for smartwriter only

It is the purpose of this manual to teach instructional designers how to properly utilize the selected learning strategies when creating learning materials. The strategies discussed in this manual are: positive reinforcement, chunking, mnemonics, signaling, and scaffolding. Techniques were selected to range the most common theories of how students learn. Also these strategies are among the most recognizable of learning techniques. After reading this manual, designers will be well informed on the basics of strategies of learning and how to implement them in instruction. Each section is structured in the following manner:

· A short example of the strategy

· Vocabulary and definitions for the section

· A discussion of the how the strategy is fits into learning theory

· What types of instruction or learning fits best with the strategy

· A short review of the literature on the subject

· Tips for implementing the strategy

· Further reading on topics discussed in the chapter

For each of the strategies the instructional designer will:

1. know how the strategy is based in specific learning theory

2. be able to think critically on when to select and use the strategy

3. familiarize themselves with research on the topic

4. be able to utilize the discussed aspects of the strategy to create instruction

Table of Contents Introduction 1 Objectives 1 Table of Contents 2 Positive Reinforcement 3 What it is 3 When to select and use it 3 Why it should be selected 4 How it is best utilized 4 Related research 5 Chunking 6 What it is 6 When to select and use it 6 Why it should be selected 6 How it is best utilized 7 Related research 7 Mnemonics 8 What it is 8 When to select and use it 8 Why it should be selected 8 How it is best utilized 9 Related research 9 Signaling 10 What it is 10 When to select and use it 10 Why it should be selected 10 How it is best utilized 11 Related research 11 Scaffolding 12 What it is 12 When to select and use it 12 Why it should be selected 12 How it is best utilized 12 Related research 12 References 13

A student, seen sharing his toys with another student, is told “That was very nice of you, Sam.”

Behaviorism forms the background of positive reinforcement. Popularized by B.F. Skinner, behaviorism is the theory that learning occurs because the student is conditioned to react in a certain way to stimuli. Learning strategies for this theory seek to change the probability that an event will happen by presenting the learner with consequences for performing an action. This consequence, whether good or bad, reinforces a desired outcome. Skinner believes that it is only the consequence that affects the probability of an action reoccurring, the thought process of the subject is not important (Driscoll 2005, p. 32-36).

Positive reinforcement is possibly the most well-known of behaviorist strategies. Driscoll defines positive reinforcement as “presentation of a reinforcer (satisfying stimulus) contingent up a response that results in the strengthening of that response” (Driscoll 2005, p. 37). To put it another way, positive reinforcement increase the probability of an action by associating the action with satisfying events. This stimulus can take the form of any type of pleasurable item.

When choosing to use positive reinforcement in instructional design there are a few factors to keep in mind. The first is that the reinforcer must be something that the student finds satisfying (Driscoll 2005, p.39). There are three types of reinforcers: primary, where the reward is something that is of biological importance (e.g. food), conditioned, where the reward has been assigned importance (e.g. stickers), or social, where the reward is a positive social action (e.g. praise). A common instance of conditioned reinforcers is the implementation of a token economy where when students display a desired action they are rewarded with a token that can be used to redeem prizes or privileges. Part of the token economy is also the outcome that a token can be taken away; so obviously, this means the strategy is not strictly positive reinforcement.

It should also be noted that the desired behavior may need to be cued for the strategy to be effective. One cannot reward a student for a behavior if it is never displayed. So give learner’s opportunities to perform the behavior and follow through as necessary.

Lastly, the frequency of the reward should be of concern. A variable ratio strategy produces the highest rate of desired response (Driscoll 2005, p. 51). In this strategy students are rewarded at randomized intervals. For example, one can decide to reward randomly during 10 iterations of a positive response. During the first round of 10 iterations, the student could be rewarded the second time. Then during the second round of 10 the reward could be the tenth time.

Morrison, J. Q., & Jones, K. M. (2007). The Effects of Positive Peer Reporting as a Class-Wide Positive Behavior Support. Journal of Behavioral Education, 16(2), 111-124.

Boerke, K. W., & Reitman, D. (2011). Token economies, In W. W. Fisher, C. C. Piazza, H. S. Roane (Eds.), Handbook of applied behavior analysis (pp. 370-382). New York, NY US: Guilford Press.

Vocab

Primary Reinforcer -

Conditioned reinforce -

Social reinforce -

Positive reinforcement -

Reinforce -

Behaviorism -

Variable Ratio Strategy -

ABCD EFG HIJK LMNOP QRS TUV WX YZ

Chunking is most effective when there is more information to be processed than can be held in the short term memory. For example, lists of states can be chunked by geographical region. Also when memorizing chunking can help build up to the full content of the data to be memorized.

Using chunking in instruction is straightforward. Break complex information down into smaller, logical sets, then after those sets have been learned combining the small sets into bigger sets. An example of this is memorizing a monologue. Students can start by memorizing the first paragraph, then move on to the second. Then combine those two and add the third; and so on until the whole piece is memorized.

Bor, D., & Seth, A. K. (2012). Consciousness and the prefrontal parietal network: Insights from attention, working memory and chunking. [Review]. Frontiers in Psychology, 3. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00063

Vocab

Chunking

Cognitive load

Short Term memory

Long-Term Memory

Recoding

Figure 1 Knuckle Mnemonic

Mnemonics are also rooted in the cognitive domain of learning strategies. Mnemonics encode information in the memory by adding meaningful context to the content. This can be done in three ways: dual coding, organization, or association (Mayer 2008, p. 393).

In dual coding the information is encoded in the mind in two ways giving multiple access points for information. Organization arranges information so that it is not a collection of separate pieces. Lastly, association creates links between information.

The use of mnemonics is best suited when learners are studying material that may not form direct connections in their minds. For instances, lists, procedures, foreign language vocabulary, and facts can all be encoded by using mnemonics. Mnemonics should have the student actively make cognitive links between information.

When using mnemonics in in instruction, Driscoll (2005, p. 86) mentions that students should be encouraged to create their own mnemonics so that the connection are more meaningful. However, teach supplied mnemonics can be useful if students are trained in their use (Mayer 2008, p. 398). Given the results found in McNeil et al., (2010) and Wang and Thomas (1996), mnemonics should be used with care and should be supplemented with other types of instruction so that information is retained.

Wolgmuth, J. R., Cobb, R., & Alwell, M. (2008). The effects of mnemonic intervention on academic outcomes for youth with disabilities: a systematic review. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice 23(1), 1-10.

Vocab

Mnemonic

Cognitive Theory

Encoding

The first step in making a cake is to gather all of the ingredients.

Another technique within the cognitive realm of learning theory is signaling. Signaling uses non-content words or standardized cues so that students can organize the information in their mind. There are many types of signals, so many that not all can be named here.

In its myriad of forms, signaling is used to ease the transmission of large amounts of verbal or textual information. Using signaling can help draw attention to important material. It also helps students who do not have the best reading skills hone their attention on relevant material which helps with comprehension (Mayer 2008, p. 368).

Before using this technique, one must be sure that students are aware of how to use it. Uses such as numbered lists may be more easily understood, but standardize headings (such as literature review) may not be obvious to students who have never worked with the material before.

For text documents, formatting can play an important role in creating understanding. Techniques such as bolding vocab words and italicizing definitions can be useful. To help create outlines, formatting can be used by bolding main headings, italicizing supporting headings, and underlining main points within the sections. Obviously, this is not the only method, just an example. In verbal applications, the use of cues (The first topic of discussion…) can help students create connections between material and organize the information in their mind. It is important to keep your formatting, or any other types of signals consistent to avoid confusion.

Signaling can also be used to improve confusing text (Mayer 2008, p.372). You could have students underline the main topic of paragraphs, or create their own outlines of a speech. This serves the purpose of teaching signaling, creating meaning, and building note taking skills all at the same time.

Cook, L.K., & Mayer, R.E. (1988). Teaching readers about the structure of scientific text. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80(4), 448-456. Doi:10.1037/0022-0663.80.4.448

Signaling

Cues

Abstracted statements

Summary statements

Pointer words

Scaffolding works within the concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) as developed by Vygotsky. In the ZPD, students are developing their understanding of a topic. Scaffolding works within the zone through more knowledgeable peers, or instructors guiding students through their developing knowledge. This instructor works with the student to co-construct knowledge. Vygotsky’s ideas fit within the learning theory of Constructivism where students seek out understanding of their experiences, and actively assess their assumptions until they find one that fits. New experiences that disrupt their assumptions start the process anew. (Driscoll 2005, p. 387).

Scaffolding is best used to enhance critical thinking skills. Driscoll discusses the use of scaffolding in creating new perspectives (2005, p. 258). As students are learning with and in cooperation with others who have differing viewpoints, they must assess their own views. Additionally, Bockarie (2002) notes in his discussion on scaffolding supporting social cognition in vocational education, that scaffolding allows students to stretch their knowledge by giving precision guidance so that students are neither bored nor seen as incompetent. Both of these require students to expand on what they already know and create their own understanding in a collaborative environment. Comment by Carey:

Words words words words

· Co-construction of concepts

· Group work Create groups of students with mixed skills and viewpoints

Van de Pol, J., Volman, M., & Beishuizen, J. (2010). Scaffolding in teacher-student interaction: a decade of research. Educational Psychology Review, 22(3), 271-296. doi:10.1007/s10648-010-9127-6

Vocab

Scaffolding

ZPD

Constructivism