dq Question

Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should be able to

• Conduct a quality job analysis

• Write job descriptions and job specifications that can be conducive to effective recruitment, selec- tion, training, performance appraisals, and compensation design and implementation

• Design jobs that can enhance employee motivation, morale, productivity, and retention

• Link job analysis and job design to the strategic HRM process

• Discuss emerging trends, opportunities, and challenges in job analysis and job design

Job Analysis and Job Design

3

Peter Dazeley/Photagrapher’s Choice/Getty Images

you66162_03_ch03_p055-080.indd 55 1/31/12 8:39 AM

CHAPTER 3Section 3.1 Job Analysis

In chapter 2, you had the opportunity to learn about strategic HR planning and the importance of analyzing an organization’s external and internal environments. This analysis makes it possible to set and achieve HR goals and objectives that are relevant, aligned to those of the organization, and therefore conducive to its success and effective- ness. However, those plans should be translated into specific tasks to be performed before HR can implement its strategic plans through recruitment, selection, compensation, train- ing, and performance management. These tasks can then be grouped into jobs for which people can be recruited, selected, and trained.

Job analysis and job design are critical for the success of subsequent HRM stages. In job design, HR managers identify organizational goals and objectives and translate them into relevant tasks and responsibilities, which are then grouped into roles and job positions. These job positions are subsequently integrated into departments or business units to cre- ate the organizational structure, which becomes the vehicle or system through which the organization operates. This system helps the organization achieve its strategic, tactical, and operational goals and objectives.

HR managers need to establish a formal and powerful data-gathering system both to col- lect information about different jobs and to utilize the gathered information in creating job descriptions and specifications. This system makes it possible to effectively design and structure jobs, departments, business units, and the organization as a whole. These are the processes involved in job analysis, which is discussed in the next section. Figure 3.1 summarizes job analysis and job design as components of the strategic HRM process and provides a framework for this chapter.

3.1 Job Analysis

Job analysis can be defined as the methodology through which HR collects and evalu-ates information pertaining to a particular job’s content and human requirements. The data gathered during the job analysis process is used as a resource for creating a job’s description and specification.

Job analysis serves many purposes. Its main purpose is to create a standard or a bench- mark that can be used in various HR activities, such as

• job planning • recruiting • compensation and performance evaluation • assessing human capabilities • determining disciplinary decisions in case of employee misconduct (Minton-

Eversole, 2006)

Job analysis also provides a clear understanding of the job duties, skills, and capabilities necessary to deliver the desired job outcomes. This understanding is important for match- ing the right people to jobs and enhancing organizational performance. Job analysis is also extremely important in making it possible to recognize job aspects related to health and safety, potential personnel injury, and other relevant physical job demands (Keyserling, Ulin, Lincoln, & Baker 2003). Furthermore, job analysis enhances employee interaction and labor relations, which can eliminate many personnel challenges.

you66162_03_ch03_p055-080.indd 56 1/31/12 8:39 AM

CHAPTER 3Section 3.1 Job Analysis

Figure 3.1: Job analysis and job design

Job specifications

Designing job

dimensions

Data analysis

Job descriptions

Data collection

Strategic HR planning

Job analysis and job design

Attraction and recruitment of

talent

Selection and job fit

Performance appraisal/

management

Training and development

Compensation

Benefits and benefit

administration

you66162_03_ch03_p055-080.indd 57 1/31/12 8:39 AM

CHAPTER 3Section 3.1 Job Analysis

Job analysis is critical to the suc- cessful completion of tasks and responsibilities and, ultimately, to the success of the entire orga- nization. HR managers, as well as executives and line manag- ers, must therefore actively work hand in hand to ensure that job analysis is performed successfully. In most large organizations, HR carries out the roles of job analysis—cre- ating, periodically reviewing, and updating job descriptions and job specifications based on internal feedback from executives and line manag- ers. HR also performs external benchmarking and additional

research on comparable jobs in other organizations, even seeking expertise from specialized organizations if necessary. Executives and line managers then review the outcomes of the job analysis process, especially the job descriptions and job specifications created by HR, validating their accuracy and providing further feedback. Several iterations of the process may ensue until the most accurate job descriptions and job specifications are formulated.

Types of job analysis

There are two distinct types of job analysis. The first approach is task-based job analysis, and it mostly focuses on the duties and responsibilities that a job includes. The second approach is competency-based job analysis; it emphasizes the qualities and requirements needed to effectively carry out a job.

The task-based job approach is used more widely. It relies on defining and clearly estab- lishing all the tasks, duties, and responsibilities associated with the performance of a job. Several terms that are utilized in the task-based job approach are worth highlighting:

• A task is any particular job activity that comprises actions, motions, or movements.

• A duty reflects a broader set of activities, composed of multiple tasks that an indi- vidual carries out.

• Responsibility is an individual’s commitment to execute particular tasks and duties relevant to his or her job.

However, it is often difficult to separate tasks, duties, and responsibilities. Task-based job analyses can vary widely in their complexity and detail. For example, the California State Personnel Board offers elaborate guidelines for conducting job analyses. In the first Web link below, a sample is provided for a “staff services analyst” position. As you can see, multiple approaches and data sources are utilized to yield an accurate and comprehensive perspective on what the job entails. These approaches and data sources are discussed in more detail throughout this chapter.

istockphoto/Thinkstock

Job analysis includes evaluating the criteria, including physical requirements, necessary to perform a job.

you66162_03_ch03_p055-080.indd 58 1/31/12 8:39 AM

CHAPTER 3Section 3.1 Job Analysis

WEB LINKS

California State Personnel Board: Sample Job Analysis Report: spb.ca.gov/ WorkArea/downloadasset.aspx?id=2568

Occupational Safety and Health Administration: Job Hazard Analysis Booklet: http://www.osha.gov/Publications/osha3071.pdf

Also critical to job analysis is the analysis of a job’s health and safety hazards. The Occu- pational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) provides detailed guidelines for ana- lyzing those hazards. The second link below gives you access to these guidelines, which also include examples of hazard analyses on pages 9 through 11. The appendices also include a comprehensive list of common hazards and their descriptions, as well as hazard control measures.

In contrast to task-based job analyses, a competency-based job analysis focuses on individ- ual or team capabilities in terms of required skill sets, technical expertise, and the extent of knowledge that can be applied to improve performance. HR uses competency-based job analysis for three major reasons:

1. to communicate desirable values and create a favorable, positive culture within the organization

2. to motivate employees to raise their performance levels by enhancing their competencies

3. to highlight the need for individuals to continuously strive to develop their capabilities and skills in ways that translate into and are aligned with giving the organization a competitive edge in the market

Two types of competencies are observed in competency-based analysis:

1. Technical competency focuses on specific technical expertise, knowledge, spe- cialization, and skills that an employee possesses and that differentiate him or her from others.

2. Behavioral competency includes such aspects of an individual as personality traits, interpersonal skills, and character dimensions. Some of these human aspects are the ability to work within a group, leadership and managerial capabilities, dispute resolution skills, multitasking capacity, decision-making ability, commu- nication skills, adaptability and responsiveness to change in the work environ- ment, creativity and innovation, and the ability to identify and pursue goals in an systematic manner.

A competency-based analysis also uses a myriad of tools that facilitate disclosing other personal aspects that are critical for job performance but not obvious—e.g., work attitudes.

In most cases, choosing a particular job analysis approach is directly related to the type of job being analyzed and to potential trends and variations in the job. For instance, a project-based

you66162_03_ch03_p055-080.indd 59 1/31/12 8:39 AM

CHAPTER 3Section 3.1 Job Analysis

job will require unique tech- nical and personal skill sets if teams and tasks are constantly changing. The capacity to adapt swiftly to job changes will be more important in this situa- tion than in a traditional job. As an example, the U.S. Office of Personnel Management adopts both task-based and compe- tency-based job analyses. The first link below provides access to a handbook that describes the U.S. Office of Personnel Management’s elaborate job analysis process, along with numerous examples of the tasks, duties, responsibilities, and technical and behavioral competencies of a wide range of jobs. The other two links provide additional information, examples, and forms that can be used to conduct high-quality job analyses.

WEB LINKS

U.S. Office of Personnel Management Handbook: http://www.opm.gov/ hiringtoolkit/docs/jobanalysis.pdf

State of Delaware: Job Analysis Questionnaire: www.delawarepersonnel.com/ class/forms/jaq/jaq_answersheet.doc

Department of the Navy: Overview of Job Analysis: http://www.public.navy.mil/ donhr/Employment/HiringReform1/Job%20Analysis%20Fact%20Sheet.pdf

Data sources for job analysis

Various sources of data can be used for the job analysis process, such as

• observation • interviews • questionnaires • computerized systems • U.S. Department of Labor (DOL) information

The observation method requires observing a worker while he or she is performing the job to obtain first-hand knowledge about the job’s tasks and duties. The observation method is more beneficial for jobs that are observable and repetitive; nevertheless, it is always bet- ter to use a combination of different methods.

Belinda Images/SuperStock

Technical competency analysis focuses on the specific expertise and skills an employee possesses.

you66162_03_ch03_p055-080.indd 60 1/31/12 8:39 AM

CHAPTER 3Section 3.1 Job Analysis

There are two types of observation:

1. Work sampling is a quick analysis that helps managers ascertain the tasks involved in a job, as well as the time spent on each of them. This statistical technique focuses on specific activities, and numerous observations are made at different times throughout an entire work cycle.

2. The employee diary or log does not require any analyst observation of the worker. Instead, employees are asked to record all job-related duties they perform on the job. The drawback of this method is that an accurate log requires a great deal of time and effort, which divert workers’ efforts and thus negatively affect their performance.

The interview method gathers information by interviewing workers, and sometimes their supervisors. Interviews are an excellent source of information since they provide a first- hand account of the job from its incumbents or their managers. Nevertheless, the down- side of the interview method is that interviews also require a great deal of time, especially if the jobs being analyzed are managerial or professional and therefore quite complex.

Interviews can also be conducted for groups of participants called subject matter experts (SMEs), who have extensive knowledge of a job. SMEs can provide beneficial input for job analysis, especially for highly technical jobs. Group interviews, however, tend to be even more time consuming. If not carefully designed and managed, group interviews can also result in inaccurate information if some SMEs are allowed to dominate the conversation while oth- ers are unable to adequately share their expertise regarding the job in question.

The questionnaire method is another technique to analyze jobs. Analysts obtain information by preparing surveys with questions on such areas as the physical aspects of the jobs; its required characteristics; the types of duties performed and time spent on each; the degree of supervi- sion, whether given or received; job responsi- bilities; decision making; equipment used; and types of people dealt with on the job.

The questionnaire method has strengths and limitations. It does not require the time and resources other methods do; however, for it to yield accurate results, employees must be able to analyze and convey precise information about the job. Many employees lack these abilities; people’s perceptions and their analytical, com- munication, and writing skills vary widely. This variation can yield significant discrepancies in the quality of the information employees pro- vide in response to a questionnaire.

istockphoto/Thinkstock

Analysts may use the questionnaire method to obtain information about jobs through the use of surveys.

you66162_03_ch03_p055-080.indd 61 1/31/12 8:39 AM

CHAPTER 3Section 3.1 Job Analysis

There are two kinds of questionnaires:

• The position analysis questionnaire (PAQ) records details about a certain posi- tion. It tends to be oriented more toward workers by emphasizing the behavioral characteristics a given position requires.

• In contrast, managerial job analysis questionnaires are specialized for manage- rial positions and focus on such areas as decision making and leadership.

With the help of technology, it is now possible to have computerized job analysis sys- tems. These computerized systems are similar to paper questionnaires, except for their being computer-scannable documents. Each of the documents contains a set of general- ized duty statements so that it can apply to a variety of jobs. The documents’ data is then stored in a job analysis database for the purpose of studying, analyzing, and conveying significant information regarding jobs. Needless to say, technology made the process of job analysis and writing job descriptions easier and more efficient. However, as is the case with any computerized system, the value of computerized job analysis systems depends on the accuracy and timeliness of the data entered into them, as well as the effective utili- zation of that data to create meaningful information to facilitate decision making.

The U.S. Department of Labor (DOL) is another useful source for job analysis. Func- tional job analysis (FJA) is a tool available from the DOL and can be seen as a method- ology for gathering information about jobs. The FJA was mainly developed for the Dic- tionary of Occupational Titles (DOT), another tool to classify jobs. The FJA portrays what is done in a job through three scales: data, people, and things. The DOL also developed the database O*Net On-Line; it replaced the DOT and provides detailed descriptions of jobs. O*Net also contains numerous links to information associated with the workplace (“O*NET,” 2011).

As we can see, there are different methods for job analysis, each with its own advantages and disadvantages. It is therefore better and more effective to use a combination of meth- ods rather than just one. However, for any method it is very important that each step be documented thoroughly to provide continuity, inform future job analysis cycles, and avoid legal problems. The most important tangible “products” of the job analysis cycles are job descriptions and job specifications.

Job descriptions

A job description identifies characteristics of the job to be performed in terms of the tasks, duties, and responsibilities to be fulfilled. Job descriptions serve as a standard or a bench- mark for many HR matters such as compensation, performance evaluations, training needs assessments, and promotions. HR must provide each newly hired employee within the organization with a job description to highlight and stress the organization’s expecta- tions for him or her. In return, employees are expected to fully abide by and satisfy all the job requirements stated in the job description, and sometimes even exceed them.

It is essential that an organization’s job descriptions be created and maintained using a con- sistent and systematic approach. This approach can facilitate valid, reliable, and consistent decisions pertaining to HR matters. It is also critical that job descriptions undergo periodic

you66162_03_ch03_p055-080.indd 62 1/31/12 8:39 AM

CHAPTER 3Section 3.1 Job Analysis

evaluation and careful revisions to ensure that they are up to date and truly reflect the nature of the job, especially in light of today’s continuously changing business environment.

A job description has three main parts:

1. The identification section gives various introductory pieces of information, includ- ing job title, job department, chain of command and reporting, job location, job number, job grade, and the employee’s exempt or nonexempt status. It is also important that this section state any information that may assist HR in tracking employees and jobs through an HR database system.

2. The second main part of a job description is the general summary. This section provides a clear, concise statement that summarizes the particular job and differ- entiates it from others. It is highly recommended that this section be created after the successful completion of all other sections of the job description so that it can establish a broader view of the job.

3. A detailed list should also be included of all important and influential functions, tasks, duties, assignments, commitments, and responsibilities associated with the job. Because this section requires a great amount of detail, HR often spends the majority of the job analysis process on this section. In addition, poorly described jobs can result in potential legal implications.

It is common for the last item on this detailed list to be “other duties as required” or “addi- tional tasks as assigned by direct supervisor.” These open-ended statements recognize the volatility of the business environment, and they communicate the need for flexibility and adaptability in the employee’s being willing to do whatever it takes to get the job done. These statements also protect the organization from potential legal action should addi- tional tasks become necessary to fulfill a role beyond the tasks yielded during job analy- sis, until job descriptions can be updated at a subsequent cycle to reflect those additional tasks. Figure 3.2 shows a sample job description for a grocery store manager.

Job specifications

The terms job descriptions and job specifications are often used to refer to the same thing— probably because, as shown in Figure 3.2, they are often combined into one document. However, job descriptions and job specifications are different. A job description refers to the details of the roles, duties, and responsibilities associated with a certain job. In con- trast, a job specification describes the ideal person for the job. It is more oriented towards the type and level of knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs) required to perform the job or relevant to its performance:

• Knowledge refers to an individual’s familiarity and experience with the proce- dural details of the job; this is a key element in performing the job tasks and responsibilities.

• Skill highlights, reflects, and ranks the individual’s degree or ability to successfully perform the job. In other words, skill is a combination of knowledge and experience that an individual acquires over time through performing one job or a similar job.

• Ability is different from skill in its referring more to an individual’s general abilities.

you66162_03_ch03_p055-080.indd 63 1/31/12 8:39 AM

CHAPTER 3Section 3.1 Job Analysis

Other characteristics and traits help an individual carry out a job—e.g., motivation, per- sonal satisfaction, persistence, and the ability to maintain focus on targets and goals. Most of these factors are directly related to education, expertise, personal skills, and the techni- cal, physical, and mental abilities required to achieve satisfactory job performance.

It is vital to carefully examine and consider all aspects of KSAs in formulating job specifica- tions. The required KSAs can be determined from individuals performing the job, employ- ees managing the job or planning to execute the job, or on-the-job trainers and mentors.

Managers involved in selecting an individual for a particular job should pay close atten- tion to all elements of the job specification to precisely determine whether the character- istics of selected individuals satisfy the job specification. Just as with job descriptions,

Groceries for Less

Job Description

Job Identification

Job title: Store Manager Job Grade: 5 Status: Exempt Department: Operations Reports to: Operations Manager Supervises: Grades 6–8

Job Summary

Planning, organizing, leading, and controlling all store staff, resources, and operations to ensure efficiency, safety, and quality customer service

Tasks, Duties, and Responsibilities

• Supervises shift supervisors, customer service managers and representatives, cashiers, cleaning crew, and other personnel

• Performs inventory controls, including working closely with suppliers and stocking staff to ensure timely restocking and replacement of perishables, and maintaining physical controls to minimize spoilage and shrinkage

• Designs, coordinates, and communicates schedules on a weekly basis to ensure adequate staffing of all shifts

• Works with head office personnel to plan and implement marketing strategies, advertising campaigns, weekly sales, seasonal specials, and other store functions

• Leads the process of staffing and training all store personnel

• Conducts annual performance reviews for all store personnel, and makes salary and promotion recommendations

• Investigates and resolves customer complaints brought to his or her attention

• Enforces sanitary practices for food handling and general store cleanliness

• Complies with all health and safety regulations

• Reports accurate and timely store-level financial statements

• Performs other duties as assigned by management

Job Specification Minimum Qualifications

• Bachelor’s degree in Business Administration or related field

• Three years of managerial experience, preferably in retail

• Excellent communication, organization, leadership, time- and conflict-management skills

• Ability to multitask, work independently, and operate under pressure

Figure 3.2: Sample job description and job specification

you66162_03_ch03_p055-080.indd 64 1/31/12 8:39 AM

CHAPTER 3Section 3.2 Job Design

managers must conduct regular updates and revisions for job specifications to ensure their ongoing validity and relevance to the job.

3.2 Job Design

Job analysis and job design are not the same processes. Job analysis involves the iden-tification of a job’s duties and the skills a worker needs to carry them out effectively. In contrast, job design focuses on structuring jobs in a way that attracts talent and enhances sat- isfaction, both of which factors improve organi- zational efficiency and effectiveness, and there- fore enhance the job’s success (Liu, Shah, & Schroeder, 2006). Accordingly, the process of job design is broadly concerned with organizational needs, but it considers employees’ needs at the same time. Job design addresses four main areas:

• the efficiency of the job • organizational reasons for the job • human capabilities • behavioral considerations (Garg &

Rastogi, 2006)

The following sections address several approaches to job design.

Hackman & Oldham’s job characteristics model

The Hackman & Oldham (1976) job characteristics model highlights the core dimensions of a job that have a concurrent effect on both organizational efficiency and employees’ job satisfaction. Three psychological states must be in place to enhance and improve a worker’s performance, motivation and inspiration, and job satisfaction:

• meaningfulness of work • responsibility for outcomes • knowledge of results

Hackman and Oldham also identified five job characteristics that they believed to have a role in driving those three essential psychological states. These five job characteristics are

• skill variety • task identity • task significance • autonomy • feedback

PhotosIndia.com/Getty Images

Job specifications help HR managers find just the right person for a job.

you66162_03_ch03_p055-080.indd 65 1/31/12 8:40 AM

CHAPTER 3Section 3.2 Job Design

Skill variety is the degree to which the job incumbent uses a range of skills and talents. Task identity is the degree to which the job allows the incumbent to complete an identifiable work product and see clearly tangible or perceivable outcomes. Task significance refers to the extent to which the effect and contribu- tion of work can be seen. Auton- omy is the level of freedom and independence a worker is given regarding work schedules and the procedures used to com- plete the job. Last but not least is feedback, or the extent to which a worker is informed about his or her performance (De Varo, Li, & Brookshire, 2007; Hackman & Oldham, 1976).

According to Hackman and Oldham’s model, the more prominently these five job charac- teristics figure in a particular job, the more motivating and satisfying the job will be, since it will create and nurture the three desired psychological states. In particular, the first three job characteristics in Hackman and Oldham’s model (variety, identity, and signifi- cance) cumulatively influence the first psychological state (meaningfulness of work). This influence allows these three job characteristics to substitute for one another. For example, a highly specialized job can still be motivating and satisfying if it features high iden- tity and significance. On the other hand, the fourth characteristic (autonomy) influences the second psychological state (responsibility for outcomes) while the fifth characteristic (feedback) influences the third psychological state (knowledge of results). Thus, lack of autonomy or feedback is detrimental to a job.

Furthermore, the effect of the three psychological states is multiplicative: deficiencies in one state can be detrimental for the motivational potential of the whole job because these states cannot substitute for one another. For example, a highly meaningful job is not motivating if it provides no feedback to allow for knowledge of results, or if it provides no autonomy to facilitate perceptions of responsibility for outcomes. Hackman and Old- ham’s model can be summarized in the following equation:

motivational potential score of a job = (skill variety + task identity + task significance) ÷ 3 × autonomy × feedback

Comstock/Thinkstock

Knowledge of results is one of the three psychological states that must exist in order to enhance an employee’s performance.

you66162_03_ch03_p055-080.indd 66 1/31/12 8:40 AM

CHAPTER 3Section 3.2 Job Design

Job enlargement, enrichment, and rotation

In order to capture top talent, organizations must be able to offer inspiring and satisfying jobs. Job enlargement, enrichment, and rotation are some of the applications that follow the Hackman & Oldham model.

Job enlargement is the broadening of the types of tasks and responsibilities performed on the job; its purpose is to make a job more interesting and less monotonous. One way to enlarge jobs is through job rotation, or assigning employees to different jobs to increase the variety of activities performed. This rotation is intended to decrease the amount of boredom and make a job more interesting. Job enrichment differs from job enlargement in increasing the number of activities while also offering challenges of varying difficulty levels—empowering workers and making jobs more meaningful. Enrichment goes hand in hand with Frederic Herzberg’s two-factor theory that intrinsic factors, such as recogni- tion and responsibility, directly influence employees’ job satisfaction (Herzberg, Mausner, & Snyderman, 1993). Job enrichment seems to have the most impact on flexible workers who have the ability to adapt to change (Bond, Flaxman, & Bunce, 2008).

Flexible work schedules

HR can motivate and satisfy employees through multiple other approaches to job design— retaining employees within the organization and increasing their productivity, perfor- mance, and efficiency. Flexible work schedules are a prominent example of these design approaches. Flexible work schedules can be implemented through three methods:

1. Flextime is a scheduling system that requires employees to work during certain hours of the day. The system leaves employees free to choose their own activities during the remaining hours of the day. This system gives employees the freedom to fulfill personal duties and responsibilities and pursue other personal or family interests, which can reduce stress and work-life conflict and increase employee satisfaction.

2. Job sharing, as the name implies, allows two or more employees to perform the same job, with all its associated duties and responsibilities, on a part-time basis. This system allows the organization to retain valuable employees who have other personal obligations outside of work that prevent them from working full time. This system is highly dependent on the personalities, attitudes, skills, and work ethics of the part-time employees. It requires proper cooperation and coordina- tion to ensure that all the tasks, duties, and responsibilities are fully covered and seamlessly integrated. This system also requires excellent communication skills between the employees who share the job.

3. Telecommuting, also referred to as telework, allows employees to work from home or a location of their choice rather than in a designated office space. This system offers great advantages for many types of employees such as disabled employees with special needs, employees responsible for elderly family members, or employ- ees with children. In addition, telecommuting cuts commuting time, which boosts employees’ productivity and efficiency as a direct result of minimizing wasted time. Telecommuting also decreases overhead costs such as office expenses (Lister & Harnish, 2010). Most importantly, it gives employees significant amounts of

you66162_03_ch03_p055-080.indd 67 1/31/12 8:40 AM

CHAPTER 3Section 3.2 Job Design

independence and autonomy, which can be motivating. However, telecommuting can also have some disadvantages. For the organization and the supervisor, tele- commuting makes it difficult to control what, when, and how the employee does the work. These difficulties can compro- mise quality unless the employee is well trained or has an excellent work ethic, or unless other quality-control mecha- nisms are in place. For the employee, telecommuting can significantly reduce the frequency of social, professional, and even personal interactions, which can compromise the telecommuter’s psycho- logical well-being.

Team-based approaches to job design

The idea behind team-based approaches to job design is to increase synergy, or the collabora- tion of two or more entities (individuals, groups, or organizations)—resulting in bigger or better outcomes than the combination of the entities’ independent efforts would yield. Team-based approaches to job design can result in synergy due to complementary skills among group members. These approaches can also improve employee dedication to and alignment with organizational goals and objectives by pro- moting cooperation in the workplace. In addition, employees become more accepting of decisions in team settings (DuBrin, 2007). Furthermore, teamwork provides three of the five job characteristics identified by Hackman and Oldham: task identity, autonomy, and skill variety. These facts suggest that teamwork has a significant effect on employee moti- vation and satisfaction, as well as on organizational efficiency and success. On the other hand, the quality of teamwork also depends on the levels of commitment, maturity, and work ethics of the team members; the degree of complementarity of their skills and abili- ties; and the nature of the tasks at hand. Several team-based job design approaches are now becoming common in the workplace:

• In self-managing work teams, members handle some of the management issues such as hiring members, making decisions, and scheduling work. This process can affect their productivity and job satisfaction through their involvement in and direct control over a variety of important roles. Therefore, it is very impor- tant for organizations to provide team members with the necessary training that will help them perform their duties in self-managing teams.

• In a virtual team, members communicate in a virtual environment. Technology makes it possible for geographically dispersed people to work together toward a common goal. Virtual teams and telecommuting are often used in conjunction, and they share some of the same advantages and disadvantages. For example,

Keiji Iwai/Photographer’s Choice

Telecommuting is a good option for employees with young children at home.

you66162_03_ch03_p055-080.indd 68 1/31/12 8:40 AM

CHAPTER 3Section 3.2 Job Design

A MOMENT IN THE LIFE OF AN HR MANAGER ”This is not part of my job description”

Thorough job analyses and carefully designed jobs are extremely important for optimal efficiency and effectiveness, yet these formal and structured methods are rarely the ultimate factors that dictate what a job entails. The business environment changes rapidly, causing many jobs to evolve faster than can be captured by the job analysis process. Moreover, managers ultimately determine what, how, when, and by whom jobs get done. Employees’ strengths, weaknesses, and preferences can also have an impact on the allocation of tasks and responsibilities within an organization or a department—even across employees with the same job title. The same facts apply to teams. Roles often shift based on abilities, preferences, time availability, organizational politics, and who wants to work (or not work) with whom. Even job specifications may not be useful, because ultimately who gets hired for a job can be determined through organizational politics, the applicant’s presentation

virtual teamwork gives employees added flexibility and autonomy. However, team performance and morale may be compromised if some team members are not knowledgeable, committed, and mature, or if no adequate performance assessment and control mechanisms are in place. Virtual interactions can also lack some of the richness of face-to-face interaction. Global virtual teams face some unique challenges, such as language and cultural barriers and time differences.

• In an employee involvement group (EI), employees meet to discuss how to resolve job-related problems. They also discuss ongoing job issues such as improving quality and production effectiveness (Ayers, 2007). These suggestions are then presented to management, which decides which suggestions and proposals will be implemented based on merit, cost, practicality, success potential, and other strate- gic criteria. Through EI groups, employees get the opportunity to be recognized for their contributions towards achieving organiza- tional goals. How- ever, for employees to contribute effectively, it is necessary that they receive comprehensive training in the areas of problem identification and analysis, decision- making techniques, and critical thinking. They must also be technically knowledgeable or well trained in their areas of technical expertise.

Comstock/Thinkstock

Self-managing work teams take on some management issues such as making decisions and scheduling work.

you66162_03_ch03_p055-080.indd 69 1/31/12 8:40 AM

CHAPTER 3Section 3.3 Linking Job Analysis and Job Design to the HRM Process

3.3 Linking Job Analysis and Job Design to the HRM Process

As you know by now, strategic HRM emphasizes enhancing organizational pro-ductivity and helping organizations gain and sustain human-based competitive advantages. These advantages are realized by formulating steps toward the acqui- sition and effective deployment of human capital to achieve organizational goals. In chap- ter 2, you learned about HR planning, which ensures that an organization has an adequate supply of qualified labor to implement its goals and plans. In this chapter, job analysis and job design are the processes through which HR planning is fleshed out into the specific tasks and responsibilities necessary for individuals and groups to contribute toward an organization’s planned goals. Thus, job analysis and design are crucial to organizational success, and the way these activities are carried out is very important.

skills and ability to make a positive impression, the pool of available applicants, and the financial resources available to hire and compensate the person who will take the job. Therefore, since we live in an imperfect business world, why should HR managers spend time on job descriptions, job specifications, and all those time-consuming job analysis and job design activities? Consider the fol- lowing three articles for humorous but insightful perspectives.

WEB LINKS

This Is Not in My Job Description (Lewis, 2009): http://workawesome.com/career/ this-is-not-in-my-job-description/

That’s NOT in My Job Description (Gerdes, 2011): http://blogs.wsj.com/juggle/2011/ 05/09/thats-not-in-my-job-description/

When ‘It’s Not My Job’ Isn’t the Answer (Dacri, 2005): http://business.mainetoday.com/ yourbusiness/051111dacri.shtml

Discussion Questions

1. Do you think that employers should require their employees to go beyond their job descrip- tions? Why? Why not?

2. Regardless of your answer to Question 1, why do you think employers now expect their employees to go above and beyond their immediate job tasks, duties, and responsibilities?

3. Based on these new expectations, what are some critical KSAs and competencies that employ- ees should now have in the workplace in order to become more successful?

4. What are some ways that you can intentionally develop the requisite KSAs and competen- cies that can enable you to meet these new expectations and build a competitive edge as an employee?

5. Optional: Share with the class the strangest or least expected thing your manager ever asked you to do. How did you handle the situation? What was the outcome? What did you learn? Also give feedback and insights to your classmates on how you would have taken a different approach to the situations they faced.

you66162_03_ch03_p055-080.indd 70 1/31/12 8:40 AM

CHAPTER 3Section 3.3 Linking Job Analysis and Job Design to the HRM Process

EYE ON THE GOAL ”The strategic value of designing engaging jobs”

Research by Gallup, a well-known polling and business-consulting organization, shows that it is extremely important to design jobs that are motivating, satisfying, and engaging to employees and that can yield significant positive organizational outcomes. For example, a meta-analytical study of 7,939 business units in 36 companies examined the relationship between employee satisfaction and engagement at the business unit level and the highly desirable organizational outcomes of cus- tomer satisfaction, productivity, profit, employee turnover, and accidents. The study found those relationships to be statistically significant and of substantial business value and practical value (Har- ter, Schmidt, & Hayes, 2002).

Through job analysis, organizations become better able to match the right people to the right jobs through developing a clearer understanding of what jobs entail as well as what skills and talents employees must have to perform their duties effectively. Job analysis also facilitates other HRM processes, such as training and development, compensation, and performance evaluation. For example, the cycle of updating job descriptions and job specifications can be used as a foundation for training needs assessment. This assessment can trigger training initiatives to better equip current employees with new KSAs that may have become necessary to perform their roles more effectively. Job specifications also pro-

vide the means for direct com- parisons across jobs, in terms of the KSAs required for com- pensation purposes, so that the right talent can be attracted and retained. Job descriptions also serve as the basis for per- formance appraisals: they com- municate up front the expec- tations the employee will be accountable for.

As discussed earlier, job design is critical for employee satis- faction and motivation. Offer- ing attractive jobs that meet employees’ needs can help organizations attract and retain top talent. When aligned with organizational goals through careful HR planning and job

analysis, job design can be leveraged to satisfy organizational needs as well as employ- ees’ needs. For example, highly knowledgeable and mature employees can be motivated through added autonomy and leadership responsibilities, which can satisfy their needs for growth and self-actualization. On the other hand, less experienced employees can be offered more task variety while they are trained, developed, and mentored by more expe- rienced employees.

imagebroker.net/SuperStock

Job analysis helps give an organization a clear picture of the skills needed to perform a job.

you66162_03_ch03_p055-080.indd 71 1/31/12 8:40 AM

CHAPTER 3Section 3.4 Opportunities, Challenges, and Recent Developments in Job Analysis and Design

Gallup’s definition of employee engagement is unique. It is based on 12 factors that can be incorpo- rated in the design of the various jobs and roles in the organization, as well as the selection process of the right individuals to fill these jobs and roles. Engaged employees

• know what is expected of them

• have the materials and equipment they need to do their jobs right

• have the opportunity to do what they do best every day

• receive recognition or praise for doing good work on a regular basis

• feel that their supervisors or someone at work cares about them personally

• have someone at work who encourages their development

• believe that their opinions count

• feel that their job is important based on the mission or purpose of their organization

• view their associates or fellow employees as committed to doing quality work

• have a best friend at work

• remember that someone at work talked to them about their progress in the last six months

• had opportunities at work to learn and grow in the last year (Wagner & Harter, 2006)

Engagement can be developed in the workplace by ensuring that jobs are designed to be rich in the 12 factors above. Gallup also uses a strengths-based approach to selection and placement. Employees are matched to jobs based on a combination of their top five strengths as measured by the Gallup StrengthsFinder, a test that applicants must take and that is now available online through a passcode provided in most Gallup publications. This test measures 34 strengths that Gallup has found to be stable, or “hard-wired,” personality traits or talents. Developing employees in their areas of strengths has been found more effective than trying to fix their weaknesses or teach them new strengths. Therefore, when Gallup is hired to help an organization select the best talent, the available jobs are analyzed based on the talents and strengths needed to excel in each job. Current star per- formers in each job are assessed using the StrengthsFinder tool, and their combinations of strengths become Gallup’s “gold standard” against which applicants are compared. Selection is then based on that strengths-based approach to job analysis. When those employees are matched with highly engaging jobs, the outcomes are positive for both the organization and the employees (Rath, 2007).

3.4 Opportunities, Challenges, and Recent Developments in Job Analysis and Job Design

Legal aspects of job analysis and job design: Essential job functions, ADA, and FLSA

One of the most important legal uses of job analysis and job design is to ensure that gen- eral HR decisions are based on business necessity and that qualified individuals are not excluded for discriminatory reasons. A case in point is the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990. This act applies to employers with 15 or more employees; in hiring practices, testing, firing, promotion, job training, or wages, the act prohibits discrimination

you66162_03_ch03_p055-080.indd 72 1/31/12 8:40 AM

CHAPTER 3Section 3.4 Opportunities, Challenges, and Recent Developments in Job Analysis and Design

against a qualified individual with a disability. ADA requires employers to provide a rea- sonable accommodation if a person with a disability needs this accommodation to apply for or perform a job.

ADA classifies job functions into two categories:

• Essential job functions can be represented by all basic, recurring job duties and responsibilities.

• Marginal job functions are duties that are only supplementary to the job.

HR managers must identify, segregate, and clearly explain the differences between these two functions in job descriptions and job specifications.

Classification of essential and marginal job functions is based on three considerations:

• the amount of time required to perform the task • the task’s frequency • the task’s significance, compared to other tasks

For instance, a task that is per- formed more often than oth- ers on a job obviously carries more weight and is deemed more essential than those other tasks. Similarly, a task that is performed on a continuous or daily basis is more essential than another task carried out on a monthly or occasional basis, or a task that is only a support function rather than a core function of the job. Finally, a task may be easily trans- ferred, taught, or performed by more than one person. This task is then considered a mar- ginal job function when it is compared to a unique task that can only be accomplished by a limited number of employees who have specific experiences or talents. Careful job analy- sis and job design can yield accurate and fair HRM processes by helping HR managers and other managers differentiate essential from marginal job functions. This differentia- tion can become the basis for subsequent selection, compensation, performance evalua- tion, and training decisions.

The Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA) should also be considered in job analysis and job design. FLSA distinguishes between exempt and nonexempt employees based on the nature of their work. For instance, FLSA states that in order to be exempt from overtime pay, an employee’s primary duties must be geared towards executive and administrative

Jupiter Images/Comstock/Thinkstock

Adjusting workspace to allow for a wheelchair is an example of a reasonable accommodation an employer may provide.

you66162_03_ch03_p055-080.indd 73 1/31/12 8:40 AM

CHAPTER 3Section 3.4 Opportunities, Challenges, and Recent Developments in Job Analysis and Design

tasks rather than manual or routine activities. Thus, job analysis and job design have a direct bearing on employees’ proper classification and compensation.

ADA, FLSA, and several other equal employment opportunity laws discussed in this textbook have made HR more aware of the necessity of attaching job requirements to particular job factors. This practice enables organizations to defend their actions as being business necessities rather than discriminatory practices. HR has the responsibility to determine and analyze all the tasks, duties, and responsibilities associated with each job and to properly document all the steps and procedures pertaining to it. Diligently con- ducting job analyses, maintaining revised and updated job descriptions and job specifi- cations, and effectively designing compliant jobs can protect an organization from legal action and maintain its reputation as a fair employer.

Health and safety concerns and the implications of job design

Workplace health and safety provide another example of the legal implications of job analysis and job design. Legal compliance with health and safety regulations can be more effectively achieved if relevant regulations are identified when job descriptions and speci- fications are formulated and when jobs and work environments are designed.

People are an organization’s most valuable asset. Their health, safety, and well-being are vital to organizational success, which goes beyond legal compliance. Ergonomics is the entire branch of science dedicated to physical well-being. The purpose of ergonomics is to design jobs and work conditions that match the capabilities of the working population— avoiding or reducing physical fatigue, injury risks, and health complaints (Sonnentag & Zijlstra, 2006).

However, not all complaints are physical; mental and psychological well-being are also important. To reduce errors and accidents at work, it is equally important to design jobs that take mental capabilities and limitations into account. This consideration is vital and particularly beneficial in jobs that are exceptionally challenging, or where there is a seri- ous cost of error. For example, employee burnout can be prevented and employee well- being can be enhanced when the demands of the job are balanced with the resources, autonomy, and control an employee is given (Bakker & Demerouti, 2006).

Emotional well-being is another health concern. The business world today is oriented toward service. Many groups of employees, such as those in customer service, entertain- ment, and others, are required to express emotions that they do not necessarily feel. For example, telemarketers are often required to use a memorized script to talk to customers instead of freely expressing their emotions. Customer representatives are expected to be pleasant, even to rude customers. Collections agents are expected to be assertive with nonpaying customers who might be facing serious financial difficulties that warrant com- passion and understanding. Similarly, doctors and nurses are expected to remain dispas- sionate and objective, even under the emotional strain of the death or terminal illnesses of their patients and the grief of family members. These expectations are of emotional expression that do not match how an employee truly feels, and they can take a toll on employee health and well-being, and ultimately on the well-being of the organization (Morris & Feldman, 1996, 1997).

you66162_03_ch03_p055-080.indd 74 1/31/12 8:40 AM

CHAPTER 3Section 3.4 Opportunities, Challenges, and Recent Developments in Job Analysis and Design

WEB LINK

Sweatshops: http://abcnews.go.com/2020/video?id=4577446

Discussion Questions

1. What are some of the differences between job design in the developed economies and the developing or transitional economies?

2. Are the protesters’ concerns valid? Why? Why not?

3. If you were making outsourcing and job design decisions abroad in a multinational organiza- tion, how would you have handled the processes differently?

4. Make a list of the job characteristics and HRM processes that you would keep the same across global operations. Explain your rationale.

5. Make a list of the job characteristics and HRM processes that you would adapt to local eco- nomic, political, and sociocultural conditions. Explain your rationale for adaptation, and suggest some specific changes you would implement to ensure a better fit with local conditions.

Designing jobs that meet high physical, mental, psychological, and emotional standards can contribute to enhanced employee productivity and job satisfaction. This design can also ultimately enhance organizational success and competitiveness as organizations strive to achieve their goals by leveraging healthy employees and safe practices.

Implications of demographics, diversity, and globalization for job design

Globalization makes it easy for organizations to transport jobs to other countries. This raises an important question, however, about how jobs are designed in developing coun- tries and transitional economies (Fay & Frese, 2000). Moreover, job design represents a challenge for multinational organizations due to a myriad of factors—including the differ- ences in working hours, holidays, religious practices, and management styles. These fac- tors greatly affect how jobs are designed. A variety of negative consequences can follow a disregard of cultural differences, social expectations, and other needs for local adaptation of job design and other HRM processes. These consequences include job dissatisfaction, low motivation, inadequate work quality, social dissent, and compromising the organiza- tion’s reputation in foreign markets and even in the United States For example, consider the video in the following Web link.

Both nationally and internationally, job design can be directly influenced by demo- graphic, social, and cultural trends. Newer generations have made strides in areas such as networking and communication, which caused their job expectations to escalate as well. Moreover, workers’ attitudes toward work have changed. However, to benefit from diversity, organizations need to consider employees’ needs and meet their expecta- tions so that there can be mutual exchange and alignment between organizational and employee goals.

you66162_03_ch03_p055-080.indd 75 1/31/12 8:40 AM

CHAPTER 3Section 3.4 Opportunities, Challenges, and Recent Developments in Job Analysis and Design

Alternative work arrangements

Alternative work arrangements are another recent development that HR managers can use to retain their employees and keep them motivated and productive. HR managers can choose from many alternative work arrangement techniques. As discussed earlier, alternative work methods include flextime, job sharing, and telecommuting.

Compressed workweeks are also becoming increasingly popular. In the compressed work- week system, an employee may work more hours than usual for one day so long as he or she stays within the total number of working hours allowed over the entire week. This arrange- ment allows employees to receive an extra day off every week or every other week, depending on the extra daily hours worked. This system is favored by many employees because it gives them the flexibility to attend to personal matters, take longer weekends, or simply avoid another day of commuting and escalating gas prices. It also helps organizations mitigate some of the problems caused by unscheduled or short-notice absenteeism as employees fulfill personal needs and obligations. Federal laws associated with overtime, such as FLSA, represent the primary

challenge that this system poses for HR managers. Extended working hours also increase levels of stress and fatigue for managers and employees, posing additional challenges (Breaugh & Frye, 2007; Gurchiek, 2006).

Organizational change, job redesign, and the psychological contract

Change, advancement, and growth can be exciting, yet organizational change can have an adverse impact on employees. For this reason, HR should assume the critical roles of facilitating and communicating the transition to employees, ensuring that the organiza- tion passes through a successful and healthy transition while valuable employees remain satisfied and motivated.

Mergers, acquisitions, and downsizing are some examples of organizational changes asso- ciated with the current volatility in the business environment and the new psychological contract. These actions often result in organizational restructuring. The usual, dreaded effects of such organizational changes are possible layoffs or increased workloads for sur- viving employees, which can negatively impact employee satisfaction and motivation (Freeman & Cameron, 1993). Effective job analysis and job design can help mitigate some of these challenges.

David Sacks/Lifesize/Thinkstock

Compressed workweeks offer employees greater flexibility to attend to matters at home.

you66162_03_ch03_p055-080.indd 76 1/31/12 8:40 AM

CHAPTER 3Section 3.4 Opportunities, Challenges, and Recent Developments in Job Analysis and Design

Job redesign is the process through which organizations reconstruct and reconfigure the currently existing design of a particular job’s roles, duties, and responsibilities. Job rede- sign can become necessary for a variety of reasons, including business growth, merg- ers, acquisitions, downsizing, restructuring, or business process reengineering. However, sometimes the primary purpose of job redesign is to enhance the motivational potential of the job. The redesign can make the job more appealing, exciting, and inspiring for employ- ees—thereby promoting employee satisfaction, performance, and retention.

The job redesign process can involve the following deliberate steps if they are deemed necessary or desirable:

1. revise the current job content to highlight any mismatches between the employ- ee’s profile and the job activities

2. thoroughly analyze job-related information to determine the main factors that hinder or discourage the employee from performing as anticipated

3. implement or execute the job change by eliminating or adding job duties and responsibilities that would ultimately enhance employee satisfaction

4. revise the job description to reflect the actual duties and responsibilities that the employee is expected to be perform

5. add other factors to the redesigned job that further improve employee satisfac- tion—e.g., job rotation, enrichment, and enlargement

Job redesign has many advantages, including increasing employee satisfaction, employee performance, and the productivity index. Job redesign also promotes a sense of belong- ing within the organizational culture, which urges employees to continue working for the organization, which in turn supports employee retention. Finally, job redesign brings out the best in employees through successfully matching them with their jobs.

Organizations design and implement many programs and initiatives for redesigning in order to improve cost, quality, and processes involved in producing a product or provid- ing a service. One purpose of redesigning is businesses process re-engineering, which is the analysis and redesign of workflows and business processes within an organization; its purpose is to achieve spectacular improvements in critical areas. The importance of strategic HRM to business process re-engineering cannot be stressed enough; the integra- tion of both will help organizations achieve continuous improvement, thereby achieving a competitive edge (James, 2002).

The psychological contract, introduced in chapter 2, also has a direct bearing on job analy- sis and job design. This contract is a set of unwritten commitments and promises that are established between employers and their employees—mostly highlighting mutual duties, responsibilities, and expectations. The contract has been changing over time, and new sets of expectations have emerged. Employees’ expectations from their organizations are now mostly related to meaningful jobs; a fair pay system; adequate benefits; flexibility and autonomy; and opportunities for learning, development, and growth. Job analysis and job design can directly cater to those needs and expectations. On the other hand, employ- ers’ new expectations of their employees are flexibility, adaptability to change, the ability to work independently and in self-managed teams, superior communication skills, and willingness to build new KSAs and competencies on a regular basis.

you66162_03_ch03_p055-080.indd 77 1/31/12 8:40 AM

CHAPTER 3Summary

Chapter Summary

• Job analysis and job design are critical processes in HRM. They provide the foun- dation for effective recruitment, selection, training, performance management, and compensation.

• Job analysis information can be gathered through observation, interviews, ques- tionnaires, computerized systems, and government resources.

• Job analysis yields job descriptions, which identify the tasks, duties, and respon- sibilities to be fulfilled. Job analysis also yields job specifications, which describe the ideal person for the job in terms of the type and level of knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs) that are required, necessary, or relevant to perform the job.

• Quality job analysis and job design can yield meaningful, motivating, and sat- isfying jobs. They can also yield efficient and effective job performance at the individual, team, and organizational levels.

• Organizations are in a better position to realize a human-based competitive advantage when they base their job analysis and job design on high-quality strategic HR plans, Organizations also see this advantage when they ensure that their job analysis and job design are utilized to leverage the rest of the strategic HRM process.

Key Terms

Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA): A law that applies to employers with 15 or more employees; it prohibits discrimination against a qualified individual with a disability in hiring practices, testing, firing, promotion, job training, or wages—requiring employers to provide reasonable accommodations for persons with disabilities.

autonomy: The level of freedom and independence a worker is given regarding work schedules and the procedures used to complete the job.

behavioral competency: Personality traits, interpersonal skills, and character dimensions that an employee possesses and that differentiate him or her from others.

businesses process reengineering: The analysis and redesign of workflows and busi- ness processes within an organization to reduce costs, enhance quality, or improve other aspects of the processes involved in producing a product or providing a service.

competency-based job analysis: An approach that identifies the individual or team capa- bilities, qualities, skill sets, technical expertise, and knowledge needed to effectively carry out a job.

computerized job analysis systems: A job analysis method similar to the questionnaire method, except that its surveys are in the form of computer-scannable documents.

essential job functions: Basic, recurring job duties and responsibilities.

Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA): A law that distinguishes between exempt and nonex- empt employees based on the nature of their work.

you66162_03_ch03_p055-080.indd 78 1/31/12 8:40 AM

CHAPTER 3Key Terms

feedback: The extent to which a worker is informed about his or her performance.

flextime: A work-scheduling system that requires employees to work during certain pre- defined hours of the day, leaving the remaining hours of the day more or less open for employees to fill as they please, provided that they work the full day.

functional job analysis (FJA): A methodology designed by the DOL to gather information about jobs and create the Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT) job-classification system.

interview method: A job analysis method that gathers information about a job through interviews with workers, supervisors, and subject-matter experts.

job analysis: The methodology or approach through which HR collects and evaluates information pertaining to the content and human requirements related to a particular job.

job description: A document that identifies characteristics of the job to be performed in terms of the tasks, duties, and responsibilities an employee must fulfill.

job design: Structuring jobs in a way that attracts talent, enhances satisfaction, and meets the needs of the employee and the organization.

job enlargement: Broadening the scope of a job through widening the types of tasks and responsibilities performed on it, for the purpose of making the job more interesting and less monotonous.

job enrichment: Assigning employees more challenging work to empower them and make jobs more meaningful.

job redesign: The process through which organizations reconstruct and reconfigure the currently existing design of a particular job’s roles, duties, and responsibilities.

job rotation: Assigning employees to different jobs to increase the variety of activities performed.

job sharing: A work system that allows two or more employees to perform the same job, with all its associated duties and responsibilities, on a part-time basis.

job specification: A document that describes the ideal person for the job in terms of the type and level of knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs) that are required, necessary, or relevant to the job performance.

managerial job analysis questionnaire: specialized for managerial positions and focus on such areas as decision making and leadership.

marginal job functions: Job duties that are only supplementary or supportive to the job.

position analysis questionnaire: records details about a certain position and tends to be oriented more toward workers by emphasizing the behavioral characteristics a given position requires.

you66162_03_ch03_p055-080.indd 79 1/31/12 8:40 AM

CHAPTER 3Critical Thinking Questions

observation method: A job analysis method that requires observing a worker while he or she is performing the job; the method’s purpose is to obtain first-hand knowledge of the tasks and duties performed.

questionnaire method: A job analysis method that gathers information through surveys that include questions about various aspects of a job.

skill variety: The degree to which the job incumbent uses a range of skills and talents.

task identity: The degree to which the job allows the incumbent to complete an identifi- able work product and see clearly tangible or perceivable outcomes.

task significance: The extent to which the effect and contribution of work can be seen.

task-based job analysis: An approach that identifies the tasks, duties, and responsibilities associated with performing a job.

technical competency: Specific technical expertise, knowledge, specialization, or skills that an employee possesses and that differentiate him or her from others.

telecommuting: A work system that allows employees to work from home or a location of their choice, rather than in a designated office space.

Critical Thinking Questions

1. What do you see as the advantages and disadvantages of focusing on behavioral competency-based job analysis?

2. Look at some job descriptions on O*Net. What would be the advantages and disadvantages of an organizations relying on O*Net exclusively when creating its job descriptions?

3. Do you agree with the Hackman and Oldham motivational potential score equa- tion? For example, if a job offers no autonomy or feedback, is the motivation it imparts automatically zero? If you disagree with the equation, what type of equation would you create?

4. A self-managed work team can provide a solution to many managerial issues, but also brings about a host of its own problems. What are the positives and negatives you see with utilizing self-managed work teams?

5. In Gallup’s twelve factors, how many of them cost an organization little or noth- ing? Why do you think many of these twelve factors aren’t practiced by many organizations/managers?

you66162_03_ch03_p055-080.indd 80 1/31/12 8:40 AM