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Objectives: Uncertainty Reduction Theory (URT)

Goal (purpose) of URT
Concepts of URT
URT assumptions
Explanation of URT (axioms and theorems included)
Research generated from URT
How URT defines communication
What are URT’s metatheoretical assumptions?
Evaluating URT

Historical Perspective

Charles Berger and Richard Calabrese (1975)
Initial Interaction Theory
Seminal article: “Some explorations in initial interaction and beyond: Toward a developmental theory of interpersonal communication” (1975)

First interpersonal communication theory grounded in the discipline

Historical Perspective (cont’d)

Communication researchers were at the time interested in social interaction, self-presentation, and self-disclosure

URT was inspired by the work of several renowned researchers, including:
Leon Festinger (CDT, social comparison theory)
Fritz Heider (naïve psychology, attribution theory)
Kurt Lewin
Claude Shannon (information theory)
Warren Weaver

Goal of URT

To explain:
How uncertainty in initial encounters between strangers is reduced by communication

To predict:
Communication behavior of strangers in initial encounters

NOTE: URT is a laws theory

What are the theory’s boundary conditions?

Concepts of URT

Cognitions – beliefs and attitudes

Uncertainty:
cognitive uncertainty: doubts people harbor about their own beliefs/attitudes and those of others

behavioral uncertainty: doubts about their own actions as well as the actions of others
Relates to extent of predictability of behavior

Related Concepts

URT is related to these communication concepts:
Verbal output
Non-verbal warmth
Information seeking
Self disclosure
Reciprocity of disclosure
Similarity
Liking

Assumptions of URT

In interpersonal settings people experience uncertainty

Uncertainty is aversive resulting in cognitive tension (stress)

In initial encounters strangers are mainly concerned with reducing uncertainty

(increasing predictability)

Assumptions of URT (cont’d)

Interpersonal communication is developmental (entry, personal, and exit phases)

The main way to reduce uncertainty is through interpersonal communication

The amount and type of information people share changes with time

Behavior can be predicted in a law-like manner

Explanation of URT

When strangers meet, they are unsure about their own thoughts (cognitive uncertainty) and actions (behavioral uncertainty) and those of others. Because the uncertainty is aversive, people are motivated to reduce it through communication, so that they are better able to explain and predict their own actions and those of others.

URT Axioms & Theorems

The original URT has 7 axioms and 21 theorems

Axiom: self-evident or universally recognized truth” (www.thefreedictionary.com)

Theorem:“general proposition not self-evident but proved by a chain of reasoning; a truth established by means of accepted truths”
(www.oxforddictionaries.com)

URT Axioms

Axiom 1: Given the high level of uncertainty present at the onset of the entry phase, as the amount of verbal communication between strangers increases, the level of uncertainty for each interactant in the relationship will decrease. As uncertainty is further reduced, the amount of verbal communication will increase.

uncertainty

verbal communication

negative relationship

URT Axioms

Axiom 2: As nonverbal affliliative expressive-ness increases, uncertainty levels will decrease in an initial interaction situation. In addition, decreases in uncertainty level will cause increases in nonverbal affiliative expressive-ness.

nonverbal affiliative exp.

negative relationship

uncertainty

URT Axioms

Axiom 3: High levels of uncertainty cause increases in information seeking behavior. As uncertainty levels decline, information seeking behavior decreases.

information seeking

uncertainty

positive

relationship

URT Axioms

Axiom 4: High levels of uncertainty in a relationship cause decrease in the intimacy level of communication content. Low levels of uncertainty produce high levels of intimacy.

uncertainty

negative relationship

intimacy level of comm. content

URT Axioms

Axiom 5: High levels of uncertainty produce high rates of reciprocity. Low levels of uncertainty produce low reciprocity rates.

reciprocity

uncertainty

positive

relationship

URT Axioms

Axiom 6: Similarities between persons reduce uncertainty, while dissimilarities produce increases in uncertainty.

uncertainty

similarity

negative

relationship

URT Axioms

Axiom 7: Increases in uncertainty level produce decrease in liking; decreases in uncertainty level produce increases in liking.

liking

uncertainty

negative

relationship

URT Axioms Summary Table

West & Turner (2010, p. 155)

Development of URT Theorems

Deductive logic: if A is related to B, and B is related to C, then A is related to C

Berger and Calabrese used every possible pair of the 7 axioms to develop the 21 theorems.

A theorem is formed by pairing two axioms. Use the rule of how positives and negatives are multipled to come up with the theorems:

* negative X positive = negative

* negative X negative = positive

* positive X positive = positive

Development of URT Theorems

Axiom 1

Axiom 2

Theorem 1

uncertainty

verbal communication

negative relationship

Nonverbal affiliative exp.

negative relationship

uncertainty

verbal communication

Nonverbal affiliative exp.

positive

relationship

Development of URT Theorems

Axiom 2

Axiom 3

Theorem 1

nonverbal affiliative exp.

negative relationship

uncertainty

information seeking

uncertainty

positive

relationship

nonverbal affiliative exp.

information seeking

negative relationship

URT Theorems Summary Table

West & Turner (2010, p. 156)

URT Related Research: Expansions

URT expanded and modified:
Additional axioms:

Axiom 8: Negative relationship between uncertainty and interaction with social networks of the other person

Axiom 9: Negative relationship between uncertainty and communication satisfaction

Antecedent conditions (Berger, 1979)
When there is potential to reward or punish
When the other person behaves contrary to expectations
When future interaction is expected

URT Related Research: Expansions

Uncertainty reduction strategies:

Passive

Active

Interactive

Uncertainty acceptance (established relationships)

Developed relationships (beyond initial encounter)

Context (e.g., uncertainty reduction in different cultures)

Additional URT Expansions

Uncertainty avoidance theory (Hofstede, 1991)
Uncertainty management theory (Brashers, 2001)
Anxiety-uncertainty management theory (Gudykunst, 1995)

Implications & Applications of URT

Romantic relationships
Intercultural settings
Conflict management
Family studies
International business
Information-seeking
Social networking
Computer mediated communication
Organizational communication
Group decision-making
Mass communication

Criticisms of URT

Utility
Alternative explanations (for primary motivation)

e.g., Sunnafrank’s (1986) Theory of predicted outcome value

Validity
Axiom 3 (regarding information-seeking)

How Does URT Define Communication?

Intentional?
Correspondence?
Successful?
Ethical? Honest?
Symbolic actions?
Cognition, thought, perception?
Human to human?

What are URT’s
Metatheoretical Assumptions?

Ontological?
Do humans make real choices?
Is human experience basically individual or social?
Is human experience contextualized?
Epistemological?
Axiological?

Theoretical Continuum of
Scientific vs. Humanistic Approaches
to the Study of Communication

Objective knowledge
Search for regularity in communication behavior
Systematic observation of communication behaviors
Knowledge gained through empirical means
Goals of explanation, prediction, and control

Scientific <-----------------------------------> Humanistic

Some knowledge is subjective
Focus on individuals and how they create meaning
Non-standardized methods
Knowledge gained through introspection and interpretation
Goals of understanding and social change