Arch Bridge

CE 1120 Technical Writing

1

Technical Writing

Chikashi Sato, Ph.D., Professor Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Idaho State University, Pocatello, Idaho

Sources: Author Guidelines (Sources: Water Research, Water Environment Research, ASCE) Overall Structure –Manuscript Format (in general)

A complete manuscript should include the following:

1. Title (including authors, their affiliation, and addresses) 2. Abstract 3. Keywords 4. Introduction 5. Methodology (Material and Methods) 6. Results 7. Discussion (or Results and Discussion) 8. Conclusions 9. Acknowledgments 10. References 11. Appendix (or Appendices)

Subsections Divide your article into clearly defined and numbered sections (generally for a large document).

 Subsections should be numbered 1.1 (then 1.1.1, 1.1.2, ...), 1.2, etc. o Abstract is not included in section numbering.

 Use this numbering also for internal cross-referencing: do not just refer to 'the text'.

 Any subsection may be given a brief heading.

 Each heading should appear on its own separate line. Title Page The text should begin with the title of the paper.

 Title should be concise and informative.

 Avoid abbreviations and formulae where possible.

 Titles are often used in information-retrieval systems.

 Title page includes, but not limited to, title of the document, author and coauthors, affiliations, and addresses.

CE 1120 Technical Writing

2

Author names and affiliations On the next line (after the title), place the authors' names in the order in which they are to be referenced preceded by superscript numbers that correspond to their affiliations, which will be listed below (the corresponding author’s name will also be preceded by an asterisk). Example: Berinda J. Rossini

1* , Lorna E. Ernesto

1 , Steve M. Harris

2

1*

COOP, 2 Penna Center, 1500 Heights Boulevard, Suite 600, Philadelphia, PA 00000; e-mail:

[email protected] (at the time that this research was conducted, graduate student in the Department of

Environmental Sciences, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey)

2 Department of Environmental Sciences, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey

 Where the family name may be ambiguous (e.g., a double name), indicates this clearly.

 Present the authors' affiliation addresses (where the actual work was done) below the names.

 Indicate all affiliations with a lower-case superscript letter immediately after the author's name and in front of the appropriate address.

 Provide the full postal address of each affiliation, including the country name and, if available, the e-mail address of each author.

Corresponding author

 Clearly indicate who will handle correspondence at all stages of refereeing and publication, also post- publication.

 Ensure that phone numbers (with country and area code) are provided in addition to the e-mail address and the complete postal address.

 Contact details must be kept up to date by the corresponding author. Present/permanent address

 If an author has moved since the work described in the article was done, or was visiting at the time, a 'Present address' (or 'Permanent address') may be indicated as a footnote to that author's name.

 The address at which the author actually did the work must be retained as the main, affiliation address. Superscript Arabic numerals are used for such footnotes.

Abstract and Keywords Abstract Abstract should state briefly the purpose of the research, the principal results and major message.

 Abstract should contain concise, factual information on objectives, methods, results, and conclusions. o Opinions, obscure terms, and jargon should be avoided.

CE 1120 Technical Writing

3

 Abstract is often presented separately from the article, so it must be able to stand alone. o For this reason, References should be avoided, but if essential, they must be cited in full,

without reference to the reference list.

 Abbreviations should be avoided, but if essential they must be defined at their first mention in the abstract itself.

 A suitable abstract length is approximately 150-200 words. Keywords The line below the abstract may contain keywords, listed in order of importance, that identify the main points in the manuscript.

 Immediately after the abstract, provide keywords, but not too many o 3 - 10 keywords

 Avoid general and plural terms, and multiple concepts (avoid, for example, "and", "of").

 Be sparing with abbreviations: only abbreviations firmly established in the field may be eligible.

 List keywords that make your paper easy detectable for interested readers in literature databases. o Keep in mind that these keywords will be used for indexing purposes. o Repeating terms in the title is usually not needed.

Main Manuscript Body 1. Introduction The body of the text should begin with an Introduction.

 Introduction should include: o citations of published related work to assess previous research and identify the gap(s) in

knowledge. o a statement of the objective(s) of the work.

 Provide an adequate background and state the objectives of the work, avoiding a summary of the results.

2. Material and Methods Equipment and Materials

 The vendor (or supplier) and its location (city, state or province, and country if outside the United States) should be included for all equipment and products identified in the methods section.

 Computer software should be identified by name and location of the developer. Methods

 Provide sufficient detail to allow the work to be reproduced.

 Methods already published should be indicated by a reference: only relevant modifications should be described.

CE 1120 Technical Writing

4

3. Results

 Results should be clear and concise.

 Show only those experimental results that are relevant to your objectives and conclusions and which you want to discuss.

4. Discussion

 Discussion should explore the significance of the results of the work, not repeat them.

 Discussion should integrate your findings in a comprehensive picture and place them in the context of the existing literature.

 Discussion should relate to the published paper and only introduce new material that is required to clearly establish the writer's point.

o It is important that a review is more than a summary of the literature; an in-depth critical discussion is essential for acceptance of a review paper.

 A combined Results and Discussion section can be appropriate. 5. Conclusions

 Conclusions contain essentially the 'take-home' message of a paper.

 Conclusions are not an extension of the discussion or a summary of the results.

 You may list important implications of their work in form of a bulleted list.

 Conclusions must not contain references to the cited literature. Acknowledgements

 Collate acknowledgements in a separate section at the end of the article before the references.

 In general, do not include Acknowledgments on the title page, as a footnote to the title or otherwise. o An Acknowledgment section should follow the Conclusions.

 Acknowledgment may include any credits for funding of or assistance in the study.

 List here those individuals who provided help during the research (e.g., providing language help, writing assistance or proof reading the article, etc.).

Note that Government agencies may require Copyright Statement. Example Copyright Statement

This manuscript has been authored by Battelle Energy Alliance, LLC, under Contract No. DE-AC07-

05ID14517 with the U.S. Department of Energy. The United States Government retains and the publisher, by

accepting the article for publication, acknowledges that the United States Government retains a nonexclusive,

paid-up, irrevocable, world-wide license to publish or reproduce the published form of this manuscript, or allow

others to do so, for United States Government purposes.

References

 Ensure that every reference cited in the text is also present in the reference list (and vice versa).

 The source of all information quoted or presented (except information that is common knowledge) should be identified.

CE 1120 Technical Writing

5

 A list of the cited references must be included at the end of the manuscript.

 Only written works that have been published in the open literature should be referenced.

 Information obtained privately, as in conversation or correspondence, is to be avoided.

 When copying references, be careful as they may already contain errors.

 Use of the DOI is encouraged. (DOI = digital object identifier)

Citation in text

 Unpublished results and personal communications are not recommended in the reference list, but may be mentioned in the text.

 If these references are included in the reference list they should follow the standard reference style of the journal and should include a substitution of the publication date with either 'Unpublished results' or 'Personal communication'.

 Citation of a reference as 'in press' implies that the item has been accepted for publication.

 Only cite the original papers and those relevant for the work; no need to give a full literature review in the introduction/discussion.

Reference formatting

 There are different systems (styles) for citation/references. References can be in any style or format as long as the style is consistent.

 Where applicable, author(s) name(s), journal title/book title, chapter title/article title, year of publication, volume number/book chapter and the pagination must be present.

 If you do wish to format the references yourself they should be arranged according to the following examples:

Reference style References to published literature may be cited in the text as follows: Li and Gregory (2006) - the date of publication in parentheses after the authors' names. References must be listed together at the end of each paper and must not be given as footnotes. Periodical They must be listed alphabetically starting with the surname of the first author, year followed by the title of the referenced paper and the full name of the periodical, as follows: Li, G., Gregory, J., 2006. Flocculation and sedimentation of high-turbidity waters. Water Research 25(9), 1137- 1143. Authors' initials, the title of the paper, and the volume, part number and first and last page numbers are given for each reference. Books, Reports and Theses References to books, reports and theses must be cited in the narrative.

CE 1120 Technical Writing

6

The abbreviation et al., for example, Sato et al. (2006), may be used in the text. However, the names of all authors must be given in the list of references. The list of references reference includes: Author(s), date of publication, title of book, editor(s) name(s) if applicable, page numbers, name of publisher, and place of publication. References in languages other than English must be referred to by an English translation (with the original language indicated in parentheses). Personal communications and other unpublished works Personal communications and other unpublished works must be included in the reference list, giving full contact details (name and address of communicator). Personal communications must be cited in the text as, for example, Champney (2006). Citing and listing of Web references

 As a minimum, the full URL should be given and the date when the reference was last accessed.

 Any further information, if known (DOI, author names, dates, reference to a source publication, etc.), should also be given.

 Web references can be listed separately (e.g., after the reference list) under a different heading if desired, or can be included in the reference list.

Example 1: The list is to be alphabetized by the last name of the first author cited. The order of items in each reference is to be: author(s); year of publication; title of work; periodical, publisher, conference, etc.; volume number, and initial and final pages, as appropriate. Text citations of the references should consist of, in parentheses, either the author(s) and year of publication or the year of publication only, depending on the narrative context. If the same author(s) is cited in more than one publication in the same year, lower-case letters (a, b, c...) are appended to the year in the first and succeeding citations. Periodical titles are to be abbreviated in accordance with the CAplus system. (http://www.cas.org/sent.html ). In Text Citation "There are several alternatives (Jones and Smith, 1992a) for handling these wastes."

"Jones and Smith (1992b) have documented the source of these wastes."

In Reference List

CE 1120 Technical Writing

7

Jones, A. B.; Smith, C. D. (2002a) Treatment of Hazardous Wastes in Wastewater Treatment Plants. Water

Environ. Res., 71, 999 - 1010.

Jones, A. B.; Smith, C. D. (2002b) Survey of Hazardous Waste Sources in Wastewater Treatment Plants . Report

No. 12345; US Environmental Protection Agency: Washington, D.C.

Ross, B. J. (2000) Nutrient Removal Technology Guidance ; EPA-450/4-99-030; US Environmental Protection

Agency: Cincinnati, Ohio.

US Environmental Protection Agency (2000) Biosolids Compliance; EPA-224/6-99-031; Washington, D.C.

Naylor, L. M.; Williams, C. (1999) Biosolids as a Nitrogen and Phosphorus Resource: Back to the Basics.

Proceedings of the 72nd Annual Water Environment Federation Technical Exposition and Conference [CD-

ROM]; New Orleans, Louisiana, Oct 10-13; Water Environment Federation: Alexandria, Virginia, page numbers.

Appendices

 If there is more than one appendix, they should be identified as A, B, etc.

 Formulae and equations in appendices should be given separate numbering: Eq. (A.1), Eq. (A.2), etc.; in a subsequent appendix, Eq. (B.1) and so on.

 Similarly for tables and figures: Table A.1; Fig. A.1, etc. Acronyms and Abbreviations Abbreviation An abbreviation is a shortening form of a word or phrase, such as “Jan.” for “January”, “U.S.” for “United States,” and “ASCE” for “American Society of Civil Engineers.” Acronym An acronym is formed when the abbreviation forms a pronounceable word, such as “NATO” for “North Atlantic Treaty Organization” or “AASHTO” for "American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials."

 In general, minimize the use of abbreviations so the paper remains easily understood by the general reader.

 The use of common acronyms to abbreviate long expressions is encouraged.

 Authors should use notation that is already accepted in the field. However, do not begin a sentence with an acronym (except in the case of, for example, U.S. EPA).

 Abbreviations and acronyms in text must be spelled out the first time that they appear in each chapter or paper, with the shortened form appearing immediately in parentheses. Thereafter, the shortened form should be used throughout the chapter.

 Acronyms and abbreviations must be spelled out in full at their first occurrence in the text.  All abbreviated terms (except for common mathematic units) should be written out on first

occurrence.

 Several very common abbreviations (U.S. and U.K. as adjectives; DNA and PVC for nouns) do not need to be spelled out on first usage.

 Basic units of measure do not need to be spelled out on first usage. These include: ft, in., lb (customary) and m, mm, kg (SI).

CE 1120 Technical Writing

8

Equations

 Equations and formulas should be numbered separately and sequentially throughout the text.

 All variables and special symbols, such as Greek letters, must be clearly identified and explained, and units of measurement provided.

Statistical Analyses

 When reporting results, the type of analysis conducted (e.g., Spearman rank test, Student's t test, least- squares regression, etc.) should be reported.

 Also, all variables (e.g., r, R, p, P, µ, n, etc.) should be defined on first occurrence for clarity. Artwork (Figures, Tables, Photos, and Other Supporting Materials) Elements such as figures and tables are included to support or augment what appears in the text.

 General points:  Make sure you use uniform lettering and sizing of your original artwork.  Only use the following fonts in your illustrations: Arial, Courier, Times, Symbol.  Number the illustrations according to their sequence in the text.  Use a logical naming convention for your artwork files.  Ensure that the figures can be understood without reading the text.  Minimize use of abbreviations.

 Number tables and figures consecutively in accordance with their appearance in the text.

 Tables and figures must be numbered in the order in which they are discussed in text so that call-outs also appear in numerical order. In other words, Table 3 must be called out in text before Table 4.

 Every element must be discussed in text, with a reference to the element and its number.

 The first reference to a figure, table, or box is the call-out. The call-outs must be worded consistently throughout your manuscript.

 For example: "The results of the stress tests (Fig. 1) clearly demonstrate…" and "Table 6-2 presents a range of planning options along with…".

 When your manuscript is typeset, the element will be placed on the page on which it is called out—or as soon as possible thereafter.

 Spell out “Table” and may abbreviate “Fig.” Examples:

CE 1120 Technical Writing

9

 For books, each element should be numbered consecutively with the chapter number and an Arabic numeral: Fig. 9-1, Fig. 9-2, Fig. 9-3 …; Table 7-1, Table 7-2 …; Box 10-1, Box 10-2 ….

 For journal articles and conference proceedings volumes, which do not have chapter numbers, the chapter number is left out: Fig. 1, Fig. 2, Fig. 3....

 If a figure or table has parts, a capital or lowercase letter is used to identify the parts: Fig. 9-1A, Fig. 9- 1B…; Fig. 1(a), Fig. 1(b)…

 In books, do not use subheading numbers for figures and tables. This practice is awkward and confuses readers.

Tables

 The discussions (on the data/result presented in the table) should be included directly in the manuscript text.

 Be sparing in the use of tables and ensure that the data presented in tables do not duplicate results described elsewhere in the article.

 Great care should be given to preparing concise tables containing only that information essential to substantiating the text.

 Columns containing few entries or full columns of data that vary only slightly should be avoided.

 Place footnotes to tables below the table body and indicate them with superscript lowercase letters.

 Judicious use of table footnotes can greatly simplify the presentation. Inclusion of lengthy explanations in the footnotes should be avoided, however.

 Minimize the use of symbols and abbreviations in the tables. Figures Figure captions

 Ensure that each illustration has a caption.

 A caption should comprise a brief title and a description of the illustration, making it understandable independent of the text.

 Keep text in the illustrations themselves to a minimum but explain all symbols and abbreviations used. Units of Expression SI vs. Customary Units

 ASCE publications use Système Internationale (SI) units, the most widely and officially recognized system of metric units, as the primary system of weights, dimensions, and other physical measures.

 Supply all data in the text, figures, and tables in metric notation and International System of Units (SI) nomenclature.

o All ASCE publications use SI units in text, figures, and tables.

 Customary (also known as English or imperial) units may be included in parentheses following the metric quantities, if the author chooses.

 One exception is recognized for ASCE Press titles. Case studies, examples, and problem sets can become difficult to use when both systems of units are presented. Therefore, it is acceptable to alternate metric and customary units in cases, examples, or problems.

CE 1120 Technical Writing

10

For more information about SI units, visit the Web sites of the U.S. Metric Association (USMA), Inc. or the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) or consult the book, Metric Units in Engineering: Going SI. Editing All manuscripts should be carefully edited to eliminate redundancy. In particular, similar data should not be presented in both figures and tables. Active vs. Passive Voice Wherever possible, use active verbs that demonstrate what is being done and who is doing it. Instead of: The bridge was built by James Eads. Use: James Eads built the bridge. Instead of: Six possible causes of failure were identified in the forensic investigation. Use: The forensic investigation identified six possible causes of failure. Direct vs. Indirect Statements

 Direct statements are clear, concise, and do not wear on your reader. Indirect statements are those that begin with phrases such as “it should be noted that…” or “it is common that….”

 Other types of indirect statements may begin with “to be” statements such as “there are” or “it was”. Examples Instead of: It should be noted that the flow was interrupted by a surge… Use: A surge interrupted the flow… Instead of: It is common that the steel rebars are weakened by oxidation… Use: Oxidation commonly weakens steel rebars… Instead of: There are many reasons that concrete may fail… Use: Concrete may fail for many reasons… Instead of: There are three kinds of bolt that can be used in these circumstances… Use: Three kinds of bolt can be used in these circumstances. Inclusive Language

 Writing without bias may feel stiff or unnatural at first, but usually results in greater precision and consideration for your readers.

CE 1120 Technical Writing

11

 Avoid language that arbitrarily assigns roles or characteristics or excludes people on the basis of gender; racial, ethnic, or religious background; physical or mental capabilities; sexual orientation; or other sorts of stereotypes.

 Avoid using man or men to refer to groups containing both sexes. Substitute words and phrases such as humankind, humanity, people, employees, workers, workforce, staff, and staff hours.

 Avoid the use of masculine pronouns to refer to both sexes. Use plural pronouns, a locution that carries no bias, imperative verb forms, or second-person pronouns.

Examples Instead of: When an engineer begins to design an overpass, he should consider… Try: When engineers begin to design overpasses, they should consider… Or: When beginning to design an overpass, an engineer should consider… Instead of: A manager should not assume that his staff will alert him to potential problems. Try: As a manager, do not assume that staff will alert you to potential problems. Or: As a manager, you should not assume that your staff will alert you to potential problems. Language Cleanup Services Manuscripts should be written in English. Authors who are unsure of correct English usage should have their manuscript checked by someone proficient in the language. For a list of companies offering language editing, translation, and cleanup services for manuscripts, please visit the Language Cleanup Services list. Authors who require information about language editing and copyediting services, visit http://www.elsevier.com/languagepolishing and/or http://epsupport.elsevier.com for more information. Note that these services are not offered or not endorsed by this instructor, and that this information is provided only as a courtesy to potential authors. Critical Review (Check List) Characteristics of good papers/reports

 Easy to read

 Clearly understood

 Good graphs with data shown

 Not too long

 Starts with problem statement(s) and carries to logical conclusion(s). Title

 Clear and concise title

CE 1120 Technical Writing

12

 Not too broad or too vague

 Article should reflect back to title Check: a) Is the title clear and concise? b) Is the title too broad or too vague? c) Does the article text reflect back to title? Abstract

 Clearly state objectives/purposes of the project

 Summarize procedures and results

 Give major conclusion(s)

 Commonly 150-200 words Check: a) Was (Were) purpose (purposes) stated? b) Were procedures summarized? c) Were results summarized? d) Was (Were) major conclusion (or conclusions) given? Introduction

 Give problem statement(s), goal(s), and objective(s) clearly

 State approach(es) and justify the approach(es) ChecK: a) Were problem statement(s), goal(s), and objective(s) clearly given? b) Were approach(es) stated? c) Can the approach(es) be justified? Literature Review (Review of the Previous Studies)

 Literature review is important because they are sources of past research data and current information.

 Note that research success dependent on literature validity.

 Past work related to the topic must be referenced.

 Key papers and reports and specific information which you used should be referenced. Check: a) Were past work related to the project referenced? b) Were key papers and reports (and specific information which you used) referenced? Literature Search (computer aided) 1) Web Science (ISU) 2) www.osti.gov/energycitations 3 www.osti.gov/rdprojects

CE 1120 Technical Writing

13

4) www.osti.gov/eprints 5) www.scienceaccelerator.gov Methods (Procedures, Approaches) Accuracy and completeness of the methods/techniques used must be described. Check: a) Did you check for accuracy of techniques? b) Did you measure what you thought you measured? c) Did you look for interferences that might affect results? d) How complete are the procedures? Results

 The data may be presented in either tables or figures.

 The data must fit the statement of the problem(s) addressed in the report.

 When a graph is developed, numerical data in a tabular form may be attached (in appendix). Check: a) Are data presented? b) Do graphs show actual data points? c) Does the data fit the statement of problem? Discussion

 The discussion must be logical, relate to the data presented, and complete.

 The discussion must tie the current research together with past research cited earlier in the literature review section.

ChecK: a) Does the discussion related to the data presented? b) Is the discussion logical? c) Does the discussion tie this current research together with past research cited earlier in paper? Conclusions

 Conclusions must be logical, and justified based on the data presented.

 Conclusions from your study must be clearly stated so the reader can be recognized. ChecK: a) Are the conclusions justified based on the data presented? b) Are the conclusions logical? c) Are the conclusions clearly stated so they can be recognized? References

CE 1120 Technical Writing

14

 Key papers/reports and specific information that you’ve used should be referenced.

 References should be organized by the authors and year (or by numbers) in the text, and listed in the references section in an alphabetical order (number).

 New papers (reports) should build on past paper so that one reference leads to next paper in sequence. ChecK:

a) Are past work (key papers) related to your research referenced? Appendix

 Photos, maps, etc may be attached in an appendix as supporting documents.

 A photo copy may be attached in an appendix as supporting documents. ___ Resources Author's Guide: Writing Style (ASCE) http://www.asce.org/Content.aspx?id=29594##styleguides The following publications can provide useful guidance in preparing your manuscript.

 For guidance on the mechanics of written communication, consult the current edition of The Chicago Manual of Style (University of Chicago Press).

 For spelling and word usage, consult the current editions of Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary and Webster’s International Dictionary, Unabridged.

 For rules of grammar and usage, refer to Words into Type (Prentice-Hall) or New York Public Library Writer’s Guide to Style and Usage (HarperCollins).

 For guidance on engineering terms, refer to McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, Wiley Dictionary of Civil Engineering and Construction, or Means Illustrated Construction Dictionary.

 For assistance in the presentation of mathematics, refer to Mathematics into Type (American Mathematical Society).

 For assistance with the use of SI (metric) units, refer to IEEE/ASTM SI-10, Standard for Use of the International System of Units (SI): The Modern Metric System or to Metric Units in Engineering: Going SI (ASCE Press).

Other Resources http://www.futurestate.com/assets/techwriting_guidelines.pdf Alley, Michael. The Craft of Scientific Writing. 3rd ed. New York: Springer-Verlag. 1996.

CE 1120 Technical Writing

15

Alred, Gerald J., Charles T. Brusaw, and Walter E. Oliu. Handbook of Technical Writing. 6th ed. Boston: Bedford/St. Martins. 2000. Blake, Gary and Robert W. Bly. The Elements of Technical Writing. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company. 1993. The Chicago Manual of Style. 14th ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 1993. Code of Ethics for Engineers. National Society of Professional Engineers. Standards of Professional Conduct for Civil Engineers. American Society of Civil Engineers. www.asce.org. The Chicago Manual of Style. 14th Edition. The University of Chicago Press, 1993. (The standard reference for published material.) The Craft of Scientific Writing. Alley, Michael. Third Edition. Springer-Verlag, 1996. (Easy-to-read, comprehensive discussion of what goes into a scientific report.) The Elements of Style. Strunk, William, Jr., and E.B. White. Third Edition. Allyn and Bacon, 1979. (Anyone who writes anything should read this little book. It is well written, easy to read, and packed with the essentials.) The Elements of Technical Writing. Blake, Gary and Robert W. Bly. Macmillan Publishing Company, 1993. (Written in the same style as The Elements of Style.) Envisioning Information. Tufte, Edward R. Graphics Press, 1990. (One of two excellent books by this author on using charts and graphs to enhance technical information.) The Handbook of Non-Sexist Writing. Miller, Casey. Barnes and Nobel Books, 1981. (Good overview of how to avoid gender-specific issues in technical writing.) Handbook of Technical Writing. Alred, Gerald J., Charles T. Brusaw, and Walter E. Oliu. St. Martin’s Press, 2000. (A well-known reference in the field and highly recommended.) Harbrace College Handbook. Harcourt Brace & Company, 1994. (Standard college grammar text; small and handy for quick reference.) Sin and Syntax. Hale, Constance. Broadway Books, 1999. (An easy-to-read book that uses literature and humor to enlighten us about grammar and usage.) The Visual Display of Quantitative Information. Tufte, Edward R. Graphics Press, 2001. (Our personal favorite of two excellent books by this author on using charts and graphs to enhance technical information.)