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Communication in Organizations
Gary L. Krebs George Mason University
Bridgepoint Education, Inc.
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VP of Learning Resources: Beth Aguiar
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ISBN 10: 1-9359664-6-4
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Contents
About the Author xi Acknowledgments xiii
Preface xv
Chapter 1 Introduction to the Process of Organizational Communication 1
Introduction 2
1.1 Communication in Modern Organizational Life 3
1.2 Organizations and Organizing 4
1.3 Hierarchical Levels of Organizing 6 Levels of Communication Approach 7 Power Approach 7
1.4 Interdependence and Synergy In Organizational Life 8 Formal Communication: Downward Communication 9 Formal Communication: Upward Communication 10 Formal Communication: Horizontal Communication 11 Informal Communication 11 The Perceptive Organizational Communicator 13 The Relationally Competent Organizational Communicator 14 The Team-Building Organizational Communicator 15 The Culturally Sensitive Organizational Communicator 16 Strategic Leadership in Organizations 18 Strategic Use of Media and Technologies in Organizational Life 20 Strategic Organizational Development 22 Strategic External Organizational Communication 23
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CONTENTS
Summary 25 Discussion Questions 26 Key Terms 26
Chapter 2 Human Communication Processes and Principles 29
Introduction 30
2.1 Human Communication Defined 31 What Are Messages? 31 What Are Meanings? 32 Encoding and Decoding 33
2.2 Key Principles of Human Communication 34 Principle 1: Communication Is a Process 34 Principle 2: Communication Is Irreversible 34 Principle 3: Communication Is Transactional 35 Principle 4: Communication Includes Both Content and Relationship Dimensions 35
2.3 Verbal and Nonverbal Messages In Organizational Life 37 Verbal Communication Systems 38
Jargon 38 Denotative and Connotative Meanings 38 Overcoming Challenges 39 Semantics, Syntactics, and Pragmatics 39
Nonverbal Communication Systems 40 Paralinguistics 40 Oculesics 41 Kinesics 42 Proxemics 43 Artifactics 44 Tactilics 45 Chronemics 46
2.4 Coordinating Verbal and Nonverbal Communication 47
Summary 50 Discussion Questions 50 Key Terms 51
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CONTENTS
Chapter 3 Individual Factors in Organizational Communication 53
Introduction 54
3.1 Intrapersonal Communication and the Psychology of Self 55 Self-Image 55 Extroversion and Introversion 56 Our Psychological Set: Beliefs, Attitudes, and Values 57 Locus of Control and Self-Efficacy 60 Empathy 60 Emotional States 60 Making Use of Psychological Factors 61
3.2 The Selective Perception Process 63
Summary 68 Discussion Questions 68 Key Terms 69
Chapter 4 Relational Processes in Organizational Life 71
Introduction 72
4.1 The Complexities of Interpersonal Communication 73 The Centrality of the Dyad 74 The Implicit Contracts That Guide Interpersonal Relationships 76
4.2 Relationship Initiation, Development, and Maintenance 78 Relationship Initiation: Self-Disclosure and Reciprocity 78 Relationship Development and Maintenance 79 Complementary and Parallel Relationships 80
4.3 Key Relational Communication Skills 82 Active Listening 82 Self-Disclosure Skills 83 Affection, Control, and Inclusion 83
Affection 84 Control 84 Inclusion 85
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CONTENTS
Co-Orientation 87 Interpersonal Conflict Management Skills 87
Step 1: Focus on the Other Person’s Point of View 88 Step 2: Avoid the Hostility Trap and Stay Focused on the Issues at Hand 88 Step 3: Look for Commonalities between Your Perspectives 88
4.4 Ethical Relational Communication in Organizational Life 89
Summary 91 Discussion Questions 92 Key Terms 92
Chapter 5 Group Processes in Organizational Life 95
Introduction 96
5.1 Types of Groups in Organizations 97
5.2 Challenges to Working in Groups 97
5.3 The Value of Groups in Organizational Life 98 To Address Important, Complex, and Challenging Problems 98 To Promote Responsible and Ethical Decision Making 99 To Brainstorm 99
5.4 Groups as Social Systems: Systems Theory 101 Synergy and Nonsummativity 101 Hierarchy 102
5.5 Group Networks 103 Personal Networks 103 Leadership Roles 104 Support Roles 105
5.6 Building Effective Work Teams 105
5.7 Task and Maintenance Functions 107
5.8 Managing Group Conflict 110 Guidelines for Managing Group Conflict 110 Metacommunication 111
5.9 Decision Making in Groups 111
Summary 116 Discussion Questions 117 Key Terms 117
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CONTENTS
Chapter 6 Culture and Organizational Communication 121
Introduction 122
6.1 Organizational Culture 123 Strong Culture Organizations 123 Communicating Organizational Culture 126
6.2 Organizational Communication Across Cultures 128 Types of Cultural Identity 128 Cultural Norms 129
6.3 Cultural Variation and Organizational Communication 130 Cross-Cultural and Multicultural Approaches to Intercultural Communication 130
The Cross-Cultural Communication Approach 130 The Multicultural Communication Approach 132 Combining Approaches 132
Discovering Culture through Organizational Communication 134
6.4 Valuing Diversity to Promote Multicultural Synergy 135 The Cultural Ideologies Model 136
The Ideology of Cultural Segregation 136 The Ideology of Naïve Integration 137 The Ideology of Pluralistic Integration 137
Summary 140 Discussion Questions 140 Key Terms 141
Chapter 7 Effective Organizational Leadership 143
Introduction 144
7.1 Leadership and Communication 145 Natural-Born Leaders? 146 The Leadership Hierarchy 146 Vertical Communication Channels 148 Horizontal Communication Channels 149
7.2 Formal and Informal Leadership 149 The Grapevine 150 Conflicting Messages 151
7.3 Management versus Leadership 152
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CONTENTS
7.4 Leadership and Credibility 153 Expertise 153 Trustworthiness 154 Charisma 154
7.5 Verbal and Nonverbal Communication and Leadership 156
7.6 Key Models of Leadership 157 The Theory X and Theory Y Models of Leadership 158 The Leadership Styles Model 159 The Situational Model of Leadership 160 The Task and Relationship Models of Leadership 160 Therapeutic Communication and Leadership 163
Summary 166 Discussion Questions 167 Key Terms 167
Chapter 8 Organizational Media and Information Technologies 171
Introduction 172
8.1 Mediated Channels 173 Advantages of Mediated Channels 173 Disadvantages of Mediated Channels 174
8.2 Print and Text-Based Media 176 Encoding and Decoding 177 Time and Attention 178 Selective Perception 178 The Importance of Reading Skills 179 The Importance of Design and Message Testing 179 Improving Organizational Writing 181
8.3 Telephonic Media 182 Advantages to Telephonic Communication 182 Disadvantages to Telephonic Communication 182 Telephone Etiquette 183
8.4 Video-Based Media 184 Videoconferencing 184 The Effectiveness of Video Programs 185
8.5 Computer Media 185 Company Websites 186 Special Issues Related to Organizational Computing 186 Computer Etiquette and Security 188 Social Media 188
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CONTENTS
8.6 Mobile Media 189
8.7 Media Convergence 189
Summary 193 Discussion Questions 194 Key Terms 194
Chapter 9 Communication and Organizational Development 197
Introduction 198
9.1 Balancing Innovation and Stability in Organizational Life 199
9.2 Weick’s Model of Organizing and Organizational Adaptation 202 Rules and Communication Cycles 203 Requisite Variety 205 Communication Phases 205
Enactment Phase 206 Selection Phase 206 Retention Phase 207
Feedback Loops 207 Gathering Organizational Intelligence 209
9.3 Communication and the Process of Organizational Development 210 The Nature of Organizational Development 211 Organizational Reflexivity 211 Performance Gaps and Slack Resources 212 Being Proactive 213
9.4 Organizational Development and Organizational Effectiveness 213 Output Measures of Effectiveness 213 Process Measures of Effectiveness 214 Combining Productivity and Process 215
Summary 218 Discussion Questions 218 Key Terms 219
Chapter 10 Communicating within Interorganizational Fields 221
Introduction 222
10.1 The Interorganizational Field 223 Information-Gathering Activities 224 Information-Giving Activities 224
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CONTENTS
10.2 External Organizational Communication Activities 225 Public Relations 225 Lobbying 227 Marketing and Advertising 227
10.3 The Small-World Phenomenon 231
10.4 The Relevant Environment 231
10.5 The Interorganizational Field and Systems Hierarchy 233
10.6 Boundary-Spanning Activities 234
10.7 Relationship Development and Interorganizational Communication 236
10.8 Ethical Dimensions of External Organizational Communication 237
Summary 240 Discussion Questions 241 Key Terms 242
Glossary 245
Photo Credits 261
References 265
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About the Author
Gary L. Kreps is a University Distinguished Professor and Chair of the Department of Communication at George Mason University. He teaches undergraduate and graduate courses in communication research, health communication, organizational communica- tion, consumer-provider health communication, health communication campaigns, and E-health communication.
Dr. Kreps received his BA and his MA in Communication from the University of Colo- rado, Boulder, and his PhD from the University of Southern California.
Dr. Kreps’s areas of expertise include health communication and promotion, informa- tion dissemination, organizational communication, information technology, multicultural relations, risk/crisis management, health informatics, and applied research methods.
He is the director of the Center for Health and Risk Communication, serves on the govern- ing board of the Center for Social Science Research, and is a faculty affiliate of the National Center for Biodefense and Infectious Diseases, the Center for Health Policy & Ethics, the Center for the Study of International Medical Policies and Practices, the Climate Change Communication Center, the Center for Consciousness & Transformation, and the Center for Health Information Technology at George Mason.
Prior to his appointment at Mason, he served for five years as the founding chief of the Health Communication and Informatics Research Branch at the National Cancer Institute (NIH), where he planned, developed, and coordinated major new national research and outreach initiatives concerning risk communication, health promotion, behavior change, technology development, and information dissemination to promote effective cancer pre- vention, screening, control, care, and survivorship. He has also served as the founding dean of the School of Communication at Hofstra University in New York, executive direc- tor of the Greenspun School of Communication at UNLV, and in faculty and administra- tive roles at Northern Illinois, Rutgers, Indiana, and Purdue Universities.
His published work includes more than 350 books, articles, and monographs concerning the applications of communication knowledge in society.
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Acknowledgments
The publisher would like to thank the many reviewers who provided helpful feedback on the manuscript. Also, we would like to especially thank Mark Braun of Augustana College and David Lapakko of Augsburg College for their editorial assistance including writing the Organizations in Action boxes.
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Preface
This text provides a comprehensive review and analysis of the multifaceted roles per- formed by communication in modern organizational life. It takes a strongly applied focus on specific communication roles, processes, and policies that can inform organizational practices and promote desired individual and organizational outcomes.
Case studies appear at the end of each chapter that provide the reader with an opportu- nity to see chapter concepts in action. These case studies examine communication con- cepts in organizations from a wide variety of fields including accounting, real estate, software development, higher education, student groups, community organizations, and even the National Football League. In addition, each chapter includes Organizations in Action boxes that highlight businesses, agencies, and other organizations such as NASA, BP, Apple, Costco, Twitter, and others.
Outline
Chapter 1: Introduction to the Process of Organizational Communication
This chapter examines the powerful roles that communication performs in modern orga- nizational life. It describes the complexities of organizational communication processes and the need for strategic communication to build efficient, effective, adaptive, and ethical organizational environments.
Chapter 2: Human Communication Processes and Principles
This chapter describes the key elements, processes, and channels for organizational com- munication. Basic interdependent hierarchical levels of organizational communication are delineated, including intrapersonal communication, interpersonal communication, group communication, multi-group communication, and interorganizational communi- cation. The chapter explores the coordinated use of verbal and nonverbal communication as a critical component of communication competence. The chapter also examines coordi- nated use of multiple communication channels from face-to-face interaction to computer- mediated communication.
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PREFACE
Chapter 3: Individual Factors in Organizational Communication
This chapter explores the key individual, intrapersonal, psychological, and personal- ity factors organizational participants bring to organizational life and that influence organizational communication. Self-image is examined as a critical individual factor that influences organizational communication. The process of selective perceptionis examined to elucidate the idiosyncratic ways that individuals perceive organizational phenomena. The individual processes of encoding (creating messages) and decoding (interpreting messages) are examined to illustrate the idiosyncratic aspects of human communication.
Chapter 4: Relational Processes in Organizational Life
This chapter focuses on the centrality of interpersonal relationships and relationship development as the basic building blocks in establishing effective, cooperative, and ethi- cal organizations. The process of relationship initiation, development, and maintenance is explored. Strategies for developing effective listening skills as well as giving and receiving feedback will be described. Key relational communication topics such as self-disclosure, adaption, co-orientation, relational balance, reciprocity, and conflict managementare be explored.
Chapter 5: Group Processes in Organizational Life
This chapter examines the ubiquitous nature of group work in organizational life. The many complexities of and challenges to working effectively in groups within organiza- tions are described. Team building and teamwork are carefully examined, particularly within the context of group decision making. The emergence and evolution of unique group roles is explored within the context of personal, professional, and social networks. Group processes and roles needed for making good group decisions and reaching impor- tant organizational outcomes are explored.
Chapter 6: Culture and Organizational Communication
This chapter examines the pervasive influences of culture on communication in organi- zations. The growing diversity of organizational life and the need for harmonious inter- cultural relations is explored. The complexity of cultural variation will be explicated to identify the many levels of culture that influence expectations and activities. National, ethnic, racial, religious, socioeconomic, geographic, age-based, and gender-based cul- tural influences on organizing will be explored. The communication factors that can be used to help establish effective communication climates and organizational cultures are described. Communication strategies for enhancing organizational cultures to promote cooperation and satisfaction in organizational life are described.
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CONTENTS
Chapter 7: Effective Organizational Leadership
This chapter provides a careful examination of the development of effective organizational leadership skills. Differences between management and leadership skills are explored. Key models for leadership emergence and strategy are described, including the impor- tance of developing situational leadership skills for meeting the unique and changing demands of organizational life. Formal and informal leadership are described as factors within formal and informal organizational communication systems. Strategies are given for helping leaders coordinate formal and informal communication systems, including responding to rumors and the grapevine.
Chapter 8: Organizational Media and Information Technologies
This chapter examines the growing dependence on a broad range of traditional and new communication media and technologies in modern organizational life. Relative strengths and deficits of using different communication channels and media are described to help students make informed decisions about how best to use communication tools to achieve organizational goals. Strategies for coordinating the use of traditional communication with newer digital, mobile, and social media are provided. Strategies for building techno- logically adaptive organizations that are prepared for the development and introduction of new communication media, technologies, and software are described.
Chapter 9: Communication and Organizational Development
This chapter will examine the importance of using organizational communication pro- cesses to evaluate organizational performances and direct organizational renewal. The use of strategic feedback mechanisms to identify deficits and emerging problems in orga- nizing processes will be described. The process of ongoing organizational development will be described as a strategy for adapting to emerging organizational constraints and enhancing organizational processes and policies. Communication intervention strategies, including introduction of new training programs, internal public relations efforts, job redesign, reinvention, restructuring, and consolidation are examined as unique opportu- nities for improving organizational performance.
Chapter 10: Communicating within Interorganizational Fields
This chapter examines the importance of coordinating organizing activities with other relevant organizations within the larger interorganizational field. Typical constituent members of interorganizational fields are described, including supplying organizations, regulating organizations, competing organizations, as well as organizational customers and other stakeholders. Strategies for establishing effective cooperative relationships with representatives of these interdependent organizations are examined.
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