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Kendall & Kendall
Systems Analysis and Design, 9e

Information Gathering: Interactive Methods

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Objectives

Recognize the value of interactive methods for information gathering.
Construct interview questions to elicit human information requirements and structure them in a way that is meaningful to users.
Understand the purpose of stories and why they are useful in systems analysis.
Understand the concept of JAD and when to use it.
Write effective questions to survey users about their work.
Design and administer effective questionnaires.

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Interactive Methods to Elicit Human Information Requirements

Interviewing
Joint Application Design (JAD)
Questionnaires

The commonality of these methods is talking with and listening to people in the organization in order to understand their interactions with technology through a series of carefully composed questions.

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Major Topics

Interviewing
Interview preparation
Question types
Arranging questions
The interview report
User Stories
Joint Application Design (JAD)
Involvement
Location
Questionnaires
Writing questions
Using scales
Design
Administering

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Interviewing

Interviewing is an important method for collecting data on human and system information requirements
Interviews reveal information about:

Interviewee opinions

Interviewee feelings

Goals

Key HCI concerns

Opinions—may be more revealing and more important then facts. By seeking opinion rather then fact you can discover key problems.

Feelings—you can understand the organization’s culture more fully by listening to the feelings of the respondent.

Goals – project the organization’s future. You may not be able to determine goals through any other method.

HCI – the ergonomic aspects, the system usability, how pleasing and enjoyable the system is, and how useful it is in supporting individual tasks.

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Interview Preparation

Reading background material
Establishing interview objectives
Deciding whom to interview
Preparing the interviewee
Deciding on question types and structure

Reading background material—read and understand as much background information about the interviewees and their organization as possible.

Corporate website
Current annual report
Corporate news letter
Any publication sent out to explain the organization to the public
Standard & Poor’s

Trying to build a common vocabulary to phrase interview questions and to maximize the interview time.

Establishing interview objectives—four to six key areas concerning HCI, information processing and decision-making behavior.

Deciding whom to interview—strive for balance so that as many users’ needs are addressed as possible.

Preparing the interviewee—call ahead; keep to 45 minutes to an hour at the most.

Deciding on question types and structure—write questions to cover the key areas of decision making that you discovered when you ascertained interview objectives.

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Question Types

Open-ended
Closed

Each question type can accomplish something a little different from the other, and each has benefits and drawbacks.

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Open-Ended Questions

Open-ended interview questions allow interviewees to respond how they wish, and to what length they wish
Open-ended interview questions are appropriate when the analyst is interested in breadth and depth of reply

“Open” actually describes the interviewee’s options for responding. They are open.

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Advantages of Open-Ended Questions

Puts the interviewee at ease
Allows the interviewer to pick up on the interviewee’s vocabulary
Provides richness of detail
Reveals avenues of further questioning that may have gone untapped

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Advantages of Open-Ended Questions (continued)

Provides more interest for the interviewee
Allows more spontaneity
Makes phrasing easier for the interviewer
Useful if the interviewer is unprepared

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Disadvantages of Open-Ended Questions

May result in too much irrelevant detail
Possibly losing control of the interview
May take too much time for the amount of useful information gained
Potentially seeming that the interviewer is unprepared
Possibly giving the impression that the interviewer is on a “fishing expedition”

The analyst needs to carefully consider the implications of using open-ended questions for interviewing.

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Closed Interview Questions

Closed interview questions limit the number of possible responses
Closed interview questions are appropriate for generating precise, reliable data that is easy to analyze
The methodology is efficient, and it requires little skill for interviewers to administer

The alternative to open-ended questions.

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Benefits of Closed Interview Questions

Saving interview time
Easily comparing interviews
Getting to the point
Keeping control of the interview
Covering a large area quickly
Getting to relevant data

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Disadvantages of Closed Interview Questions

Boring for the interviewee
Failure to obtain rich detailing
Missing main ideas
Failing to build rapport between interviewer and interviewee

As the interviewer you must think carefully about the question types you will use.

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Attributes of Open-Ended and Closed Questions (Figure 4.5)

Choosing one question type over the other involves a trade-off; although an open-ended question affords breath and depth of reply, responses to open-ended questions are difficult to analyze.

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Bipolar Questions

Bipolar questions are those that may be answered with a “yes” or “no” or “agree” or “disagree”
Bipolar questions should be used sparingly
A special kind of closed question

This type of closed question limits the interviewee even further by allowing a choice on either “pole,” such as yes or no, true or false, agree or disagree.

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Probes

Probing questions elicit more detail about previous questions
The purpose of probing questions is:
To get more meaning
To clarify
To draw out and expand on the interviewee’s point
May be either open-ended or closed

Used as a follow-up question.

The strongest probe is simply—Why?

It is essential to probe so that we don’t accept superficial answers.

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Arranging Questions

Pyramid
Starting with closed questions and working toward open-ended questions
Funnel
Starting with open-ended questions and working toward closed questions
Diamond
Starting with closed, moving toward open-ended, and ending with closed questions

There are two ways of organizing interviews—pyramid and funnel, the diamond approach combines both.

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Pyramid Structure

Begins with very detailed, often closed questions
Expands by allowing open-ended questions and more generalized responses
Is useful if interviewees need to be warmed up to the topic or seem reluctant to address the topic

Inductive organization of interview questions.

Also useful if you want an ending determination about the topic.

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Pyramid Structure for Interviewing Goes from Specific to General Questions (Figure 4.7 )

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Funnel Structure

Begins with generalized, open-ended questions
Concludes by narrowing the possible responses using closed questions
Provides an easy, nonthreatening way to begin an interview
Is useful when the interviewee feels emotionally about the topic

Deductive organization of interview questions.

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Funnel Structure for Interviewing Begins with Broad Questions then Funnels to Specific Questions (Figure 4.8)

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Diamond Structure

A diamond-shaped structure begins in a very specific way
Then more general issues are examined
Concludes with specific questions
Combines the strength of both the pyramid and funnel structures
Takes longer than the other structures

The diamond structure combines the strengths of the pyramid and funnel approach but has the disadvantage of taking longer.

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Diamond-Shaped Structure for Interviewing Combines the Pyramid and Funnel Structures (Figure 4.9)

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Closing the Interview

Always ask “Is there anything else that you would like to add?”
Summarize and provide feedback on your impressions
Ask whom you should talk with next
Set up any future appointments
Thank them for their time and shake hands.

“Is there anything else that you would like to add?” —considered a formula question the response will often be “No.”

In form the interviewee about the next steps to take.

Always remember to thank the interviewee for their time.

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Interview Report

Write as soon as possible after the interview
Provide an initial summary, then more detail
Review the report with the respondent

The longer you wait to write your report, the more suspect your data becomes.

Review the report with the respondent—helps clarify the meaning the interviewee had in mind and lets the interviewee know that you care.

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Stories

Stories originate in the workplace
Organizational stories are used to relay some kind of information
When a story is told and retold over time it takes on a mythic quality
Isolated stories are good when you are looking for facts
Enduring stories capture all aspects of the organization and are the ones a systems analyst should look for

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Purposes for Telling a Story

There are four purposes for telling a story:
Experiential stories describe what the business or industry is like
Explanatory stories tell why the organization acted a certain way
Validating stories are used to convince people that the organization made the correct decision
Prescriptive stories tell the listener how to act
Systems analysts can use storytelling as a complement to other information gathering methods

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Joint Application Design (JAD)

Joint Application Design (JAD) can replace a series of interviews with the user community
JAD is a technique that allows the analyst to accomplish requirements analysis and design the user interface with the users in a group setting

An alternative approach to interviewing users one by one.

Developed by IBM.

The motivation was to cut the time and hence the cost required by interviews. It also creates more use identification with new systems as a result of the participative process.

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Conditions That Support the Use of JAD

Users are restless and want something new
The organizational culture supports joint problem-solving behaviors
Analysts forecast an increase in the number of ideas using JAD
Personnel may be absent from their jobs for the length of time required

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Who Is Involved

Executive sponsor
IS analyst
Users
Session leader
Observers
Scribe

All project team members must be committed to the JAD approach and become involved.

Executive sponsor—a senior person who will introduce and conclude the JAD session.

IS Analyst—gives an expert opinion about any disproportionate costs of solutions proposed.

Users—try to select users that can articulate what information they need to perform their jobs as well as what they desire in anew or improved computer system.

Session leader—someone who has excellent communication skills to facilitate appropriate interactions.

Observers—analysts or technical experts from other functional areas to offer technical explanations and advice.

Scribe—formally write down everything that is done.

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Where to Hold JAD Meetings

Offsite
Comfortable surroundings
Minimize distractions
Attendance
Schedule when participants can attend
Agenda
Orientation meeting

Hold offsite to minimize the daily distractions and responsibilities of the participants’ regular work.

Do not hold the session unless everyone can attend. An agenda should be giving out before the meeting so the participants know what to expect. If possible an orientation meeting can be given.

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Benefits of JAD

Time is saved, compared with traditional interviewing
Rapid development of systems
Improved user ownership of the system
Creative idea production is improved

Some organizations have estimated a 15 percent time savings over traditional.

Helps users become involved early in systems projects and treats their feedback seriously.

Much like brainstorming which allows for creative idea production.

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Drawbacks of Using JAD

JAD requires a large block of time to be available for all session participants
If preparation or the follow-up report is incomplete, the session may not be successful
The organizational skills and culture may not be conducive to a JAD session

It is not possible to do other activities concurrently or to time-shift any activities, as is typically done in one-to-one interviewing.

It is a judgmental decision if the organization is truly committed to, and prepared for , this approach.

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Questionnaires

Questionnaires are useful in gathering information from key organization members about:

Attitudes
Beliefs
Behaviors
Characteristics

Attributes—what people in the organization say they want.

Beliefs—what people think is actually true.

Behavior—what organizational members do.

Characteristics—properties of people or things.

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Planning for the Use of Questionnaires

Organization members are widely dispersed
Many members are involved with the project
Exploratory work is needed
Problem solving prior to interviews is necessary

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Question Types

Questions are designed as either:

Open-ended
Try to anticipate the response you will get
Well suited for getting opinions
Closed
Use when all the options may be listed
When the options are mutually exclusive

Even when you write an open-ended question, it must be narrow enough to guide respondents to answer in a specific way.

Use open-ended questions when it is impossible to list effectively all possible responses to a question.

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Trade-offs between the Use of Open-Ended and Closed Questions on Questionnaires (Figure 4.12)

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Questionnaire Language

Simple
Specific
Short
Not patronizing
Free of bias
Addressed to those who are knowledgeable
Technically accurate
Appropriate for the reading level of the respondent

Write questionnaires in the respondents own language usage.

Simple – Use the language of the respondents whenever possible.

Specific – work at being specific rather then vague in wording.

Short – keep questions short

Not patronizing – do not talk down to participants through low-level language choices.

Free of bias – also means avoiding objectionable questions.

Addressed to those who are knowledgeable – target questions to correct respondents.

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Measurement Scales

The two different forms of measurement scales are:
Nominal
Interval

Scaling is the process of assigning numbers or other symbols to an attribute or characteristic for the purpose of measuring that attribute or characteristic.

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Nominal Scales

Nominal scales are used to classify things
It is the weakest form of measurement
Data may be totaled

What type of software do you use the most?

1 = Word Processor

2 = Spreadsheet

3 = Database

4 = An Email Program

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Interval Scales

An interval scale is used when the intervals are equal
There is no absolute zero
Examples of interval scales include the Fahrenheit or Centigrade scale

How useful is the support given by the Technical Support Group?

NOT USEFUL EXTREMELY

AT ALL USEFUL

1 2 3 4 5

More complete analysis can be performed on interval scales.

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Validity and Reliability

Reliability of scales refers to consistency in response—getting the same results if the same questionnaire was administered again under the same conditions
Validity is the degree to which the question measures what the analyst intends to measure

Questionnaires must be valid and reliable.

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Problems with Scales

Leniency
Central tendency
Halo effect

Construction of scales is a serious task, which must consider the problems associated with their construction.

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Leniency

Caused by easy raters
Solution is to move the “average” category to the left or right of center

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Central Tendency

Central tendency occurs when respondents rate everything as average
Improve by making the differences smaller at the two ends
Adjust the strength of the descriptors
Create a scale with more points

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Halo Effect

When the impression formed in one question carries into the next question
Solution is to place one trait and several items on each page

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Designing the Questionnaire

Allow ample white space
Allow ample space to write or type in responses
Make it easy for respondents to clearly mark their answers
Be consistent in style

A well designed, relevant questionnaire can help overcome some of this resistance to respond.

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Order of Questions

Place most important questions first
Cluster items of similar content together
Introduce less controversial questions first

You want respondents to feel as unthreatened by and interested in the questions being asked as possible, without getting overwrought about a particular issue.

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Administering Questionnaires

Administering questionnaires has two main questions:
Who in the organization should receive the questionnaire
How should the questionnaire be administered

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Ways to Capture Responses When Designing a Web Survey (Figure 4.13)

When you design questionnaires for the Web, apply the same rules you use when designing paper questionnaires.

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Methods of Administering the Questionnaire

Convening all concerned respondents together at one time
Personally administering the questionnaire
Allowing respondents to self-administer the questionnaire
Mailing questionnaires
Administering over the Web or via email

The choice of administering the questionnaire may be determined by the existing business situation.

Both email and Web surveys are self–administered; response are a little lower then other methods, but may result in less guarded answers.

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Electronically Submitting Questionnaires

Reduced costs
Collecting and storing the results electronically

Reminders can be sent.

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Summary

Interviewing
Interview preparation
Question types
Arranging questions
The interview report
Stories
Joint Application Design (JAD)
Involvement and location
Questionnaires
Writing questions
Using scales and overcoming problems
Design and order
Administering and submitting

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