how the design is maintained. Sometimes includes a disaster recovery plan.

5. Develop and document the system assume that a technician (programmer) who is different than the author will be able to understand and modify after implementation user help regulatory needs FAQs, Read Me files, training

6. Test and maintain the system unit, process related and volume testing and the capture of success or failure as evidence started by the developer but should also utilize clients as a reconnection from requirements to solution “traceability” time and effort spent in testing always pays off at this stage phases of SDLC are cyclical

Let’s discuss what change control is.

7. Implement and evaluate user training, data conversion sometimes called the transition evaluate did you achieve the objective as determined in the Problem Definition?

What’s more important humans or technology? Provide personal doctor’s office example.

Once implemented why do we maintain it?

Needs change

Security updates are needed

Bugs are encountered

Hardware or hosting strategies change. A large 10-12 month project should be able to be updated or upgraded in weeks.

CASE tools

A productivity tool Automation saves time, effort and reduces errors. A repository is created that contain all system information stored in such a way that it develops a self-fulfilling prophecy.

Input and output designs

Systems models and diagrams

Data dictionary and process logic which may be translated to object code

Visible Analyst tools can streamline the transition from prototyping to solution.

CASE requires a commitment from beginning to end in order to reap a benefit.

It is expensive and assumes a strong emphasis on structure, discipline and compliance.

Let’s discuss the differences between custom vs. standard software.

The Agile Approach

Based on values, principles and core practices of an organization

Success is based on communication, simplicity, feedback and courage.

The approach focusses on the critical resources of time, cost, quality and scope.

Introduce my milestone planning concept.

Development is interactive and incremental.

I would like to add one more accountability.

The stages are

Exploration see if it’s possible

Planning an entity wide game played by the rules

Iterations to the initial release

Productionizing changing on the fly

Maintenance

Let’s review figure 1.5 page 12

Can be used for fire fighting

The entire organization must be committed to agile strategy and some organizations such as regulatory driven (Pharma, food processing, DEA Financial) cannot allow since documenting is usually not captured. Meaning there is no traceability. It can result in an ever changing environment. Where do you think it could apply? Marketing, TV commercials, new product development for example new compounds or formulas.

Keys to success

Simplicity, standization, entity wide buy-in . . . even a way of life strategy “we need to go live with the new game by Oct 1 and today is May 1.

Object Oriented

Is usually reserved for systems that change rapidly.

Let’s provide examples, marketing, annual governmental tax systems, health care, artificial intelligence, going to Mars.

Object oriented techniques work well in situations undergo continuous maintenance, adaptation, and redesign.

Uses a Unified Modeling Language (UML) to create a case model where one “object” translates to numerous computer instructions such as “receive invoice” which translates to (physical receipt and put away, payment, update to planning, labeling and so on).

An object can also be a logical data element with appropriate actions. For example, customers (create and maintain), orders, items and so on.

See figure 1.6 page 14.

Note the importance of diagramming and nomenclature. Nouns become objects which remain as entities that can be combined with other nouns or objects to create a system.

Customer order item payment Received

Effort is similar to SDLC method.

Open Source Software

Represents a nontraditional strategy where source code ownership and maintenance is shared.

Is viewed as a cutting edge approach where numerous contributors join to meet an objective.

Erases traditional analysis and deployment boundaries and often the process is more important than the outcome.

Examples are NASA, Cerner doctor’s office visit designs, gamers, smart phone applications.

Often is used for research efforts.

Chapter 2 – Understanding and Modeling Organizational Systems

Objectives

Come to an understanding of how critical it is to match analysis and design strategies with the requesting organization

Understand selected graphical tools and how they support the effort to match designs with organizations any graphical tool or methodology can and should be used within the development methodology option as covered in Chapter 1. Often the first step is to diagram the “current state”.

What do I mean by “current state”?

Understand the different levels and types of management.

Understand the impact of organizational culture.

Introduction

Information Systems in all of its manifestations is always a service organization.

Technology serves us not the other way around.

It is technologies role to be flexible.

A successful systems reconciles the three main forces: the levels of management, design of organizations and the culture of the organization.

Let’s discuss some obvious differences of organizations. For example a pharma, a movie studio a software development business, a Wall Street firm.

To miss this level of importance dooms the system regardless of its quality. Why?

What is the greatest skill for a successful systems analyst?

Organizations as Systems

Organizations are comprised of departments, units, divisions, teams all focusing on their specific contribution and each taking direction from management. Each area has their own set of objectives and goals. Of course the interrelationship between the different levels of management determines the effectiveness or health of the total organization again the implications of the poor rollout of the health care web site.

Discuss common sense goal planning.

Be aware and grow your understanding of

Group functions and how they impact and are impacted by other functions

What the boundaries are what is important to each function how are they rewarded?

What are the overreaching objectives or goals of the organization?

Are there gaps or conflicts in functional integration? Do you perceive process contradiction or dysfunctional link?

It is NOT expected that an analyst is aware of the numerous touch points at the beginning or ever. It is a learning process and where there are gaps in understanding the good analyst seeks clarity via relationships, inquiries and effective listening and feedback skills.

Asking for advice and guidance ALWAYS works.

Virtual Organizations

Most business are traditional hierarchal organizations.

There are a growing group of virtual organizations that require constant adaptation as a function of their mission.

Let’s discuss some types of virtual organizations, Cloud Networks, Marketing, Universities, my publishing experience

It is possible that virtual organizations exist within a tradition hierarchal organization as a sub-organization.

Cerner it’s numerous divisions like the Imagineering complex

Enterprise Systems

ERP (enterprise resource planning) designs are common for large organizations. They are comprised of specific business functions that may be separated by

Geography

Time zones

Language

Culture

Governments

Currency

Even reward formulas

Depicting Systems Graphically

May seem overwhelming at first but always begin with a picture.

A diagram . . . .

Captures processes and interactions

Can be used to discuss and obtain feedback and related clarity image its effectiveness when languages are not in common

Details the flow of data or information which is the roadmap of a system

The keys are

Common use of terminology, nomenclature and definitions

The use of common shapes that communicate an action or state

The maintenance of “same level’ of detail and content start at high level and work down in this instance AVOID a bottom up approach . . . Why?

Entity Relationship Model (E-R)

Let’s review figure 2.5 on page 25.

Understand

The different line/arrow depictions

The use of grammar “is” vs. “are”

The consistency of box labels and the significance of singular or plural nouns instances

The types of entities figure 2.9 page 28

Once an E-R diagram is complete and confirmed it can often be used to design data structures and flows.

Their interaction and/or combination with other E-R diagrams suggest a process flow for system design and construction.

Use Case Modeling

Describes what a system does without describing how the system does it that is it is a logical model of the system.

As with E-R diagrams there is importance and communicative significance to symbols, arrows and lines.

Following the initial effort of diagramming the current state, the main function of Use Case Modeling is the development of Use Case Scenarios.

They communicate a change or improvement

They can function as a transitional tool to system developer and may even generate “code”

Are critical to your data dictionary

Exist post implementation as training and documentation tools (this is the case for any system diagram)

Keys of success for any structured diagramming process

Must have organizational support.

Must be consistent to the use of terms and actions.

Assumes a level of training for anyone that uses them

Must offer value in communicative efforts a picture is worth a thousand words.

Levels of Management

The three basic levels of management

Strategic

Middle level

Operational

Let’s discuss examples

There are different implications of systems per each level.

Operational management need lower level (logistical) details and controls warehouse bins and detailed inventory usually short term or immediate data in regards to timing

Middle management requires a combination of lower and summarized information as well as longer time frames. Interfaces and integration relationships are critical they need not only warehouse info but also planning and purchasing info

Strategic management assumes long term summarized information all warehouses within a region and all purchasing budgets.

The key of course is that lower levels feed middle and higher levels with execution (logistical) activities while strategic and middle management provide direction and entity wide evaluations.

The top objectives of strategic management is to offer

Clarity of structure

Clarity of direction

Clarity of measurement

These clarities help reconcile organization sub cultures.

Chapter 3 – Project Management the fundamentals

Objectives

Understand what triggers a need for a project and the initial stages which include Definition and Feasibility.

Understand hardware and software tradeoffs.

Understand and forecast tangible and intangible costs.

The process of managing a project.

The importance of the project team.

The contents of a systems proposal.

Introduction

Projects

Reflect a need due to managing or building competitive advantage

Reflect a need to change or maintain an important systems investment

Reflect a need to correct an organizational flaw or gap

Reflect a need to change as a function of law, regulatory requirements or industry trends

Represent an investment of capital, expense, resources and time

Detail the difference between capital and expense

Can be accomplished internally, externally or a combination

Must have a starting and ending point and need to be on time and within budget

Represent a series of concurrent and sequential tasks that must be anticipated, tracked and altered as the effort progresses

Can make or destroy careers

Can be rewarding (even fun) or the alternative (leave behind no dead bodies)

Involve software, hardware and services as well as procedural change and normally the need for an organization to learn something new the management of change

Once completed should represent a better way of doing business

Can only be successful by managing the contribution of people (management, team members, clients and vendors)

Project Initiation

If a project cannot be defined then there is no project.

What is the problem or purpose?

Is it related to making, spending or saving money and/or resources?

Does it have support and who is/are the supporter(s)?

What are the forecasted costs and the anticipated benefits?

What are the cultural and/or process impacts to the current state?

What are the summarized steps, tasks and their sequence?

How long will it take and when does it have to be delivered?

The systems analyst needs to have or obtain knowledge of the business.

Interviews, documentation and feedback (for clarity and buy-in) are critical and should include all appropriate levels of management and services as well as key clients.

The interviewing process may actually determine that a project is not needed or cannot be justified due to organizational impact or costs

Detail Pharms fingerprinting

Determining Feasibility

There are three levels of feasibility

Operationally impacts physical and procedural to the entity implications of quality control

Technically can it even be done?

Economically

Document pros and cons and clarify tradeoffs.

Do not assume that management has already reconciled the request. In fact management may be looking for a study suggesting that the project request is not feasible.

Hardware and Software Needs

Regarding hardware

Where is the host? Do we rent (time share or cloud technology) or own (onsite or regional data centers)? If either options are possible what are the advantages and disadvantages?

What type of network is needed? How fast? What is the anticipated transaction volume?

What are the technical specifications?

How will the system remain safe and up-to-date?

Costs upfront as well as ongoing

What are the warranties and post purchase external support needs?

What skills or services are required?

How will training (if applicable) be obtain and who gets it?

What will be the expenditure method? Bidding cost sharing within the organization?

Regarding software

Will it be purchased, developed or altered (customized) after initial purchase?

Discuss the hidden costs and risks of customization) the organization deploy tools (COTS Microsoft) already available?

How will the system remain safe and up-to-date?

What is the scope? How many licenses are required?

What are the warranties and post purchase external support needs?

What skills or services are required?

If purchased, how well has it performed for others?

How will training (if applicable) be obtain and who gets it?

Regardless of any hardware or software recommendation safety and security concerns must be addressed.

Protections

Disaster recovery

Backups and restores

Forecasting Costs and Benefits

Consultants (short term hired experts) can be used to identify appropriate hardware and software trends. If managed correctly these expensive services pay large future dividend in avoiding future costs.

Consultants must be accountable and closely tracked if possible have them share some risk

Let’s discuss a failed software decision

Costs must include

Tangible

Expense and Capital

Training

Ongoing hosting and service agreements

New hires

Travel and related overhead

Recognition during and after

Intangible

Impacts to organization regarding

Change management

Startup implications

Learning curve resistance

Effectiveness of acceptance or rejection

Altered processes

Benefits must include

Tangible

Savings due to current obligations or process improvement shrinking of lead time, cycle time, and turnaround time Cost avoidance

Reduction of operating costs may reduce staffing

Reduction of logistical and overhead expenses

Intangible

Increased productivity

Growth of market, product line, or volumes

Accomplishing more with less

Increase dependability and safety

Although a benefit to the bottom line is desired the net conclusion may be

A break even proposal

An actual increase of expenses that should be reconciled over time (ROI – return of investment)

Cash flow expertise may be required and strict tracking is required Get accounting experts involved.

Managing Time and Activities

Regarding project management

Build a self-fulfilling prophecy

Keep sponsors and team member up-to-date with details and progress

Allow time for adjustments and detours they always occur

Identify significant stages or events determine if there is a point of no return as well as a back out plan if applicable

Show dependencies, sequence and tasks relationships (Gantt and Pert charts).

Cover milestone project tracking

The watch outs

Allowing the tail to wag the dog . . . project administration should serve the effort not the other way around

Including numerous low level details (such as time out of the office) that creates a complex tasks list that becomes unwieldy and hence is not followed

Always clarify resource assumptions how many team member, their level of allowable commitment

Make the project schedule as simple as possible and keep it upfront all the time you know there is an issue if you need to designate a project administer whose main task is to keep track of the project tracking. Project administration should never consume more than 5% of the total effort this is one of the largest errors.

Never celebrate the creation of a plan rather celebrate task progression as well as the on time in budget completion.

No project schedule is perfect from its inception. Perfection or success is realized by effective communication of progress and the management of changes.

The project manager should always be 30% ahead of the game with commitments and forecasted deliveries.

Unanticipated issues, delays, obstructions, should be managed with sufficient time to allow adjustments and should always include partnership with all appropriate levels of management.

Regarding the Project Team

Always be transparent regarding tasks assigned, expectations or issues.

Maintain accountability and participation from management they are team members.

Make sure team members understand their role and “what’s in it for them”.

Make third parties equal participants.

Hold all accountable and be perfectly clear we succeed or fail as a team.

Celebrate successes during and after the project.

The Systems Proposal should include

Cover letter

Title of project

Table of contents

An executive summary which should include the recommendation and financial review

Summary of systems study

Detailed results of the systems study

Systems alternatives

Staffing implications (project team and organization)

The recommendation

Proposal summary (optional) mostly a mirror to the executive summary

Appropriate appendices

The use of graphs and figure tables are always helpful but be certain of their pertinence and accuracy . A mistake in math could cause the proposal to be rejected.

Take full ownership of its content how it was formulated anticipate questions from management, clients and team members.

One of my best and most beneficial proposal was to recommend that the organization avoids a requested project.