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Lesikar−Flatley−Rentz: Business Communication: Making Connections in a Digital World, 11th Edition

VI. Cross−Cultural Communication, Correctness, Technology, Research

17. Correctness of Communication

c h a p t e r s e v e n t e e n

Correctness of Communication

L E A R N I N G O B J E C T I V E S

Upon completing this chapter, you will be able to use the accepted standards of English grammar and punctuation in written business communications. To reach this goal, you should be able to

1 Punctuate messages correctly. 2 Write complete, grammatically correct sentences, avoiding such

problems as awkward construction, dangling modifi ers, and misuse of words.

3 Determine when to spell out numbers and when to express them in numeral form according to standards of correctness.

4 Spell words correctly by applying spelling rules and using a dictionary or spell checker.

5 Use capital letters for all proper names, fi rst words of sentences, and fi rst words of complimentary closes.

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I N T R O D U C T O R Y S I T U A T I O N

The Effects of Correctness on Communication Play the role of Mike Rook, a purchasing agent for Hewlett-Packard, and read through today’s mail. The fi rst letter comes from Joe Spivey, sales manager, B and B Manufacturing Company. You have not met the writer, though you talked to him on the phone a few days ago. At that time, you were favorably impressed with Spivey’s enthusiasm and ability, and with B and B. In fact, you assumed that after he gave you the information you needed about B and B’s products and services, you would begin buying from it. As you read Spivey’s letter, however, you are startled. “Could this be the same person I talked with?” you ask yourself. There in the fi rst paragraph is an it don’t, a clear error of subject–verb agreement. Farther down, an it’s is used to show possession rather than its. Spivey apparently uses the sprinkle system for placing commas—that is, he sprinkles them wherever his whims direct. His commas often fall in strange places. For example, he writes, “Our salespeople, say the Rabb Company engineers, will verify the durability of Ironskin protective coating,” but you think he means “Our salespeople say the Rabb Company engineers will verify the durability of Ironskin protective coat- ing.” The two sentences, which differ only in their punctuation, have distinctly different meanings. Spivey’s message is fi lled with such errors. In general, you now have a lower opinion of Spivey and his company. Perhaps you’ll have to take a long look at B and B’s products and services. After all, the products and services that a company provides are closely related to the quality of its people. The problem just described is a very real one in business. Image does infl uence the success of both companies and people. And correctness in writing infl uences image. Thus, you will want to make certain that your writing is cor- rect, so that it helps form a favorable image both of you and of your company. The material presented in the pages that follow should help you in that effort.

The correctness of your communication will be important to you and your company. It will be important to you because people will judge you by it, and how they judge you will help determine your success in life. It will be important to your company because it will help convey the image of competence that companies like. People judge a com- pany by how its employees act, think, talk, and write. Company executives want such judgments to be favorable.

THE NATURE OF CORRECTNESS Not all people agree that there are standards for correct communication. In fact, some people think there should be no general standards of this kind, that whatever com- municates in a given case is all right. Businesspeople, however, generally accept the standards for correct usage that educated people have developed over the years. These are the standards that you have studied in your English composition classes and that appear in textbooks. Businesspeople expect you to follow them. These standards of correctness have one basic purpose: to assist in communicating. To some people the standards of correctness appear arbitrary or unnecessary. But such is not the case. They are designed to reduce misunderstanding—to make communi- cation more precise. When you communicate precisely, you practice good ethics by meeting your reader’s needs for understandable messages. It is only in this light that we can justify studying them. The practical value of these standards is easily illustrated. Take, for example, the following two sentences. Their words are the same; only their punctuation differs. But what a difference the punctuation makes!

“The teacher,” said the student, “is careless.” The teacher said, “The student is careless.”

• People judge you and your company by the correctness of your communication.

• Businesspeople expect you to follow the generally accepted standards of English.

• These standards of correctness assist in communicating.

Lesikar−Flatley−Rentz: Business Communication: Making Connections in a Digital World, 11th Edition

VI. Cross−Cultural Communication, Correctness, Technology, Research

17. Correctness of Communication

504 PART 6 Cross-Cultural Communication, Correctness, Technology, Research

Or what about the following pair of sentences? Who is speaking, the Democrats or the Republicans? The commas make a difference.

The Democrats, say the Republicans, will win. The Democrats say the Republicans will win.

Here are two more sentences. The difference here needs no explanation.

He looked at her stern. He looked at her sternly.

Because the standards of correctness are important to your communication in busi- ness, this chapter will review them. The review is not complete, for much more space would be needed for complete coverage. But the major standards are covered, those that most often present problems in your writing. For your convenience, the standards are coded with symbols (letters and numbers). You should fi nd these symbols useful in identifying the standards. Your instructor should fi nd them useful as grading marks to identify errors in your writing. You probably already know many of the standards of correctness, so the following information will not all be new to you. To help you determine how much you know and do not know, you should take the self-analysis test at the end of the chapter or on the textbook website. This will enable you to study the standards selectively. Because the self-analysis test covers only the more frequently used standards, however, you would be wise to review the entire chapter.

C O M M U N I C A T I O N M A T T E R S

Can You Detect the Differences in Meaning the Punctuation Makes?

What’s the latest dope? What’s the latest, dope?

The groom was asked to call the guests names as they arrived. The groom was asked to call the guests’ names as they arrived.

A clever dog knows it’s master. A clever dog knows its master.

Everyone, I know, has a problem. Everyone I know has a problem.

Do not break your bread or roll in your soup. Do not break your bread, or roll in your soup.

She ate a half-fried chicken. She ate a half fried chicken.

I left him convinced he was a fool. I left him, convinced he was a fool.

In the parade will be several hundred children, carrying fl ags and many important offi cials. In the parade will be several hundred children, carrying fl ags, and many important offi cials.

The play ended, happily. The play ended happily.

Thirteen people knew the secret, all told. Thirteen people knew the secret; all told.

• The following review covers the major standards. They are coded for your convenience.

• Take the self-analysis test to determine your present knowledge of the standards.

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STANDARDS FOR PUNCTUATION The following explanations cover the most important standards for correctness in punctuation. For reasons of accuracy, the explanations use some technical words. Even so, the illustrations should make the standards clear.

Apostrophe: Apos 1 Use the apostrophe to show the possessive case of nouns and indefi nite pronouns. If the word does not end in s, add an apostrophe and an s. If the word ends in s, add only an apostrophe.

Nominative Form Possessive Form

company company’s

employee employee’s

someone someone’s

companies companies’

employees employees’

Proper names and singular nouns ending in s sounds are exceptions. To such words you may add either an apostrophe and an s or just an apostrophe. Add only an apostro- phe to the nominative plural.

Nominative Form Possessive Form

Texas (singular) Texas’s, Texas’

Jones (singular) Jones’s, Jones’

Joneses (plural) Joneses’

countess (singular) countess’s, countess’

boss (singular) boss’s

Apos 2 Use an apostrophe to mark the place in a contraction where letters are omitted. Do not use it to make personal pronouns possessive (its, hers).

it is = it’s has not = hasn’t cannot = can’t

Brackets: Bkts Set off in brackets words that you wish to insert in a quotation.

“The use of this type of mentor [the personal coach] may still be increasing.” “Direct supervision has diminished in importance during the past decade [the report was written in 2005], when 63 percent of the reporting business fi rms that started programs used teams.”

Colon: Cln 1 Use the colon to introduce an enumeration, a formal quotation, or a statement of explanation.

Enumeration: Working in this department are three classes of support: clerical support, computer support, and customer support. Formal quotation: President Hartung had this to say about the proposal: “Any such movement that fails to get the support of the workers from all divisions fails to get my support.” Explanation: At this time the company was pioneering a new marketing idea: It was attempting to sell customized products directly to consumers through its website.

• Use the apostrophe to show possession.

• Mark omissions in contractions with the apostrophe.

• Use brackets to set off words that you insert in a quotation.

• Use the colon to introduce formal statements.

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Cln 2 Do not use the colon when the thought of the sentence should continue without inter- ruption. If introducing a list by a colon, the colon should be preceded by a word that explains or identifi es the list.

Not this: Cities in which new sales offi ces are in operation are: Fort Smith, Texarkana, Lake Charles, Jackson, and Biloxi. But this: Cities in which new sales offi ces are in operation are Fort Smith, Texarkana, Lake Charles, Jackson, and Biloxi. Or this: Cities with new sales offi ces are as follows: Fort Smith, Texarkana, Lake Charles, Jackson, and Biloxi.

Comma: Cma 1 Use the comma to separate independent (main) clauses connected by a coordinating conjunction. Some coordinating conjunctions are and, but, or, and nor. (An indepen- dent clause has a subject and a verb and stands by itself. A coordinating conjunction connects clauses, words, or phrases of equal rank.)

Only two components of the index declined, and these two account for only 12 percent of the total weight of the index. New hybrid automobiles are moving at record volumes, but used-car sales are lagging behind the record pace set two years ago.

Make exceptions to this rule, however, in the case of compound sentences consist- ing of short and closely connected clauses.

We sold and the price dropped. Sometimes we win and sometimes we lose.

Cma 2–1 Separate the items listed in a series by commas. In order to avoid misinterpretation of the rare instances in which some of the items listed have compound constructions, it is always good to include the comma between the last two items (before the fi nal conjunction).

Good copy must cover facts with accuracy, sincerity, honesty, and conviction. Direct advertising can be used to introduce salespeople, fi ll in between salespeople’s calls, cover territory where salespeople cannot be maintained, and keep pertinent reference material in the hands of prospects. The DuPont Color Popularity Report conducted in 2005 indicated that in North America silver, white, blue, and black cars were the top fi ve colors favored by the public.

• Do not use the colon when it breaks the thought fl ow.

• Use the comma to separate clauses connected by and, but, or, and nor.

• Use the comma to separate (1) items in a series and

FOXTROT Bill Amend

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Cma 2–2 Separate coordinate adjectives in a series by commas if they modify the same noun and if no and connects them. A good test to determine whether adjectives are coordinate is to insert an and between them. If the and does not change the meaning, the adjectives are coordinate.

Miss Pratt has been a reliable, faithful, effi cient employee for 20 years. We guarantee that this is a good, clean car. Blue offi ce furniture is Mr. Orr’s recommendation for the new conference room. (Offi ce furniture is practically a compound noun; blue modifi es both words.) A big crescent wrench proved to be best for the task. (The and won’t fi t between big and crescent.)

Cma 3 Set off nonrestrictive modifi ers by commas. By a nonrestrictive modifi er we mean a modifi er that could be omitted from the sentence without changing its meaning. Re- strictive modifi ers (those that restrict the words they modify to one particular object) are not set off by commas. A restrictive modifi er cannot be left out of the sentence without changing its meaning.

Restrictive: The salesperson who sells the most will get a bonus. (Who sells the most restricts the meaning to a particular salesperson.) Nonrestrictive: Diana Chan, who was the company’s top salesperson for the year, was awarded a bonus. (If the clause who was the company’s top salesperson for the year is omitted, the meaning of the sentence is not changed.) Restrictive: J. Ward & Company is the fi rm that employs most of the physically disabled in this area. Nonrestrictive: J. Ward & Company, the fi rm that employs most of the physically disabled in this area, has gained the admiration of the community.

Notice that some modifi ers can be either restrictive or nonrestrictive, depending on the writer’s intended meaning.

Restrictive: All the cars that were damaged in the fl ood were sold at a discount. (Implies that some of the cars were not damaged.) Nonrestrictive: All the cars, which were damaged by the fl ood, were sold at a discount. (Implies that the entire fl eet of cars was damaged.)

Cma 4–1 Use commas to set off parenthetical expressions. A parenthetic expression consists of words that interrupt the normal fl ow of the sentence. In a sense, they appear to be “stuck in.” In many instances, they are simply words out of normal order. For example, the sentence “A full-page, black-and-white advertisement was run in the Daily Bulletin” contains a parenthetical expression when the word order is altered: “An advertisement, full-page and in black and white, was run in the Daily Bulletin.”

This practice, it is believed, will lead to fi nancial ruin. Merck, as The Wall Street Journal reports, has sharply increased its alliance activity.

Although in such cases you may use dashes or the parentheses in place of commas, the three marks differ in the degree to which they separate the enclosed words from the rest of the sentence. The comma is the weakest of the three, and it is best used when the material set off is closely related to the surrounding words. Dashes are stronger marks than commas and are used when the material set off tends to be long or contains internal punctuation marks. Parentheses, the strongest of the three, are primarily used to enclose material that helps explain or supplement the main words of the sentence.

• (2) adjectives in a series.

• Use commas to set off nonrestrictive modifi ers (those that could be left out without changing the meaning of the sentence).

• Use commas to set off (1) parenthetical expressions (comments “stuck in”),

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Cma 4–2 Use commas to set off an appositive (a noun or a noun and its modifi ers inserted to explain another noun) from the rest of the sentence. In a sense, appositives are paren- thetical expressions, for they interrupt the normal fl ow of the sentence.

UPS, our primary shipper, is leasing a new distribution center in China. St. Louis, home offi ce of our Midwest district, will be the permanent site of our annual sales meeting. President Cartwright, a self-educated woman, is the leading advocate of online training for employees.

But appositives that are required for the sentence meaning are not set off by commas.

The word liabilities is not understood by most people. Our next shipment will come on the ship Alberta.

Cma 4–3 Set off parenthetical words include such transitional expressions as however, in fact, of course, for example, and consequently with commas.

It is apparent, therefore, that the buyers’ resistance was caused by an overvigorous sales campaign. After the fi rst experiment, for example, the traffi c fl ow increased 10 percent. The company, however, will be forced to adopt a more competitive pricing strategy.

Included in this group of parenthetical words may be introductory interjections (oh, alas) and responsive expressions (yes, no, surely, indeed, well, and and so on). But if the words are strongly exclamatory or are not closely connected with the rest of the sentence, they may be punctuated as a sentence. (No. Yes. Indeed.)

Yes, the decision to increase product placement advertising has been made. Oh, contribute whatever you think is appropriate.

Cma 4–4 When more than one unit appears in a date or an address, set off the units by commas.

One unit: December 30 is the date of our annual inventory. One unit: The company has one outlet in Ohio. More than one unit: December 30, 1906, is the date the Johnston Company fi rst opened its doors. More than one unit: Richmond, Virginia, is the headquarters of the new sales district.

Cma 5–1 Use the comma after a subordinate clause that precedes the main clause.

Although it is durable, this package does not have eye appeal. Since there was little store traffi c on aisle 13, the area was converted into storage space.

Cma 5–2 Place a comma after an introductory verbal phrase. A verbal phrase is one that contains some verb derivative: a gerund, a participle, or an infi nitive.

Gerund phrase: After gaining the advantage, we failed to press on to victory. Participle phrase: Realizing his mistake, Ron instructed his direct reports to keep a record of all salvaged equipment.

• (2) apposition words (words explaining another word),

• (3) certain paranthetical words (in fact, however), and

• (4) units in a date or address.

• Use the comma after (1) introductory subordinate clauses and

• (2) introductory verbal phrases.

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Infi nitive phrase: To increase the turnover of automobile accessories, we must fi rst improve their display area.

Cma 6–1 Use the comma only for good reason. It is not a mark to be inserted indiscriminately at the writer’s whim. As a rule, the use of commas should be justifi ed by one of the standard practices previously noted. Do not be tricked into putting a comma between the subject and the verb.

The thought that he could not afford to fail spurred him on. (No comma after fail.)

Cma 6–2 Take exception to the preceding standards wherever the insertion of a comma will help clarity of expression.

Not this: From the beginning inventory methods of Hill Company have been haphazard. But this: From the beginning, inventory methods of Hill Company have been haphazard.

Not this: Ever since she has been a model worker. But this: Ever since, she has been a model worker.

Dash: Dsh Use the dash to set off an element for emphasis or to show interrupted thought. In par- ticular, use it with long parenthetical expressions or parenthetical expressions contain- ing internal punctuation (see Cma 4–1). Most word processing software will usually allow you to insert a dash with a special character code. Depending on the software, you either insert the code through a combination of keystrokes or by selecting the char- acter from a character map. You can also make the dash by striking the hyphen twice, without spacing before or after.

Budgets for some past years—2006, for example—were prepared without consulting the department heads. The test proved that the new process is simple, effective, accurate—and more expensive. Only one person—the supervisor in charge—has authority to approve a policy exception. If you want a voice in the government—vote.

Exclamation Mark: Ex Use the exclamation mark at the end of a sentence or an exclamatory fragment to show strong emotion. But use it sparingly; never use it with trivial ideas.

We’ve done it again! Congratulations! Your outstanding performance review qualifi es you for merit pay.

Hyphen: Hpn 1 Use the hyphen to indicate the division of a word at the end of the line. You must divide between syllables. It is generally impractical to leave a one-letter syllable at the end of a line (a-bove) or to carry over a two-letter syllable to the next line (expens-es). If you turn on the hyphenation feature of your word processing software, you can let it automatically take care of hyphenating words. This feature permits you to set a hyphenation range. The wider the range, the fewer words that will be hyphenated and the more ragged your margin; the narrower the range, the more words that will be hyphenated and the smoother your right margin. You also have the option of controlling

• Do not use the comma without good reason, such as between the subject and the verb.

• Use the comma wherever it helps clarity.

• Use the dash to show interruption or emphasis.

• Use exclamation marks to show strong feeling.

• Mark word divisions with hyphens.

Lesikar−Flatley−Rentz: Business Communication: Making Connections in a Digital World, 11th Edition

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the hyphenation you desire. You can accept what the program recommends, suggest a different place to hyphenate, or tell it not to hyphenate.

Hpn 2–1 Place hyphens between the parts of some compound words. Generally, the hyphen is used whenever its absence would confuse the meaning of the words.

Compound nouns: brother-in-law, cure-all, city-state, foreign-born Compound numbers twenty-one through ninety-nine: fi fty-fi ve, eighty-one Compound adjectives (two or more words used before a noun as a single adjective): long-term contract, 50-gallon drum, fi ve-day grace period, end-of- month clearance Prefi xes (most have been absorbed into the word): co-organizer, ex-chairperson, anti-infl ation, self-suffi cient

Hpn 2–2 A proper name used as a compound adjective needs no hyphen or hyphens to hold it together as a visual unit for the reader. The capitals perform that function.

Correct: a Lamar High School student Correct: a United Airlines pilot

Hpn 2–3 Two or more modifi ers in normal grammatical form and order need no hyphens. Par- ticularly, a phrase consisting of an unmistakable adverb (one ending in ly) modifying an adjective or participle that in turn modifi es a noun shows normal grammatical order and is readily grasped by the reader without the benefi t of the hyphen. But an adverb not ending in ly is joined to its adjective or participle by the hyphen.

No hyphen needed: a poorly drawn chart Use the hyphen: a well-prepared chart

Italics: Ital 1 For the use of italics for book titles, see QM 4. Note that italics also are used for titles of periodicals, works of art, long musical compositions, and names of naval vessels and aircraft.

Ital 2 Italicize rarely used foreign words—if you must use them (wunderbar, keiretsu, oobeya). After a foreign word is widely accepted, however, it does not need to be italicized (carpe diem, faux pas, verboten). A current dictionary is a good source for information on which foreign words are italicized.

Ital 3 Italicize a word, letter, or fi gure used as its own name. Without this device, we could not write this set of rules. Note the use of italics throughout to label name words.

The little word sell is still in the dictionary. The pronoun which should always have a noun as a clear antecedent. (Without the italics, this one becomes a fragment.)

Parentheses: Parens Use the parenthesis to set off words that are parenthetical or are inserted to explain or supplement the principal message (see Cma 4–1).

• Place hyphens between the parts of compound words.

• Do not place hyphens between (1) proper names and

• (2) words that only follow each other.

• Use italics for (1) publication titles,

• (2) foreign words and abbreviations, and

• (3) a word used as its own name.

• Set off parenthetical words with parentheses.

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Electronic reference tools, like reference books, allow writers to look up facts when they need them. All kinds of reference materials are available electronically, from

T E C H N O L O G Y I N B R I E F

Software Enhances the Usefulness of Reference Tools

David Rick’s phenomenal illustrations (Blunders in International Business, 2006) show readers that even large corporations make incredible mistakes. As soon as Owen Smith was elected chairperson (the vote was almost 2 to 1), he introduced his plan for reorganization.

Period: Pd 1 Use the period to indicate the end of a declarative sentence, an imperative statement, or a courteous request.

Declarative sentence: The survey will be completed and returned by October 26. Imperative statement: Complete and return the survey by October 26. Courteous request: Will you please complete and return the survey by October 26?

• End a declarative sentence, an imperative statement, or a courteous request with a period.

dictionaries to grammar and style guides, encyclopedias, ZIP code directories, quotation databases, maps, and much, much more. These programs vary widely in their similarities to and differences from print reference books.

Often they enhance the printed form, giving the user more ways to use them. Electronic dictionaries let you search for words the traditional way, with wildcards, as soundalikes (homophones), by words in their defi nition, and more. In the bottom screen, you see a search on the Merriam- Webster website for the word fuchsia in a reverse dictionary by searching its defi ni- tion for the words red and fl ower. As you can see in the middle screen, the software identifi ed 19 words with these search terms. Sometime you may recognize the word the minute you see it on the list; other times you’ll need to review the defi nitions and perhaps check any illustrations. If you were unsure of the spelling, you could search by its beginning or ending letters. Also, you may know the word begins with

fu and ends with a, but not know the middle of the spell- ing. You could use the asterisk (*) wildcard, searching with fu*a to fi nd it. Electronic dictionaries go beyond the printed diction- ary by providing audio as well. The user here, looking up the word fuchsia, would simply click on the sound icon to hear the word pronounced. Additionally, electronic dictionaries often link to other defi nitions to help users understand the meaning when words in the defi nition are unclear. Such dictionaries, as well as all reference software, help writers to choose words that communi- cate clearly and to be correct in their writing.

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Pd 2 Use periods after abbreviations or initials.

Ph.D., Co., Inc., a.m., etc.

But omit the periods and use all capitals in the initials or acronyms of agencies, networks, associations, and such: IRS, NBC, OPEC, EEC.

Pd 3 Use ellipses (a series of periods) to indicate the omission of words from a quoted pas- sage. If the omitted part consists of something less than a sentence, three periods are customarily placed at the point of omission (a fourth period is added if the omission is a sentence or more). If the omitted part is a paragraph or more, however, a full line of periods is used. In all cases, the periods are separated by spaces.

Logical explanations, however, have been given by authorities in the fi eld. Some attribute the decline . . . to recent changes in the state’s economy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Added to the labor factor is the high cost of raw material, which has tended to elimi- nate many marginal producers. Moreover, the rising cost of electric power in recent years may have shifted the attention of many industry leaders to other forms of production.

Question Mark: Q Place a question mark at the end of sentences that are direct questions.

What are the latest quotations on Disney common stock? Will this campaign help sell Microsoft products?

But do not use the question mark with indirect questions.

The president was asked whether this campaign would help sell Microsoft products. He asked me what the latest quotations on Disney common stock were.

Quotation Marks: QM 1 Use quotation marks to enclose the exact words of a speaker or, if the quotation is short, the exact words of a writer. Short written quotations are quotations of four lines or less, although authorities do not agree on this point. Some suggest three lines—others up to eight. Longer written quotations are best displayed without quotation marks and with an indented right and left margin.

Short written quotation: Ben Bernanke sums up his presentation with this statement: “The central bank will remain vigilant to ensure that recent increases in infl ation do not become chronic.” Oral quotation: “This really should bring on a production slowdown,” said Ms. Kuntz.

If a quotation is broken by explanation or reference words, each part of the quota- tion is enclosed in quotation marks.

“Will you be specifi c,” he asked, “in recommending a course of action?”

QM 2 Enclose a quotation within a quotation with single quotation marks.

Professor Dalbey said, “It has been a long time since I have heard a student say, ‘Prof, we need more writing assignments.’ ”

• Use a series of periods to show omissions.

• End direct questions with the question mark.

• Use quotation marks to enclose a speaker’s or writer’s exact words.

• Use single quotation marks for a quotation within a quotation.

• Use periods in abbreviations.

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QM 3 Always place periods and commas inside quotation marks. Place semicolons and colons outside the quotation marks. Place question marks and exclamation points inside if they apply to the quoted passage only and outside if they apply to the whole sentence.

“If we are patient,” he said, “we will reach this year’s goals.” (The comma and the period are within the quotation marks.) “Is there a quorum?” he asked. (The question mark belongs to the quoted passage.) Which of you said, “I know where the error lies”? (The question mark applies to the entire sentence. I conclude only this from the union’s promise to “force the hand of management”: A strike will be its trump card.

QM 4 Enclose in quotation marks the titles of parts of publications (articles in a magazine, chapters in a book). But italicize the titles of whole publications or underline if you are handwriting.

The third chapter of the book Elementary Statistical Procedure is titled “Concepts of Sampling.” Anne Fisher’s timely article, “Fatal Mistakes When Starting a New Job,” appears in the current issue of Fortune.

Semicolon: SC 1 Use the semicolon to separate independent clauses that are not connected by a conjunction.

The new contract provides wage increases; the original contract emphasized shorter hours.

Covered by this standard are independent clauses connected by conjunctive adverbs (transitional expressions) such as however, nevertheless, therefore, then, moreover, and besides.

The survey fi ndings indicated a need to revise the policy; nevertheless, the president did not approve the proposed revision. Small-town buyers favor the old model; therefore, the board concluded that both models should be marketed.

SC 2 You may use the semicolon to separate independent clauses joined by and, but, or, or nor (coordinating conjunctions) if the clauses are long or if they have other punctua- tion in them. In such situations, you may also use the semicolon for special emphasis.

The OCAW and the NUPNG, rivals from the beginning of the new industry, have shared almost equally in the growth of membership; but the OCAW predominates among workers in the petroleum-products crafts, including pipeline construction and operation, and the NUPNG leads in memberships of chemical workers. The market price was $6; but we paid $10.

SC 3 Separate by semicolons the items in a list when the items have commas in them.

The following gains were made in the February year-to-year comparison: Fort Worth, 7,300; Dallas, 4,705; Lubbock, 2,610; San Antonio, 2,350; Waco, 2,240; Port Arthur, 2,170; and Corpus Christi, 1,420.

• Periods and commas go inside quotation marks; semicolons and colons go outside; question marks and exclamation points go inside when they apply to the quoted part and outside when they apply to the entire sentence.

• Use quotation marks to enclose titles of parts of a publication.

• Use the semicolon to separate independent clauses not connected by a conjunction.

• You may choose to separate with a semicolon independent clauses joined by a conjunction.

• Use the semicolon to separate items in a list when the items contain commas.

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Elected for the new term were Anna T. Zelnak, attorney from Cincinnati; Wilbur T. Hoffmeister, stockbroker and president of Hoffmeister Associates of Baltimore; and William P. Peabody, a member of the faculty of the University of Georgia.

SC 4 Use the semicolon between equal (coordinate) units only. Do not use it to attach a de- pendent clause or phrase to an independent clause.

Not this: The fl ood damaged much of the equipment in Building 113; making it necessary for management to close the area and suspend some employees. But this: The fl ood damaged much of the equipment in Building 113, making it necessary for management to close the area and suspend some employees. Or this: The fl ood damaged much of the equipment in Building 113; thus, it was necessary for management to close the area and suspend some employees.

STANDARDS FOR GRAMMAR Like the review of punctuation standards, the following summary of grammatical stan- dards is not intended as a complete handbook on the subject. Rather, it is a summary of the major trouble spots that business writers encounter. If you learn these grammatical principles, you should be able to write with the correctness expected in business.

Adjective–Adverb Confusion: AA Do not use adjectives for adverbs or adverbs for adjectives. Adjectives modify only nouns and pronouns; and adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. Possibly the chief source of this confusion occurs in statements in which the modi- fi er follows the verb. If the modifi er refers to the subject, an adjective should be used. If it refers to the verb, an adverb is needed.

C O M M U N I C A T I O N M A T T E R S

Spell Check

Eye halve a spelling chequer

It came with my pea sea

It plainly marques four my revue

Miss steaks eye kin knot sea.

Eye strike a key and type a word

And weight four it two say

Weather eye am wrong oar write

It shows me strait a weigh.

As soon as a mist aches is maid

It nose bee fore two long

And eye can put the error rite

Its rare lea ever wrong.

Eye have run this poem threw it

I am shore your pleased two no

Its letter perfect awl the weigh

My chequer tolled me sew.

—Sauce unknown

• Use the semicolon only between equal units.

• Do not use adjectives for adverbs.

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Not this: She fi led the records quick. But this: She fi led the records quickly. (Refers to the verb.)

Not this: John doesn’t feel badly. But this: John doesn’t feel bad. (Refers to the noun.)

Not this: The new cars look beautifully. But this: The new cars look beautiful. (Refers to the noun.)

It should be noted that many words are both adjective and adverb (little, well, fast, much). And some adverbs have two forms, one the same as the adjective and the other with ly (slow and slowly, cheap and cheaply, quick and quickly).

Acceptable: All our drivers are instructed to drive slow. Acceptable: All our drivers are instructed to drive slowly.

Subject–Verb Agreement: Agmt SV Nouns and their verbs must agree in number. A plural noun must have a plural verb form; a singular noun must have a singular verb form.

Not this: Expenditures for miscellaneous equipment was expected to decline. (Expenditures is plural, so its verb must be plural.) But this: Expenditures for miscellaneous equipment were expected to decline.

Not this: The president, as well as the staff, were not able to attend. (President is the subject, and the number is not changed by the modifying phrase.) But this: The president, as well as the staff, was not able to attend.

Not this: There’s several reasons why we should act. But this: There are several reasons why we should act.

Compound subjects (two or more nouns joined by and) require plural verbs.

Not this: The salespeople and their manager is in favor of the proposal. (Salespeople and manager make a compound subject, but is is singular.) But this: The salespeople and their manager are in favor of the proposal.

Not this: Received in the morning delivery was an ink cartridge and two reams of copy paper. (Ink cartridge and reams are the subjects; the verb must be plural.)

But this: Received in the morning delivery were an ink cartridge and two reams of copy paper.

Collective nouns may be either singular or plural, depending on the meaning intended.

The committee have carefully studied the proposal. (Committee is thought of as separate individuals.) The committee has carefully studied the proposal. (The committee is thought of as a unit.)

As a rule, the pronouns anybody, anyone, each, either, everyone, everybody, neither, nobody, somebody, and someone take a singular verb. The word none may be either singular or plural, depending on whether it is used to refer to one unit or to more than one unit.

Either of the advertising campaigns is costly. Nobody who watches the clock is successful. None of the workers understands his assignment. None of the workers understand their assignments.

Adverbial Noun Clause: AN Do not use an adverbial clause as a noun clause. Clauses beginning with because, when, where, if, and similar adverbial connections are not properly used as subjects, objects, or complements of verbs.

• Verbs must agree in number with their subjects.

• Compound subjects require plural verbs.

• Collective nouns may be singular or plural.

• The pronouns listed here are singular.

• Do not use an adverbial clause as a noun clause.

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Not this: The reason was because he did not submit a report. But this: The reason was that he did not submit a report.

Not this: A time-series graph is where (or when) changes in an index such as wholesale prices are indicated. But this: A time-series graph is the picturing of . . .

Awkward: Awk Avoid awkward writing. By awkward writing we mean word arrangements that are unconventional, uneconomical, or simply not the best for quick understanding.

Dangling Modifi ers: Dng Avoid the use of modifi ers that do not clearly modify the right word in the sentence. Such modifi ers are said to dangle. They are both illogical and confusing. You can usually correct sentences containing dangling constructions by inserting the noun or pronoun that the modifi er describes or by changing the dangling part to a complete clause.

Not this: Believing that credit customers should have advance notice of the sale, special letters were mailed to them. But this: Believing that credit customers should have advance notice of the sale, we mailed special letters to them. (Improvement is made by inserting the pronoun modifi ed.) Or this: Because we believed that credit customers should have advance notice of the sale, special letters were mailed to them. (Improvement is made by changing the dangling element to a complete clause.)

Dangling modifi ers are of four principal types: participial phrases, elliptical clauses, gerund phrases, and infi nitive phrases.

Not this: Believing that District 7 was not being thoroughly covered, an additional salesperson was assigned to the area. (Dangling participial phrase.) But this: Believing that District 7 was not being thoroughly covered, the sales manager assigned an additional salesperson to the area.

Not this: By working hard, your goal can be reached. (Dangling gerund phrase.) But this: By working hard, you can reach your goal.

Not this: To succeed at this job, long hours and hard work must not be shunned. (Dangling infi nitive phrase.) But this: To succeed at this job, one must not shun long hours and hard work.

Not this: While waiting on a customer, the watch was stolen. (Dangling elliptical clause—a clause without a noun or verb.) But this: While the salesperson was waiting on a customer, the watch was stolen.

However, several generally accepted introductory phrases are permitted to dangle. Included in this group are generally speaking, confi dentially speaking, taking all things into consideration, and such expressions as in boxing, in welding, and in farming.

Generally speaking, business activity is at an all-time high. In farming, the land must be prepared long before planting time. Taking all things into consideration, this applicant is the best for the job.

Sentence Fragment: Frag Avoid the sentence fragment. Although the sentence fragment may sometimes be used to good effect, as in sales writing, it is best avoided by all but the most skilled writers. The sentence fragment consists of any group of words that are used as if they were a sentence but are not a sentence. Probably the most frequent cause of sentence frag- ments is the use of a subordinate clause as a sentence.

• Avoid awkward writing.

• Avoid dangling modifi ers (those that do not clearly modify a specifi c word).

• Some introductory phrases are permitted to dangle.

• Avoid sentence fragments (words used as a sentence that are not a sentence).

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Not this: Believing that you will want an analysis of sales for November. We have sent you the fi gures. But this: Believing that you will want an analysis of sales for November, we have sent you the fi gures.

Not this: He declared that such a procedure would not be practical. And that it would be too expensive in the long run. But this: He declared that such a procedure would not be practical and that it would be too expensive in the long run.

Pronouns: Pn 1 Make certain that the word each pronoun refers to (its antecedent) is clear. Failure to conform to this standard causes confusion, particularly in sentences in which two or more nouns are possible antecedents or the antecedent is far away from the pronoun.

Not this: When the president objected to Mr. Carter, he told him to mind his own business. (Who told whom?) But this: When the president objected to Mr. Carter, Mr. Carter told him to mind his own business.

Not this: The mixture should not be allowed to boil; so when you do it, watch the temperature gauge. (It doesn’t have an antecedent.) But this: The mixture should not be allowed to boil; so when conducting the experiment, watch the temperature gauge.

Not this: The Model Q is being introduced this year. Ads in USA Today, The Wall Street Journal, and big-city newspapers over the country are designed to get sales off to a good start. It is especially designed for the business person who is not willing to pay a big price. But this: The Model Q is being introduced this year. Ads in USA Today, The Wall Street Journal, and big-city newspapers over the country are designed to get sales off to a good start. The new model is especially designed for the business person who is not willing to pay a big price.

Confusion may sometimes result from using a pronoun with an implied antecedent.

Not this: Because of the disastrous freeze in the citrus belt, it is necessary that most of them be replanted. But this: Because of the disastrous freeze in the citrus belt, most of the citrus orchards must be replanted.

Except when the reference of which, that, and this is perfectly clear, it is wise to avoid using these pronouns to refer to the whole idea of a preceding clause. Many times you can make the sentence clear by using a clarifying noun following the pronoun.

Not this (following a detailed presentation of the writer’s suggestion for improving the company suggestion plan): This should be put into effect without delay. But this: This suggestion plan should be put into effect right away.

Confusion may also result when using a pronoun with a group noun as the antecedent. For reference to the group as a singular entity:

Not this: The committee gave their decision on the new proposal they reviewed. But this: The committee gave its decision on the new proposal it reviewed.

For reference to the group as individual units:

Not this: The presenter polled the audience for its interpretation on the data. But this: The presenter polled the audience for their interpretation on the data.

Pn 2 The number of the pronoun should agree with the number of its antecedent (the word it stands for). If the antecedent is singular, its pronoun must be singular. If the antecedent is plural, its pronoun must be plural.

• A pronoun should refer clearly to a preceding word.

• Usually avoid using which, that, and this to refer to broad ideas.

• The number of a pronoun should be the same as that of the word to which the pronoun refers.

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Not this: Taxes and insurance are expenses in any business, and it must be considered carefully in anticipating profi ts. But this: Taxes and insurance are expenses in any business, and they must be considered carefully in anticipating profi ts.

Not this: Everybody should plan for their retirement. (Such words as everyone, everybody, and anybody are singular.) But this: Everybody should plan for his or her retirement.

Pn 3 Take care to use the correct case of the pronoun. If the pronoun serves as the subject of the verb, or if it follows a form of the infi nitive to be, use a pronoun in the nominative case. (The nominative personal pronouns are I, you, he, she, it, we, and they).

He will record the minutes of the meeting. I think it will be he.

If the pronoun is the object of a preposition or a verb, or if it is the subject of an infi nitive, use the objective case. (The objective personal pronouns are me, you, him, her, it, us, them.)

Not this: This transaction is between you and he. (He is nominative and cannot be the object of the preposition between.) But this: This transaction is between you and him.

Not this: Because the investigator praised Ms. Smith and I, we were promoted. But this: Because the investigator praised Ms. Smith and me, we were promoted.

The case of a relative pronoun (who, whom) is determined by the pronoun’s use in the clause it introduces. One good way of determining which case to use is to substitute the personal pronoun for the relative pronoun. If the case of the personal pronoun that fi ts is nominative, use who. If it is objective, use whom.

George Cutler is the salesperson who won the award. (He, nominative, could be substituted for the relative pronoun; therefore, nominative who should be used.) George Cutler is the salesperson whom you recommended. (Objective him could be substituted; thus, objective whom is used.)

The possessive case is used for pronouns that immediately precede a gerund (a verbal noun ending in ing).

Our selling of the stock frightened some of the conservative members of the board. Her accepting the money ended her legal claim to the property.

Parallelism: Prl Parts of a sentence that express equal thoughts should be parallel (the same) in gram- matical form. Parallel constructions are logically connected by the coordinating con- junctions and, but, and or. Care should be taken to see that the sentence elements connected by these conjunctions are of the same grammatical type. That is, if one of the parts is a noun, the other parts also should be nouns. If one of the parts is an infi ni- tive phrase, the other parts also should be infi nitive phrases.

Not this: The company objectives for the coming year are to match last year’s sales volume, higher earnings, and improving customer relations. But this: The company objectives for the coming year are to match last year’s sales volume, to increase earnings, and to improve customer relations.

Not this: Writing copy may be more valuable experience than to make layouts. But this: Writing copy may be more valuable experience than making layouts.

Not this: The questionnaire asks for this information: number of employees, what is our union status, and how much do we pay. But this: The questionnaire asks for this information: number of employees, union affi liation, and pay rate.

• Use the correct case of pronoun.

• Express equal thoughts in parallel (equal) grammatical form.

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Tense: Tns The tense of each verb, infi nitive, and participle should refl ect the logical time of happening of the statement. Every statement has its place in time. To communicate that place exactly, you must select your tenses carefully.

Tns 1 Use present tense for statements of fact that are true at the time of writing.

Not this: Boston was not selected as a site for the headquarters because it was too near the coast. (Boston is still near the coast, isn’t it?) But this: Boston was not selected as a site for the headquarters because it is too near the coast.

Tns 2 Use past tense in statements covering a defi nite past event or action.

Not this: Mr. Burns says to me, “Bill, you’ll never become an auditor.” But this: Mr. Burns said to me, “Bill, you’ll never become an auditor.”

Tns 3 The time period refl ected by the past participle (having been . . .) is earlier than that of its governing verb. The present participle (being . . .) refl ects the same time period as that of its governing verb.

Not this: These debentures are among the oldest on record, being issued in early 1937. But this: These debentures are among the oldest on record, having been issued in early 1937.

Not this: Ms. Sloan, having been the top salesperson on the force, was made sales manager. (Possible but illogical.) But this: Ms. Sloan, being the top salesperson on the force, was made sales manager.

Tns 4 Verbs in subordinate clauses are governed by the verb in the main clause. When the main verb is in the past tense, you should usually also place the subordinate verb in a past tense (past, past perfect, or present perfect).

I noticed [past tense] the discrepancy, and then I remembered [same time as main verb] the incidents that had caused it.

If the time of the subordinate clause is earlier than that of the main verb in past tense, use past perfect tense for the subordinate verb.

Not this: In early July, we noticed [past] that he exceeded [logically should be previous to main verb] his quota three times. But this: In early July, we noticed that he had exceeded his quota three times.

The present perfect tense is used for the subordinate clause when the time of this clause is subsequent to the time of the main verb.

Not this: Before the war we contributed [past] generously, but lately we forget [should be a time subsequent to the time of the main verb] our duties. But this: Before the war we contributed generously, but lately we have forgotten our duties.

Tns 5 The present perfect tense does not logically refer to a defi nite time in the past. Instead, it indicates time somewhere in the indefi nite past.

• The tense of each verb should show the logical time of happening.

• Use present tense for current happenings.

• Use past tense for past happenings.

• The past participle (having been . . .) indicates a time earlier than that of the governing verb, and the present participle (being . . .) indicates the same period as that of the governing verb.

• Verbs in the principal clause govern those in subordinate clauses.

• Present perfect tense (have . . .) refers to the indefi nite past.

• Use of present perfect tense indicates time somewhere in the indefi nite past.

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Not this: We have audited your records on July 31 of 2005 and 2006. But this: We audited your records on July 31 of 2005 and 2006. Or this: We have audited your records twice in the past.

Word Use: WU Misused words call attention to themselves and detract from the writing. The pos- sibilities of error in word use are infi nite; the following list contains only a few of the common errors of this kind.

Don’t Use Use

a long ways a long way

and etc. etc.

anywheres anywhere

continue on continue

different than different from

have got to must

in back of behind

in hopes of in hope of

in regards to in regard to

inside of within

kind of satisfi ed somewhat satisfi ed

nowhere near not nearly

nowheres nowhere

over with over

seldom ever seldom

try and come try to come

Wrong Word: WW Wrong words refer to meaning one word and using another. Sometimes these words are confused by their spelling and sometimes by their meanings. Since the spell check- er won’t fi nd these errors, you need to proofread carefully to eliminate them. Here are a few examples:

affect effect

among between

bow bough

capital capitol

cite sight, site

collision collusion

complement compliment

cooperation corporation

deferential differential

desert dessert

except accept

implicit explicit

imply infer

plane plain

principal principle

stationary stationery

• Use words correctly.

• Check the spelling and meanings of words carefully.

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STANDARDS FOR THE USE OF NUMBERS: NO Quantities may be spelled out or expressed as numerals. Whether to use one form or the other is often a perplexing question. It is especially perplexing to business writers, for much of their work deals with quantitative subjects. Because the proper expression of quantities is vital to business writers, the following notes on the use of numbers are presented.

No 1 Although authorities do not agree on number usage, business writers would do well to follow the rule of nine. By this rule, you spell out numbers nine and below. You use fi gures for numbers above nine.

The auditor found 13 discrepancies in the stock records. The auditor found nine discrepancies in the stock records.

Apply the rule to both ordinal and cardinal numbers:

She was the seventh applicant. She was the 31st applicant.

No 2 Make an exception to the rule of nine when a number begins a sentence. Spell out all numbers in this position.

Seventy-three bonds and six debentures were destroyed. Eighty-nine strikers picketed the north entrance.

No 3 In comparisons, keep all numbers in the same form. If any number requires numeral form, use numerals for all the numbers.

We managed to salvage 3 printers, 1 scanner, and 13 monitors.

No 4 Use numerals for all percentages.

Sales increases over last year were 9 percent on automotive parts, 14 percent on hardware, and 23 percent on appliances.

On whether to use the percent sign (%) or the word, authorities differ. One good rule to follow is to use the percentage sign in papers that are scientifi c or technical and the word in all others. Also, it is conventional to use the sign following numbers in graph- ics. The trend in business appears to be toward using the sign. Consistent use of either is correct.

No 5 Present days of the month in fi gure form when the month precedes the day.

June 29, 2008.

When days of the month appear alone or precede the month, they may be either spelled out or expressed in numeral form according to the rule of nine.

I will be there on the 13th. The union scheduled the strike vote for the eighth. Ms. Millican signed the contract on the seventh of July. Sales have declined since the 14th of August.

• Spell out numbers nine and under, and use fi gures for higher numbers, except as follows:

• Spell out numbers that begin a sentence.

• Keep in the same form all numbers in comparisons.

• Use numerals for percentages.

• Use fi gures for days of the month when the month precedes the day.

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No 6 Use either of the two orders for date information. One, preferred by The Chicago Manual of Style, is day, month, and year:

On 29 June 2008 we introduced a new product line.

The other is the conventional sequence of month, day, and year. This order requires that the year be set off by commas:

On June 29, 2008, we introduced a new product line.

No 7 Present money amounts as you would other numbers. If you spell out the number, also spell out the unit of currency.

Twenty-seven dollars

If you present the number as a fi gure, use the $ with U.S. currency and the appropri- ate abbreviation or symbol with other currencies.

U.S., Canada, and Mexico US $27.33, Can $27.33, Mex $27.33

Euro countries 202.61

Japan ¥2,178.61

Thailand B⁄ 7,489.91

No 8 Usually spell out indefi nite numbers and amounts.

Over a million people live there. The current population is about four hundred thousand. Bill Gates’s net worth is in the billions.

No 9 Spell out a fraction such as one-half that stands alone (without a whole number) or begins a sentence. However, if this results in long and awkward wording or if the context is technical, use the numeric form.

Two-thirds of all jobs in the United States are jobs in the information industry. The median price of a home rose by 6½ percent this year.

No 10 Except in legal documents, do not express amounts in both fi gures and words.

For legal purposes: 25 (twenty-fi ve) For business use: either the fi gure or the word, depending on circumstance

SPELLING: SP Misspelling is probably the most frequently made error in writing. And it is the least excusable. It is inexcusable because all one needs to do to virtually eliminate the error is to use a dictionary and a spell checker. Unfortunately, spell checkers cannot detect a correctly spelled, but misused, word. We must memorize to spell. Thus, becoming a good speller involves long, hard work. Even so, you can improve your spelling signifi cantly with relatively little effort. Studies show that fewer than 100 words account for most spelling errors. So if you will learn to spell these most troublesome words, you will go a long way toward solv- ing your spelling problems. Eighty of these words appear in Figure 17–1. Although

• For dates, use either day, month, year or month, day, year sequence, the latter with year set off by commas.

• Present amounts like other numbers, spelling units when numbers are spelled and using appropriate symbols or abbreviations when in fi gures.

• Usually spell indefi nite numbers and amounts.

• Spell out fractions that stand alone or begin a sentence. Use numerics with whole numbers and in technical contexts.

• Only use both words and fi gures for legal reasons.

• Spell words correctly. Use the dictionary.

• See Figure 17–1 for the 80 most commonly misspelled words.

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absence

accessible

accommodate

achieve

analyze

argument

assistant

balloon

benefi ted