Privatized Prisons and Unions: Personnel Management implication

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Table of Contents

1. Introduction _________________________________________________________ 4

2. Annotated Bibliography ________________________________________________ 4

3. Exploring studies that make a leader more effective in the organization ______ 4

Combs, G M (Spring 2002). Meeting the leadership challenge of a diverse and pluralistic workplace: implications of self-efficacy for diversity training. Journal of Leadership Studies . , 8, 4. p.1(16). Retrieved April 23, 2008, from Academic OneFile via Gale: http://find.galegroup.com/itx/infomark.do?&contentSet=IAC-Documents&type=retrieve&tabID=T002&prodId=AONE&docId=A88609137&source=gale&userGroupName=tel_a_tstu&version=1.0 ____________________________ 4

Rodriguez, R O, Green, M T, & Ree, M. J. (Spring 2003). Leading Generation X: do the old rules apply? . . Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies . , 9, 4. p.67(9). Retrieved April 23, 2008, from General OneFile via Gale: http://find.galegroup.com/itx/infomark.do?&contentSet=IAC-Documents&type=retrieve&tabID=T002&prodId=ITOF&docId=A105440121&source=gale&userGroupName=tel_a_tstu&version=1.0 ____________________________ 5

Sanders, J. E., Hopkins, W E, & Geroy, G D (Spring 2003). From transactional to transcendental: toward an integrated theory of leadership. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies . , 9, 4. p.21(11). Retrieved April 23, 2008, from General OneFile via Gale: http://find.galegroup.com/itx/infomark.do?&contentSet=IAC-Documents&type=retrieve&tabID=T002&prodId=ITOF&docId=A105440117&source=gale&userGroupName=tel_a_tstu&version=1.0 ______________________________ 6

Sankar, Y (Spring 2003). Character not charisma is the critical measure of leadership excellence. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies . , 9, 4. p.45(11). Retrieved April 23, 2008, from General OneFile via Gale: http://find.galegroup.com/itx/infomark.do?&contentSet=IAC-Documents&type=retrieve&tabID=T002&prodId=ITOF&docId=A105440119&source=gale&userGroupName=tel_a_tstu&version=1.0 _____________________________ 8

Wituk, S., Warren, M., Heiny, P., Clark, M. J., Power, C., & Meissen, G. (Spring 2003). Developing communities of leaders: outcomes of a statewide initiative. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies . , 9, 4. p.76(11). Retrieved April 23, 2008, from General OneFile via Gale: http://find.galegroup.com/itx/infomark.do?&contentSet=IAC-Documents&type=retrieve&tabID=T002&prodId=ITOF&docId=A105440122&source=gale&userGroupName=tel_a_tstu&version=1.0 _____________________________ 9

4. Leadership Persona on the organization ________________________________ 11

Curry, B K (Spring 2002). The influence of the leader persona on organizational identity. Journal of Leadership Studies . , 8, 4. p.33(10). Retrieved April 23, 2008, from Academic OneFile via Gale: http://find.galegroup.com/itx/infomark.do?&contentSet=IAC-Documents&type=retrieve&tabID=T002&prodId=AONE&docId=A88609139&source=gale&userGroupName=tel_a_tstu&version=1.0 ______________________________ 11

5. Leadership Decision Making ___________________________________________ 13

Duncan, W. J., LaFrance, K G, & Ginter, P M (Spring 2003). Leadership and decision making: a retrospective application and assessment. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies . , 9, 4. p.1(20). Retrieved April 23, 2008, from General OneFile via Gale: http://find.galegroup.com/itx/infomark.do?&contentSet=IAC-Documents&type=retrieve&tabID=T002&prodId=ITOF&docId=A105440116&source=gale&userGroupName=tel_a_tstu&version=1.0 ______________________________ 13

6. Analysis of Work Cited ________________________________________________ 15

7. Conclusion __________________________________________________________ 15

8. Bibliography _________________________________________________________ 16

Annotated Bibliography

Introduction

The studying leadership in public organizations is very important to the survival of an organization. This is important because it allows organizations to anticipate what changes need to be done in management, what personality traits make good leaders, determines how leaders will make decisions in the organization along with many other contributions studying leadership has to offer. In this annotated bibliography, studies and theoretical designs of how leadership plays such an important role in the organization as well as opinions on these studies will be presented throughout this paper. Lastly, an analysis on all the articles will be presented at the end on how the studies have impacted the study of leadership in public organizations.

Exploring studies that make a leader more effective in the organization

Problem:

Diversity training has remained the primary method used to facilitate behavior change but existing diversity training is perceived to have failed, calling for a new diversity leadership focus to improve diversity performance.

Purpose:

The purpose of the article is to discuss how organizational leadership might integrate the self-efficacy construct and diversity training design to improve employee diversity performance.

Methodology:

No Methodology.

Findings and Conclusion:

This article starts off by addressing the leadership challenge of facilitating appropriate responses to diversity which is a business objective that must be met to ensure effective organizational outcomes in both domestic and foreign markets. The diversity challenge for organization leadership is to facilitate a work environment that allows and encourages an appreciation for diverse individual characteristics and dimensions.

Next the article discusses the three types of supervisory behaviors specifically related to employee performance. These three levels that were discussed are 1) performance antecedents, 2) performance monitoring, and 3) performance consequences.

An exert from Taylor Cox’s (2001) book Creating the Multicultural Organization suggested that when employees are given the skills and confidence to perform effectively and appropriately in diversity situations their inclination to persist in spite of adversity will assist the organization in early problem identification and resolution. This does not mean that infusing diversity self-efficacy will completely eliminate the full spectrum of diversity compliance issues but the legal implications of diversity “mismanagement” will continue if problems of inappropriate response and disparate treatment are presented.

Next addressed was the theoretical point of training being the primary change strategy. The concept of diversity education or training has become the primary and overarching change initiative for the vast majority of organizations.

The theoretical foundation of self-efficacy is then discussed. Research across different settings suggests that self-efficacy is a good and valued predictor of performance. Research indicates that self-efficacy judgments are based on four principal sources of information which are enactive mastery experiences, vicarious experiences, verbal persuasion, and physiological and affective state. The new focus of diversity training should include the four principal sources of information form self efficacy as learning objectives of the training itself. Training should facilitate the acquisition of skills and confidence as components of diversity competence.

In conclusion, the article suggested that diversity training programs focus on enhancing diversity self-efficacy that will help leaders meet the challenge of a truly diverse and pluralistic work environment. This diversity training should incorporate master, behavior modeling, verbal persuasion and affective psychological and physiological arousal experiences offer the potential for developing and enhancing individual diversity self efficacy. This article proposes application of the research supporting the self-efficacy construct to build diversity self-efficacy and bridge the gap between diversity training and diversity performance.

Opinion:

Although this article was published in 2002, organizations still lack the leadership needs that address a diverse population. I do think that the article has a valid point in suggesting leadership training that focuses on self efficacy. Because self efficacy is what motivates the person, it is different for each person in every culture. I do believe that organizations are still struggling with trying to understand There needs to be further research on how this training should be presented to current leaders and what is the best way to implement these strategies.

Problem:

Little is known about the preference of leadership styles by Generation X and comparing the Generation X with the Baby Boomers generation to determine whether the is a difference in preference of leadership styles.

Purpose:

The purpose of this study is to quantify the generational preferences for leadership behavior.

Method:

The participants were employees of a telecommunications company who were all management leaders from manager to vice president level. The educational level of the leaders range from 12 to 20 years of schooling and consisting of 47.7% baby boomers and 52.3% generation X.

One thousand surveys were distributed using the internal corporate mail system in which they were anonymous, and a response of 805 participants. The surveys were composed of twenty five forced-choice pairs of statements. One statement was expected for each generation. Each statement could be chosen between zero and five times.

The dependent variable was the preference of leadership behavior associated with generational themes. The five themes were 1) fulfillment, 2) flexibility, 3) technology, 4) monetary benefits and 5) work environment. The independent variables were 1) generation, 2) ethnicity, and 3) education. The quantitative data for the study was gathered through completed surveys from 805 participants. The cross-sectional design was used as the quantitative design. The MANOVA (multivariate analyses of variance) was used to contrast the dependent and independent variables. All statistical hypotheses were tested at P<.05.

Findings and Conclusion:

Results related to the ethnicity of the participant was that the generation difference had a significant effect on the five themes except the generational choice thought to represent a boomer preference for “Work Environment”. There were no significant difference for the choice of “Provides me job security even though my work environment may not always be challenging. The Scheffe Test of significance determined that Caucasians ad Hispanics preferred “Fulfillment for Boomers” more then African Americans.

Generation X preferred challenging task accomplished within a workday, preferred surfing and buying using the internet, like flexible hours, a portable 401K with lump sum distribution and a challenging and fun job environment. The Baby Boomer generation preferred a challenging task accomplished in several days, using the telephone, regular scheduled work hours, and a job that provides a retirement plan with benefits.

The leadership implications are that the differences in individual preferences for leadership behavior may require a shift in leadership attitude, policy, and implementation because most of the Baby Boomer generation is retiring and Generation X has different work preferences. The difference in work environment preferences supports the hypothesis that there are individual differences that impact the conceptual preference of leadership behavior from a generational perspective.

Opinion:

I support the validity of this article because there has since been studies show the differences of Generation X from the Baby Generation and their leadership styles. This helps organizations understand the up and coming leaders a great deal and informs the older generation/organization on what things to expect and how to make the proper changes needed to accommodate the Generation X leaders.

Persona on the organization

Problem:

Organizations are destabilized when they change because the perception of an organization depends on the persona of the leader who is leading the organization therefore if the view of the change becomes less positive the view of the organization becomes so as well.

Purpose:

The purpose of this article is to show that a person’s persona can be placed on the organization and vice versa meaning that influences on organizational identity move from leaders to their organizations.

Methodology:

No Methodology.

Findings and Conclusion:

First the article starts by discussing theoretical prospective of the culling leadership and organizational identity from the leader person. Individual identity development including socialization and its influence on the construction of self is a source for understanding leadership and organizational theory. A leader represents “the maturing individual and the accompanying socially constructed expectations that do not merely change but develop or grow”. In order for an individual to claim her identity and mastery of her life and career, her sense of who she is must originate inside of rather then outside of herself. All this to say that discussions of leadership have been lacking on focusing on adult identity development and the leader persona and have not considered the influence of the two on organizational theory.

Next the article discusses the leader persona as the foundation for organizational identity. The influence of leader persona on “organizational sense of self” is central. Organizations can be conceptualized apart from the people who function within them, but conceptualization will continue to be a personification of structure and function owing to the socially constructed nature of such entities. Because individuals continue to grow and change throughout life, individuals invent, construct, and co-construct features of their identity in deliberate ways. Therefore the leader persona creates correlative changes in the organization.

Third the article talks about defining aesthetics of the leader persona. Aesthetics refers to the impressions associated with the leader’s way of being or perception. The aesthetics with psychosocial development is visible in the instrumentation of leadership but possible to find it in other areas like social contexts which is significant in consideration of identity formation and the leader persona. Self knowledge makes the design of productive and mutually satisfying relationships eminently more attainable, which is a positive feature. This standard is expected to reshape the organizational culture, build contexts for life in the organization and facilitate consolidation of members’ identity so they will remain productive. There are many contributions and inputs throughout a lifetime that contribute to one’s identity.

Phenomenological epistemological processes were then discussed which stated to know oneself is to know how the “I” was conceived and ultimately constructed, to anticipate the juxtaposition of “I” in light of that construction, and to be adaptive. This person moves from beginning insights to what might seem to be limits of who she is which possess both acquisitive and dispossessive dynamics f the psychologic of the leader persona. Leadership is central to organizational functioning.

Lastly, the article talked about co-construction of the leader persona and organizational identity. The leader persona is influenced by social context, the needs of the organizational community giving rise to the need for a leader, and what the individual who would lead along with those who would be led bring to the encounter thus organization identity or sense of self and leadership become particularized. With changing cognition the tendency may be to conserve psychological energy and assume one fully understands motivations influencing members of the organizational community and to anticipate outcomes. Organizations reflect the contributions of their members. In order to understand the relationship of those organizations to their members you must understand that identity and organization sense of self is responsible for it.

In conclusion, the process of organizational identity is one that both parallels and is interdependent with individual identity development. The article suggests that organizations have been personified in the way they have been treated within the article. In the future the, personification of processes and events within organizations and treating those as developing or evolving identity till be useful. Further studies may be needed to support the characterization of organizational identity development as having multiple influences in addition to leadership.

Opinion:

I believe that this article was valid but an experiment or case study would add to its theoretical views. An example is when people perceive a leader of an organization as being negative like Pedro Garcia over the school system, they also thought negatively of the school system as well. Most times, people automatically associate the organization’s leader with the identity of the organization. This article suggests that leaders change as circumstances in their lives change which is true and therefore because a leader may start off one way, they can and often times will change their identity as situations occur throughout life. A case study would imperative in supporting the validity of this article’s theory.

Analysis of Work Cited

The approach taken with this bibliography was the attempt answer, through a literature review, what are all the different manners that leadership affects a public organization? Some influences that leadership has on the organization may be the identity or perception of the organization, how the leaders could better lead the organization and examining what makes a good leader in decision making. The seven articles addressed in this bibliography can be placed into three categories which are 1) characteristics of effective leaders, 2) personification of organizations, and 3) effective leadership decision making.

The first category of articles consisting of Combs (2002) article entitled Meeting the leadership challenge of a diverse and pluralistic workplace: implications of self-efficacy for diversity training, Rodriguez (2003) in the article entitled Leading Generation X: do the old rules apply?, Sanders et al (2003) From transactional to transcendental: toward an integrated theory of leadership, Sankar et al (2003) in the article entitled Character not charisma is the critical measure of leadership excellence, and Wituk et al (2003) article entitled Developing communities of leaders: outcomes of a statewide initiative all discuss characteristics that make good and effective leaders. Combs (2003) discusses how leaders and organizations can be more effective if diversity training focused more on the self efficacy of their followers, meaning finding out what is it that motivates that individual. Thus leaders being trained on self efficacy make for better leaders in that they are able to know what their employees want and to improve diversity performance. Then Rodriguez tells us that leaders of Generation X and the Baby Generation have totally opposite characteristics which help organizations change the way they operate because they know what to expect from the up and coming leaders of Generation X.

Now we know that diversity training is needed in order to be an effective leader and that Generation X is more flexible when performing a job and the way work is performed will be changing with the future leaders of this generation. Later Sankar (2003) tells us that when examining leaders, the focus should be on the character of the individual rather the charisma of a leader because charisma focuses on personality attributes rather then the integrity of the character which makes a leader more effective and dedicated to their work. Next Sander (2003) tells us that transactional and transformational must be integrated theories that should become transcendental theory meaning that the organization should also look at the spiritual being of a person. This theory states that a leader has to go through spiritual dimensions in order to be effective and have a sense of accomplishment. And lastly, Wituk (2003) informs us through an investigative study, that a particular initiative created change in directors and board members of community leadership programs in Kansas. The participants learned that listening to other people’s opinions is essential in decision making and became more involved in facilitating their leadership programs. They learned how to be more effective in their communities as well as engage their communities rather then just determining who can participate in their organization or not.

All these studies and theoretical theories contribute a lot to the study of leadership in organizations in different angles. There are still many gaps in the study of leadership for example, the theory of transcendental needs further investigation in studying the spiritual dimensions more. How can you physically study the spiritual dimensions?

The next category is the personification of organizations. Curry (2002) suggests that the persona of the leader becomes the persona of the organization. This idea ties greatly to how effective a leader will be. If the leader has a positive effect on the organization, then the leader is perceived as being a positive leader and therefore the organization is perceived as doing good in the community.

The last category is effective leadership decision making. This is important and correlates to all the articles because no matter how much charisma, how much integrity the character has, or the image of the leader and organization depends on the decision making of the leader. Is the decision being made effective? Leadership boils down to the decision making in the organizations that makes the organization an effective or ineffective organization. These three categories all flow together because they all feed into one another as well as one effect the other. Therefore, any future studies intended to fill a gap in the literature regarding effective leadership must start with assessing effective leadership.