6 - 1 to 2 paragraph answers for 6 questions Modern History

European Renaissance, 1350-1550

I. Origins: Why Italy?

· Italy had many advantages that its northern European counterparts did not share. 

· By 1350 Italy had the most advanced urban societies in Europe, as well as the highest number of urban centers.  

· Unlike the nobility in northern European countries who lived in rural manors and castles, Italian aristocrats lived in urban centers and became fully involved in urban affairs. 

· Italian cities were also the homes to a large and wealthy class who were involved in either banking or international trade.  

· Due to the demand of the upper classes, Italy had the largest group of educators and tutors living in one area of Europe, resulting in the best educated middle and upper classes in Europe.  

· The Italians led the renewal of interest in the Greek and Roman literary classics resulting in a growing secular culture.

· The Italians revived Roman art and architecture as a means of rivaling the Gothic architecture in northern Europe.

II. Humanism developed in the 14th century as a reaction against medieval scholasticism. 

· The Renaissance humanists returned to the classical literature of the Greeks and Romans.  Echoing the themes of the ancient writer, these new humanists promoted a shift away from religious themes and embraced secular topics, and embraced the concepts personal independence and individual expression.  Many of the topics explored by the humanists led directly to the Scientific Revolution and the European Enlightenment.

Francesco Petrarch

· Francesco Petrarch (1304-1374) Known as the "Father of Humanism," Petrarch was a deeply committed Christian and a prolific writer.  He was well educated and traveled throughout Europe and the Mediterranean World.  As an author he wrote biographies, literary treatises and poetry, and his poetical sonnets later influenced William Shakespeare.  While he re-introduced the writings of Virgil and Horace, he is also responsible for resurrecting the writing of numerous ancient Greek authors.

Lorenzo Valla

· Lorenzo Valla (1407-1457) Originally from Rome, Valla was a humanist, educator and gifted linguist.  Leading his religious writings was his Notes on the New Testament--one of the earliest modern commentaries on the writings of St. Paul.  His greatest literary contribution, however, was developing the field of textual criticism by studying Greek and Latin texts from several historical era.  His most famous piece of textual criticism was demonstrating that the Donation of Constantine was a medieval hoax--the Vatican had claimed that Emperor Constantine the Great of the 4th Century had given the central section of the Italian to the Catholic Church;  Valla proved that the Donation of Constantine had actually been written during the Middle Ages and was thus a forgery.

Niccolo Machiavelli

· Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527) A humanist and the greatest political philosopher of the Italian Renaissance, he is considered as one of the founders of modern political science.  In 1512, he took part of an unsuccessful bid to overthrow the government of Florence; he lost his position as a diplomat and spent the rest of his life in embittered exile.  During his exile he wrote numerous pieces of political theory, including his most remembered and studied work was The Prince. Even though Machiavelli praised constitutionalism, equality and some personal liberties, in The Prince he argued that a monarch should have the power to exercise deceit and occasional brute force to maintain control.

III. Culture: The Arts focused on secular themes and topics from classical Greece and Rome. The three greatest artists emerged after 1500.

Raphael Sanzio

· Raphael Sanzio (1483-1520) He was one of the few great masters who did not come from Florence.  Born in the small town of Urbino, he later moved to Rome.  One of the greatest artists of the Renaissance, he painted both religious and secular pieces.  One of his most famous secular works, The School of Athens is a composite of all of the towering intellectuals from the Golden Age of Athens.  A master portrait painter, he also produced numerous versions of the Madonna and Christ child.

Leonardo da Vinci

· Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) One of the two "Renaissance men," da Vinci struggled for most of his life to overcome his background.  The illegitimate son of a lawyer and peasant woman in Florence, Italy, he was a painter, architect, musician, mathematician, engineer and inventor.  He was determined to prove that his natural and artistic abilities was equal to the formal learning of his social superiors.  He commented, "I am fully conscious that, not being a literary man, certain presumptuous persons will think they may reasonably blame me, alleging that I am not a man of letters."  By the time he was twenty-five, he set up his own artist's shop and gained the patronage of the Medici family.  His greatest weakness was starting too many projects simultaneously and failing to complete many of them.  The Medici family, angered with his inability to meet deadlines, eventually withdrew their support.  After 1499 he gained the patronage of Francis I of France and worked there until his death.  Like his rival, Michelangelo, da Vinci studied anatomy (he was able to secure the corpses of prisoners from the local prison) and was able to paint the human body in minute detail.  His two greatest paintings, The Mona Lisa and The Last Supper reveal his marvelous skills.

Michelangelo Buonarroti

· Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564) The second "Renaissance man," he was a painter, sculptor, architect and poet.  More so than his contemporaries, Michelangelo focused on the male figure in his paintings and sculptures.  Consequently his statue David has been hailed as the greatest male nude statue of the Renaissance and his frescoes in the Sistine Chapel are primarily comprised of male figures.  An interesting progression in his work is his attention to facial expressions and corresponding emotions--his earlier works appear to be serene, while in his later pieces, the subjects demonstrate fear and anger.

IV. Northern Renaissance was greatly restricted by the Church and was not as secular. Humanism in the North was propelled by two men.

Desiderius Erasmus

· Desiderius Erasmus (1467-1536) Known as the "Prince of Humanists," he was the best known humanist of the sixteenth century.  He was the illegitimate son of a priest and was forced by relatives to live at a monastery until he reached adulthood.  In spite of the repressive environment he gained a superior education. He was a prolific writer and wrote numerous religious works, including his religious satire, In Praise of Folly.  While he lived during the early years of the Reformation and shared many of the concerns of the Protestant reformers, he believed that the Church should be reformed from within.

Sir Thomas More

· Sir Thomas More (1487-1535) English humanist and politician who served on the Privy Council and ultimately as the Lord Chancellor of England. More was pious and a deeply committed Christian.  His most famous writing was a Latin novel, Utopia, in which a traveler visits the perfect society where there was universal education for both genders, religious toleration, communal land ownership and pacifism.  Scholars suggest that Utopia was the mirror opposite to 16th century England, but More's ultimate goal for England.  More's strong religious convictions ultimately cost him his career and his life when he refused to support Henry VIII's separation from the Catholic church and his subsequent divorce of Catherine of Aragon and re-marriage to Anne Boleyn.  More was arrested in 1535, tried for treason and executed at the Tower of London.

V. Scientific Achievement laid the foundations for the Scientific Revolution

Nicholas Copernicus

· Nicholas Copernicus (1473-1543) A deeply committed Christian he came from eastern Prussia (modern Poland) and became fluent in five languages.  He studied at universities in both Prussia and Italy and focused on philosophy, law and astronomy.  Of these fields he devoted most of his time and attention to astronomy.  His work in astronomy caught the attention of Pope Paul III, who requested that Copernicus help reform the Julian calendar.  Copernicus, however, responded that the field of astronomy needed to be reformed.  His greatest contribution to the modern world was resurrecting the heliocentric theory in On the Revolutions of Heavenly Spheres.  He realized that he walked a thin line with the church and could face possible heresy charges for his work. He kept his research quiet for twelve years until 1542 before publishing his work.  He died a few months later before any charges of heresy could be levied against him.  Four decades after his death some of his research was incorporated into the new calendar proposed by Pope Gregory XIII--the basis of the calendar we currently use in the western world.

Johann Kepler

· Johann Kepler (1571-1630) A German mathematician and astronomer, at the age of six he observed a comet and a lunar eclipse.  Struggling with a vision impediment and crippled hands due to a severe episode of smallpox as a child, Kepler taught mathematics and astronomy for several years. As an astronomer he proved the validity of Copernicus' heliocentric theory through mathematical equations and improved defined his three laws of planetary motion

Galilei Galileo

· Galilei Galileo (1564-1642) Italian scientist who was educated in mathematics and medicine and became a math professor at the age of 25.  He became interested in astronomy and built his own telescope; with his telescope he sighted 1) several new stars, 2) observed the surface of the moon, 3) studied the moons of Jupiter.  Galileo also studied physics and produced some of the earliest works on the concept of inertia.  He came to support the heliocentric theory and was condemned by the Inquisition for his belief in 1616.  He was eventually tried and condemned for heresy (due to his position on the heliocentric theory); the Pope intervened and his life was spared.  Galileo spent the final nine years of his life in house arrest.

VI. Significance of the Renaissance

· Development of a new secular culture

· Rise of the new philosophy humanism

· Revival of Greek and Roman philosophy and art

· Development of analytical and critical thinking

· Laid the foundations for the Scientific Revolution

· Laid the foundations for the Protestant Reformation

· Served as cultural bridge between Medieval and Modern Europe

The Rise of Early Modern Europe  

I. France and Louis XI (1423-1483)

· Founder of Modern France

· His nickname was "The Spider"--the world's first modern politician!

· Defeated Charles the Bold and doubled the physical boundaries of France

· Ended feudalism in France

· Built a system of roads

· Launched a lucrative silk industry

· Developed a new and modern tax collection system

· Created the first postal system in Europe

· Founded two new universities and several primary schools

· Thrifty and fiscally conservative monarch

II. Spain and Ferdinand (1452-1516) and Isabella (1451-1504)

· With their marriage they brought the two largest provinces (Aragon and Castile) together, thus forming the heart of modern Spain

· Ruled with the use of a royal council that was comprised of members from the middle class

· Issued a new, modern national Spanish currency

· Initiated legal reform

· Regulated crime with a new police force

· Devout Catholic monarchs--sponsored the Catholic Inquisition to insure that all citizens were Catholic

· Launched the Reconquista against Muslims and Jews--both religious groups were banned in 1492

· Isabella was one of the most educated women of her era--taught herself Latin

· Isabella personally backed Christopher Columbus and his voyages to the Western Hemisphere

III. England and Henry VII (1485-1509)

· Member of the Tudor family (from the Lancaster Dynasty) who defeated Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth

· Ended the 30 year civil War of the Roses between the Houses of Lancaster and the House of York

· Married of Elizabeth of York to halt any chances of reviving a civil war

· Created the new political office of Justice of the Peace from the middle class to help restore law and order at the local level

· Extremely thrifty monarch who rebuilt a nearly bankrupt treasury

· Built up the English Navy

· Created a royal council to assist him in ruling the realm

· Restored the prestige of the English monarchy

· Used his children as political pawns and married them into other royal prominent families--son, Arthur married Catherine of Aragon; daughter, Margaret married James IV of Scotland, and daughter, Mary married Louis XII of France

IV. Holy Roman Empire and Charles V (1500-1556)

· Holy Roman Emperor and controlled more lands than any other European monarch--"the empire on which the sun never sets"

· Grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella, and he could speak 7 languages

· Spent the early years of his reign fighting with France and the Ottoman Empire--he halted the Islamic Armies outside of Vienna in 1529

· Supported the Spanish conquest of the Western Hemisphere

· Spread the Spanish Inquisition to all Catholic sections of Europe

· Vicious opponent to Martin Luther and the Protestant Reformation

The Protestant Reformation

I. The Church on the Eve of the Reformation

· Reform-minded Christians had been calling for changes in the Church for over a century before the arrival of Martin Luther

· Clerical Ignorance: The higher levels of clergy were well-educated, but significant portions of local priests were uneducated and could not read or write Latin or their own national languages.  The priests would attempt to memorize the seven parts of the mass and try to muddle through them--literally "the blind leading the blind."

· Clerical Pluralism/Absenteeism: Numerous high ranking clergy held multiple church offices just to gain the income, and thus could not devote the proper time and attention to each church office they held.  One French archbishop never visited one of his cathedrals until the day of his funeral!  Church officials also held powerful political offices within their native countries.  Cardinal Wolsey of England was the most powerful religious figure and held position of Lord Chancellor--the second most powerful political office in England.

· Clerical Immorality: There were countless examples of clergy at all levels up to the papacy who had violated their vows of celibacy and kept mistresses on the side.  There were numerous illegitimate children, many of whom were raised at convents and monasteries and forced to enter careers within the Church.  At all levels of the Church there were examples of clergy living lavish lifestyles in clear violation of their vows of poverty and also wasting Church funds.

II. Martin Luther (1483-1546)

· Originally only intended to challenge the Catholic Church to begin internal reforms

· Ordained as a priest and highly educated with a Doctorate in Theology

· In 1521 the Edict of Worms excommunicated Luther and declared him an outlaw and a heretic

· Came to believe in salvation by faith alone--"justification by faith" instead of works

· Translated the New Testament into German

· Launched a new worship style in his Lutheran churches--focus of the service became the sermon

· Emphasized education for Lutheran clergy

· Broke with Catholic tradition of clerical celibacy and married a former nun, Katherine von Bora

· Sparked the 1525 Peasant Rebellion in the German states

· His writings and influence spread due to the printing press

III. John Calvin

· Born and educated in France--majored in Philosophy and was fluent in Latin and Greek

· Led the reforms of Geneva, Switzerland in the 1540s--became the model Christian society

· Emphasized education for both genders--founded several primary schools

· Promoted a new Protestant theology that differed with Luther

· Agreed with Luther on Sola Scriptura--the Bible as the sole authority on Christian doctrine

· His followers established the Reformed Church and the Presbyterian Church

IV. Henry VIII

· His English Reformation focused on "The King's Great Matter"--Henry's lack of a legitimate male heir

· Theologically his new Church of England differed very little with the Catholic Church

· He would have remained part of the Catholic Church had his first wife Catherine of Aragon produced a live son

· Henry's new Church made the English monarch the "Supreme Head" of the Church of England

· Henry's actions to close the monasteries was pure economics--he want the income for the English crown

· The true Protestant Reformation in England began in the reign of Henry's son, Edward VI--42 Articles of Faith were written as well as The Book of Common Prayer, the liturgy of the Anglican Church

· The English Reformation was completed during the reign of Henry's younger daughter, Elizabeth I in the Elizabethan Settlement of 1559

V. Significance of the Protestant Reformation

· Second most important event in Christian history since the birth of Christ

· Broke the monopoly of the Roman Catholic Church in western Christianity

· Led to the rise of multiple Protestant denominations

· Supported multiple translations of the Holy Bible

· Propelled the continuation of analytical and critical thinking

· Supported the rise of capitalism

· Influenced the Catholic Church to hold the Council of Trent and address the criticisms of the Protestant Reformers

Age of Exploration

I. Motives of the Explorers

· New sea route to India and the Far East

· Opportunity for land-ownership for younger sons of European nobility

· New good and trade commodities for European merchants

· Means to spread Christianity to native populations

II. New Technology Utilized by the Explorers

· Gunpowder--invented by Chinese for entertainment; developed into a deadly weapon by the Byzantine Empire

· Caravel--small, wooden, and wind-powered ship developed by the Portuguese; made long-distance sea travel possible

· Cannon--first used in the Siege of Constantinople in the 1450s

· Compass--invented by the Chinese; assisted the European navigators in their travels to Asia and the Western Hemishphere

III. Prince Henry the Navigator

· King of Portugal who intended to discover the source of the West African gold trade

· Initiated the first European contact with Sub-Sahara African kingdoms

· Sponsored several exploration expeditions of the African west coast

· Led the development of the new Portuguese ship, the caravel

· 1418, opened a school in Portugal that taught navigation, cartography and oceanic sciences--trained several generations of European navigators

IV. The Columbian Exchange

· Name of the 1972 work of Alfred Crosby; Dr. Crosby hold dual doctorates in biology and history

· Crosby studied the Western Hemisphere in the first century after Columbus' arrival in the Caribbean

· Crosby noted four exchanges between European and Native Americans: 1) exchange of plants, 2) exchange of animals, 3) exchange of diseases, and 4) exchange of peoples

· Native Americans introduced the Europeans to a wide variety of new plant food sources

· Europeans brought numerous domesticated animals to the Western Hemisphere, including horses, sheep and cattle

· The exchange of diseases proved to be quite deadly--chickenpox, measles, scarlet fever, and smallpox decimated huge native populations--90 % in some areas; in return the Native Americans introduced the Europeans to syphilis

· Massive death rates among the Native Americans led the Europeans to import West African slaves to work the new plantation system

V. Significance of the Age of Discovery

· Launched European colonialism and Imperialism in Africa, Asia and the Western Hemisphere

· Amerindians introduced Europeans to several new vital food sources

· European diseases decimated 90% of the population in Western Hemisphere by 1600

· Established the plantation system in Asia and Western Hemisphere and created a high demand for a human labor source

· Directly led to the explosion of the West African Slave Trade

In your opinion which political leader of early modern Europe accomplished the most in the modernization of his/her nation?  How so? 

What is the difference between a heretic and a martyr?  In your opinion, which group, the Catholics or the Protestants, was more radical in its efforts to stamp out heresy?