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Lesikar−Flatley−Rentz: Business Communication: Making Connections in a Digital World, 11th Edition

VI. Cross−Cultural Communication, Correctness, Technology, Research

16. Techniques of Cross−Cultural Communication

c h a p t e r s i x t e e n

Techniques of Cross-Cultural Communication

L E A R N I N G O B J E C T I V E S

Upon completing this chapter, you will be able to describe the major barriers to cross-cultural communication and how to over- come them. To reach this goal, you should be able to

1 Explain why communicating clearly across cultures is important to business.

2 Defi ne culture and explain its effects on cross-cultural communication.

3 Describe cultural differences in body positions and movements and use this knowledge effectively in communicating.

4 Describe cultural differences in views and practices concerning time, space, odors, and such and use this knowledge effectively in communicating.

5 Explain the language equivalency problem as a cause of miscommunication.

6 Describe what one can do to overcome the language equivalency problem.

Lesikar−Flatley−Rentz: Business Communication: Making Connections in a Digital World, 11th Edition

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I N T R O D U C T O R Y S I T U A T I O N

Cross-Cultural Communication To introduce yourself to this chapter, assume the position of assistant to the president of Thatcher-Stone and Com- pany, a small manufacturer of computer components. Your boss, gregarious old Vernon Thatcher, invited you to join him at a luncheon meeting with a group of Asian business executives in which negotiations for the sale of Thatcher- Stone products would be opened. Because Thatcher-Stone’s domestic sales have been lagging, the company badly needs these customers. The Asian guests entered the room, bowing as introductions were made. Mr. Thatcher attempted to put them at ease. “No need to do that,” he said. “I’m just plain Vernon Thatcher. Just relax and make yourself at home.” You noticed that the Asians appeared bewildered. They appeared even more bewildered when early in the meeting Mr. Thatcher made this statement: “We’ve only got the lunch hour, gents. I know you’ll appreciate getting right down to business.” Throughout the meeting Mr. Thatcher was in his best conversational mood—laughing, backslapping, telling jokes. But none of this seemed to make an impression on the guests. They seemed confused to you. They smiled and were extremely polite, but they seemed to understand little of what Mr. Thatcher was saying. Although he tried again and again to move to business talk, they did not respond. The meeting ended pleasantly, but without a sale. “They’re a strange people,” Mr. Thatcher commented when he got back to his offi ce. “They have a lot to learn about doing business. It doesn’t look like they’re going to deal with us, does it?” Mr. Thatcher was right in his last comment. They did not. As you review the meeting, you cannot help but feel that Mr. Thatcher spoiled the deal, for he failed miserably in communicating with the Asians. The fact is that there is much to know about communicating in cross-cultural settings. The goal of this chapter is to introduce you to this issue.

Technological advances in communication, travel, and transportation have made business increasingly global. This trend is expected to continue in the foreseeable future. Thus, the chances are good that you will have to communicate with people from other cultures. Both large and small businesses want you to be able to communicate clearly with those from other cultures for several reasons. A primary reason is that businesses sell their products and services both domestically and internationally. Being able to com- municate with others helps you be more successful in understanding customers’ needs, communicating how your company can meet these needs, and winning their business. Another reason is that in addition to being a more effective worker, you will be more effi cient both within and outside your company. You will be able to work harmoniously with those from other cultures, creating a more comfortable and productive workplace. Furthermore, if cultural barriers are eliminated, you will be able to hire good people despite their differences. Also, you will avoid problems stemming solely from misin- terpretations. A fi nal reason is that your attention to communicating clearly with those from other cultures will enrich your business and personal life. In preparing to communicate with people from other cultures, you might well begin by reviewing the instructions given in this book. Most of them fi t all people. But many do not, especially those involving message writing. To determine which do not, you must study the differences among cultures, for cultural differences are at the root of the exceptions. In addition, you must look at the special problems that our language presents to those who use it as a second language. It is around these two problem areas that this review of cross-cultural communication is organized.

PROBLEMS OF CULTURAL DIFFERENCES A study of the role of culture in international communication properly begins with two qualifying statements. First, culture is often improperly assumed to be the cause of mis- communication. Often it is confused with the other human elements involved. We must

• Business has become more global.

• Communicating across cultures effectively improves your productivity and effi ciency and promotes harmonious work environments.

• Cross-cultural communication involves understanding cultural differences and overcoming language problems.

• Two qualifying statements begin this study of culture: (1) It is improperly blamed for some miscommunication.

Lesikar−Flatley−Rentz: Business Communication: Making Connections in a Digital World, 11th Edition

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T E C H N O L O G Y I N B R I E F

Web Tools for Cross-Cultural Communication

remember that communication between people of different cultures involves the same problems of human behavior that are involved when people of the same culture com- municate. In either case, people can be belligerent, arrogant, prejudiced, insensitive, or biased. The miscommunication these types of behavior cause is not a product of culture. Second, one must take care not to overgeneralize the practices within a culture. We say this even though some of the statements we make in the following paragraphs are overgeneralized. But we have little choice. In covering the subject, it is necessary to make generalizations such as “Latin Americans do this” or “Arabs do that” in order to emphasize a point. But the truth of the matter is that in all cultures, subcultures are present; and common practice in one segment of a culture may be unheard of by other segments. Within a culture townspeople differ from country dwellers, the rich differ from the poor, and the educated differ from the uneducated. Clearly, the subject of culture is highly complex and should not be reduced to simple generalizations. Culture has been defi ned in many ways. The classic defi nition most useful in this discussion is one derived from anthropology: Culture is “a way of life of a group of

The Internet is a rich source of cross-cultural information for business communicators. Not only can you fi nd infor- mation about places where you might be doing business, but you can use some interactive websites to help you with information and tools for your communication. One of these, shown below, is a currency converter, allowing you to convert from one currency to another. In this ex- ample, U.S. dollars are converted to Indian rupees. These converters are set up to use regularly updated exchange rates, so you can quote prices in both U.S. dollars and other currency. The web page example at the bottom right is part of a site that helps you learn some of the language of your customers. This site shows a word or phrase in English and the second language, as well as gives you an audio pronunciation of it. Learning a few words in your customers’ language is both helpful and courteous. The other sites you see listed here include a site where you

can get world time, a resource desk that provides updated site reviews regularly, and a site with helpful cultural infor- mation and some discussion groups on doing business in various countries. More links are available on the text website. Other good sites:

http://www.timeticker.com/

http://globaledge.msu.edu/ibrd/ibrd.asp

http://www.NationMaster.com

• (2) It is easy to overgeneralize cultural practices.

• Culture is the shared ways groups of people view the world.

Lesikar−Flatley−Rentz: Business Communication: Making Connections in a Digital World, 11th Edition

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people . . . the stereotyped patterns of learning behavior, which are handed down from one generation to the next through means of language and imitation.”1 Similarly, a modern defi nition is that culture is “the shared ways in which groups of people under- stand and interpret the world.”2

While we can all talk on wireless phones and drink Coca-Cola at McDonald’s, these activities can be interpreted very differently in different cultures. A Coke at McDonald’s in America and a conversation on a wireless phone in Israel may be common occur- rences, but in Moscow a trip to McDonald’s is a status symbol, as is a wireless phone. In other words, people living in different countries have developed not only different ways to interpret events; they have different habits, values, and ways of relating to one another. These differences are a major source of problems when people of different cul- tures try to communicate. Unfortunately, people tend to view the ways of their culture as normal and the ways of other cultures as bad, wrong, peculiar, or such. This is called ethnocentrism, and it can be disastrous to effective communication across cul- tures. One way to overcome this tendency is to become more culturally intelligent by developing a higher level of cultural sensitivity to many dimensions of culture. The way one becomes more sensitive is to learn more about the culture and of be mindful of the differences. Two of the dimensions that impact communications are the cultural differences in (1) body positions and movements and (2) views and practices concern- ing various factors of human relationships (time, space, intimacy, and so on).

Body Positions and Movements One might think that the positions and movements of the body are much the same for all people. But such is not the case. These positions and movements differ by culture, and the differences can affect communication. For example, in our culture most people

A squatting position is quite natural for this woman as she conducts business.

1 V. Barnouw, Culture and Personality (Chicago: Dorsey Press, 1963) 4. 2 Fons Trompenaars and Peter Woolliams, Business across Cultures (London:Capstone, 2003) 53.

• Two major kinds of cultural differences affect communication.

• Body positions and movements differ among cultures. For example, in some cultures, people sit; in other cultures, they squat.

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sit when they wish to remain in one place for some time, but in much of the world peo- ple squat. Because we do not squat, we tend to view squatting as primitive. This view obviously affects our communication with people who squat, for what we see when we communicate is a part of the message. But how correct is this view? Actually, squatting is a very normal body position. Our children squat quite naturally—until their elders teach them to sit. Who is to say that sitting is more advanced or better? For another example, people from our culture who visit certain Asian countries are likely to view the fast, short steps taken by the inhabitants as peculiar or funny and to view our longer strides as normal. And when people from our culture see the inhabitants of these countries bow on meeting and leaving each other, they are likely to interpret the bowing as a sign of subservience or weakness. Similarly, people from our culture see standing up as the appropriate thing to do on certain occasions (as when someone enters the room), whereas people from some other cultures do not. As you know, movements of certain body parts (especially the hands) are a vital form of human communication. Some of these movements have no defi nite meaning even within a culture. But some have clear meanings, and these meanings may differ by culture. To us an up-and-down movement of the head means yes and a side-to-side movement of the head means no. These movements may mean nothing at all or something quite different to people from cultures in which thrusting the head forward, raising the eyebrows, jerking the head to one side, or lifting the chin are used to convey similar meanings. In addition, the two-fi ngered “victory” sign is as clear to us as any of our hand gestures. To an Australian, whose culture is not vastly different from ours, the sign has a most vulgar meaning. The “OK” sign is terribly rude and insulting in such diverse

C O M M U N I C A T I O N M A T T E R S

Carefully Present and Receive a Business Card in Japan

In Japan, it is considered bad manners to go to a business meeting without a business card, or meishi. There are a number of ways to present the card, but receiving it is an art, too. If you want to make a good impression on the presenter, receive it in both hands, especially when the other party is senior in age or status or a potential customer. Be careful not to fi ddle with the card or put it in your rear pocket—that is considered crude. Put it in some distinctive case. Those who do business in both countries often have their business cards translated on the back, as the examples here show.

• Manners of walking differ among cultures.

• Communication with body parts (hands, arms, head, etc.) varies by culture.

• Hand gestures differ by culture.

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places as Russia, Germany, and Brazil.3 In Japan, a similar sign represents money. If a businessperson completing a contract gave this sign, the Japanese might think they needed to give more money, perhaps even a bribe. Even the widely used “thumbs up” sign for “things are going well” could get you into trouble in countries from Nigeria to Australia. In our culture a side-by-side hand movement can be interpreted to mean “hello.” The same movement can be interpreted to mean “go away” or “no” in India.4

And so it is with many of our other body movements. They differ widely, even within cultures. The meanings that movements of our eyes convey also vary by culture. In North America, we are taught not to look over the heads of our audience but to maintain eye contact in giving formal speeches. In informal talking, we are encouraged to look at others but not to stare. In Indonesia, looking directly at people, especially those in higher positions and older, is considered to be disrespectful. On the other hand, our practices of eye contact are less rigorous than those of the British and Germans. Un- less one understands these cultural differences, how one uses eye movement can be interpreted as being impolite on the one hand or being shy on the other. Touching and particularly handshaking differences are important to understand in cross-cultural communication. This is made diffi cult by other cultures adopting West- ern greetings. However, some cultures, like the Chinese, do not like much touching. They will give a handshake you might perceive as weak. Other cultures that like touch- ing will give you greetings ranging from full embraces and kisses to nose rubbing. If you can avoid judging others from different cultures on their greeting based on your standards for others like you, you can seize the opportunity to access the cultural style of another. Here are some types of handshakes by culture.

Culture Handshakes

Americans Firm

Germans Brusque, fi rm, repeated upon arrival and departure

French Light, quick, not offered to superiors, repeated upon arrival and departure

British Soft

Hispanics Moderate grasp, repeated frequently

Latin Americans Firm, long-lasting

Middle Easterners Gentle, repeated frequently

Asians Gentle; for some, shaking hands is unfamiliar and uncomfortable (an exception to this is the Korean, who generally has a fi rm handshake)

Arabs Gentle, kisses on both cheeks

In our culture, smiles are viewed positively in most situations. But in some other cultures (notably African cultures), a smile is regarded as a sign of weakness in cer- tain situations (such as bargaining). Receiving a gift or touching with the left hand is a serious breach of etiquette among Muslims, for they view the left hand as unclean. We attach no such meaning to the left hand. And so it is with other body movements— arching the eyebrows, positioning the fi ngers, raising the arms, and many more. All cultures use body movements in communicating, but in different ways.

Views and Practices Concerning Factors of Human Relationships Probably causing even more miscommunication than differences in body positions and movements are the different attitudes of different cultures toward various factors

• So do eye movements,

• touching, and handshaking.

• A smile can be a sign of weakness, and the left hand may be taboo.

• Differing attitudes toward various factors of human relationships cause communication problems.

3 Roger E. Axtell, Gestures: The Dos and Taboos of Body Language around the World (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1998) 43. 4 Jane Lasky, “Watch Your Body Language in Asia,” Austin American-Statesman 17 Oct. 1999: D2.

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of human relationships. For illustrative purposes, we will review seven major factors: time, space, odors, frankness, intimacy of relationships, values, and expression of emotions.

Time. In our culture, people tend to be monochronic. They regard time as something that must be planned for the most effi cient use. They strive to meet deadlines, to be punctual, to conduct business quickly, and to work on a schedule. In some other cultures (especially those of the Middle East and some parts of Asia), people are polychronic, viewing time in a more relaxed way. They see planning as unwise and unnecessary. Being late to a meeting, a social function, or such is of little consequence to them. In fact, some of them hold the view that important people should be late to show that they are busy. In business negotiations, the people in these cultures move at a deliberately slow pace, engaging in casual talk before getting to the main issue. It is easy to see how such different views of time can cause people from different cultures to have serious communication problems.

Space. People from different cultures often vary in their attitudes toward space. Even people from the same culture may have different space preferences, as noted in Chap- ter 14. North Americans tend to prefer about two feet or so of distance between them- selves and those with whom they speak. But in some cultures (some Arabian and South American cultures), people stand closer to each other; not following this practice is considered impolite and bad etiquette. For another example, North Americans view personal space as a right and tend to respect this right of others; thus, they stand in line and wait their turn. People from some other cultures view space as belonging to all. Thus, they jostle for space when boarding trains, standing at ticket counters, shopping in stores, and such. In encounters between people whose cultures have such different attitudes toward space, actions are likely to be misinterpreted.

Odors. People from different cultures may have different attitudes toward body odors. To illustrate, Americans work hard to neutralize body odors or cover them up and view those with body odors as dirty and unsanitary. On the other hand, in some Asian cultures people view body odors not as something to be hidden but as something that friends should experience. Some of the people from these cultures believe that it is an act of friendship to “breathe the breath” of the person with whom they converse and to feel their presence by smelling. Clearly, encounters between people with such widely differing attitudes could lead to serious miscommunication.

Frankness. North Americans tend to be relatively frank or explicit in their relation- ships with others, quickly getting to the point and perhaps being blunt and sharp in doing so. Germans and Israelis are even more frank than Americans. Asians tend to

C O M M U N I C A T I O N M A T T E R S

A Classic Defense of Cultural Difference

The classic “ugly American” was traveling in a faraway land. He had been critical of much of what he experienced—the food, the hotels, the customs in general. One day he came upon a funeral. He observed that the mourners placed food on the grave—and left it there. “What a stupid practice!” he exclaimed to his native host. “Do your people actually think that the dead person will eat the food?” At this point, the host had taken all the insults he could handle for one day. So he replied, “Our dead will eat the food as soon as your dead smell the fl owers you place on their graves.”

• Views about time differ widely. Some cultures stress punctuality; some do not.

• Space is viewed differently by different cultures. In some cultures, people want to be far apart; in other cultures, they want to be close.

• Some cultures view body odors as bad; others view them as normal.

• Low-context cultures are more frank and explicit than high-context cultures.

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be far more reticent or implicit and sometimes go to great lengths to save face or not to offend. Americans belong to a low-context culture, a culture that explicitly shares all relevant background information in our communication. Asians, on the other hand, belong to a high-context culture, extracting limited background information and thus communicating more implicitly.5 Thus, Asians may appear evasive, roundabout, and indecisive to North Americans; and North Americans may appear harsh, impolite, and aggressive to Asians. Phone customs may be an exception, especially among the Chi- nese, who tend to end telephone calls abruptly after their purpose has been accom- plished. North Americans, on the other hand, tend to move on to friendly talk and clearly prepare the listener for the end of the call.

Intimacy of Relationships. In many cultures, strict social classes exist, and class status determines how intimately people are addressed and treated in communication. For this reason, a person from such a culture might quiz a person from another culture to determine that person’s class status. Questions concerning occupation, income, title, origin, and such might be asked. People from cultures that stress human equality are apt to take offense at such questioning about class status. This difference in attitude toward class status also is illustrated by differences in the familiarity of address. Some Americans are quick to use fi rst names. This practice is offensive to people from some other cultures, notably the English and the Germans, who expect such intimate address only from long-standing acquaintances. Similarly, how people view superior–subordinate relations can vary by culture. The dominant view in Latin America, for example, is a strong boss with weak subordi- nates doing as the boss directs. In sharp contrast is the somewhat democratic work

5 Iris Varner and Linda Beamer, Intercultural Communication in the Global Workplace, 3rd ed. (New York: McGraw- Hill/Irwin, 2005) 27.

• Intimacy among people varies in different cultures.

• How people view superior–subordinate relations also differs.

Greetings vary among cultures. Arabs often use gentle handshakes followed by kisses on both cheeks.

Lesikar−Flatley−Rentz: Business Communication: Making Connections in a Digital World, 11th Edition

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arrangement of the Japanese in which much of the decision making is by consensus. Most in our culture view as appropriate an order between these extremes. These widely differing practices have led to major communication problems in joint business ven- tures involving people from these cultures. The role of women varies widely by culture. In North America, we continue to move toward a generally recognized goal of equality. In many Islamic cultures, the role of women is quite different. To many in our culture, the practices of the people of these other cultures suggest severe restriction of human rights. In the view of the people of these cultures, their practices are in accord with their religious convictions. They see us as being the ones out of step.

Values. Also differing by culture are our values—how we evaluate the critical mat- ters in life. Americans, for example, have been indoctrinated with the Protestant work ethic. It is the belief that if one puts hard work ahead of pleasure, success will fol- low. The product of this thinking is an emphasis on planning, working effi ciently, and maximizing production. Of course, not all of us subscribe to this ethic, but it is a strong force in the thinking of many in our culture. The prevailing view in some other cultures is quite different. In India, for example, the major concern is for spiritual and human well- being. The view of work is relaxed, and productivity is, at best, a second- ary concern. Views about the relationships of employers and employees also may differ by cul- ture. North American workers expect to change companies in their career a number of times; and they expect companies to fi re them from time to time. Employees expect to move freely from job to job, and they expect employers to hire and fi re as their needs change. Expectations are quite different in some other cultures. In Japan, for example, employment tends to be for a lifetime. The company is viewed much like a family, with loyalty expected from employees and employer. Such differences have caused misunderstandings in American–Japanese joint ventures. How employees view authority is yet another question that cultures view differ- ently. We North Americans generally accept authority, yet we fi ercely maintain the rights of the individual. In many Third World cultures, workers accept a subservient role passively. Autocratic rule is expected—even wanted.

Expression of Emotions. From culture to culture, differences in social behavior have developed. To illustrate, some Asian cultures strongly frown upon public displays of affection—in fact, they consider them crude and offensive. Westerners, on the other

C O M M U N I C A T I O N M A T T E R S

Understanding East Meets West

While the 2008 Olympics in Beijing will bring the world’s best athletes together, it will also likely highlight many of the cultural differences between Asians and Americans. One of the primary differences has already made headlines—the endorsements and sponsorships of athletes. Most Americans view these deals as something the gold medalist athletes have earned—even deserve. However, the Chinese view their athletes as part of a team of coaches, trainers, doctors, and the state, all of whom are entitled to share in a part of any endorsement deals. In fact, in order to participate in the games, one Chinese gold-medalist, Guo Jingjing, had to apologize to the public for her own fi nancial ambitions with “I belong to the nation.” This collectivism value is one that shows up when Eastern businesses meet Western businesses, too.

Hannah Beech, “An Olympian Takes a Dive,” Time Asia 7 February 2005, 24 June 2006 <www.time.com/time/asia/magazine/0,13674,501050207,00.html>.

• Each culture has different values concerning such matters as attitude toward work,

• employee–employer relations,

• and authority.

• Social behavior varies by culture, such as practices concerning affection, laughter, and emotion.

• So does the role of women.

Lesikar−Flatley−Rentz: Business Communication: Making Connections in a Digital World, 11th Edition

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hand, accept at least a moderate display of affection. To Westerners, laughter is a spon- taneous display of pleasure, but in some cultures (Japanese, for one), laughter also can be a controlled behavior—to be used in certain social situations. Even such emotional displays as sorrow are infl uenced by culture. In some Middle Eastern cultures, sorrow is expressed with loud, seemingly uncontrolled wailing. In similar situations, Western- ers typically respond with subdued and controlled emotions, which could be seen as cold and uncaring by Middle Easterners. We all have observed the emotion and animation that people of the Mediterranean cultures display as they communicate. And we have seen the more subdued communi- cation of others—notably northern Europeans. The fi rst group tends to see the second as disinterested and lacking in friendliness. The second sees the fi rst as excitable, emo- tional, perhaps even unstable. Many more such practices exist. Some cultures combine business and social plea- sure; others do not. Some expect to engage in aggressive bargaining in business transactions; others prefer straightforward dealings. Some talk loudly and with emo- tion; others communicate orally in a subdued manner. Some communicate with empha- sis on economy of expression; others communicate with an abundance of verbiage. The comparisons could go on and on, for there are countless differences in cultures. But it is not necessary to review them all. What is important is that we recognize their existence, that we are mindful of them, and that we understand them. We should guard against ethnocentrism, the use of one’s own cultural values as standards for determin- ing meaning in cross-cultural communication.

Effects on Business Communication Techniques The foregoing examples illustrate only a few of the numerous differences that exist among cultures. Books have been written on the subject. Our objective here is only to establish the point that the differences among cultures affect communication between people of different cultures. The communication techniques presented in this book should be modifi ed to fi t the culture involved. Keep in mind that this book was written for our culture. Much of what we say does not apply to other cultures, especially our coverage of the basic message situations—those concerning directness and indirectness. People in Asian cultures, for example, generally favor a somewhat indirect approach for messages we would treat directly. They begin with an identifi cation of context—that is, a description of the situation the message concerns.6 They use what appears to us as exaggerated politeness and slowness in moving the message. In fact, some of our direct messages would be regarded as rude by people in these cultures.7

Our persuasive appeals may be rejected in India, where views of an older, more highly developed morality lead to thinking different from ours.8 Even the British, whose culture we think of as resembling our own, have message practices that differ from ours. They especially differ in the treatment of negative situations. They prefer an approach that we would regard as blunt and calloused. They would regard our good- will strategies as insincere and evasive. And so it is with the many other cultures of the world. Our practices just do not fi t into them. What to do about this problem? You have no choice but to become a student of culture. You must learn the cultures of those with whom you communicate. Don’t expect them to understand your culture, although many of them do. With your recipient’s culture in mind, you then modify your communication accordingly.

• Included is the degree of animation displayed.

• Many more such practices exist.

• We must recognize them, look for them, and understand them.

• Cultural differences affect communication.

• Our communication techniques are not universally acceptable.

6 Varner and Beamer 145. 7 Richard M. Hodgetts, Fred Luthans, and Jonathan Doh, International Management: Culture, Strategy, and Behavior (New York: McGraw-Hill/Irwin, 2006) 190. 8 Varner and Beamer 152.

• The Indians and even the British have practices different from ours.

• You must modify your communications to fi t the culture of your recipient.

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PROBLEMS OF LANGUAGE The people on earth use more than 3,000 languages. Because few of us can learn more than one or two other languages well, problems of miscommunication are bound to occur in international communication.

Lack of Language Equivalency Unfortunately, wide differences among languages make precisely equivalent transla- tions diffi cult. One reason for such differences is that languages are based on the con- cepts, experiences, views, and such of the cultures that developed them. And different cultures have different concepts, experiences, views, and such. For example, we think of a fl orist as someone who sells fl owers and related items in a store. In some cultures, however, fl owers are sold by street vendors, mainly women and children. Obviously, our fl orist does not have a precise equivalent in the language of such cultures. Similarly, our supermarket has no equivalent in some languages. The French have no word to distinguish between house and home, mind and brain, and man and gentleman. The Spanish have no word to distinguish between a chairman and a president, while Italians have no word for wishful thinking. And Russians have no words for effi ciency, challenge, and having fun. However, Italians have nearly 500 words for types of pasta. And so it is with words for many other objects, actions, concepts, and such (for example, roundup, interview, strike, tough, monopoly, domestic, feminine, responsible, aloof). Another explanation for the lack of language equivalency is the grammatical and syntactic differences among languages. Some languages (Urdu, for example) have no gerunds, and some have no adverbs and/or adjectives. Not all languages deal with verb mood, voice, and tense in the same way. The obvious result is that even the best trans- lators often cannot fi nd literal equivalents between languages. Adding to these equivalency problems is the problem of multiple word meanings. Like English, other languages have more than one meaning for many words. Think, for example, of our numerous meanings for the simple word run (to move fast, to com- pete for offi ce, a score in baseball, a break in a stocking, a fading of colors, and many more). Or consider the multiple meanings of such words as fast, cat, trip, gross, ring, and make. The Oxford English Dictionary uses over 15,000 words to defi ne what. Unless one knows a language well, it is diffi cult to know which of the meanings is intended. Within a culture, certain manners of expression may be used in a way that their dictionary translations and grammatical structures do not explain. Those within the culture understand these expressions; those outside may not. For example, we might say, “Business couldn’t be better,” meaning business is very good. One from another culture might understand the sentence to mean “Business is bad” (impossible to im- prove). Or we might say, “We could never be too nice to our customers,” meaning try as we may, we couldn’t be overly nice. To one from another culture, the sentence might mean “We cannot be nice to our customers.”9

Similarly, like-meaning words can be used in different ways in different cultures. One example is the simple word yes, a word that has an equivalent in all languages. “The Chinese yes, like the Japanese yes, can often be understood by Americans and British as their English yes. But the Chinese yes often means ‘I am listening.’ Or it may be understood in English as the opposite. For example, when an American says to a Chinese counterpart, “I see you don’t agree with this clause,” the Chinese will usu- ally reply, “Yes” meaning a polite agreement with the negative question: ‘Yes, you are right. I do not agree with the clause.’ ”10

Overcoming such language problems is diffi cult. The best way, of course, is to know more than one language well, but the competence required is beyond the reach of many of us. Thus, your best course is fi rst to be aware that translation problems exist and then to ask questions—to probe—to determine what the other person understands.

• Examples prove the point.

• Grammar and syntax differences add to the diffi culty.

• So do the multiple meanings of words.

• Certain of our expressions don’t mean what their dictionary and grammatical structures say they mean.

9 Jensen J. Zhao, “The Chinese Approach to International Business Negotiation,” Journal of Business Communication 37 (2000): 225. 10 Zhao 225.

• Even words with the same meaning can differ in usage by culture.

• Overcome such language problems by knowing languages well and by questioning.

• Communication problems are caused by the existence of many languages.

• Differences among languages make equivalent translations diffi cult.

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• Use back translating for important communications.

• English is the primary language of international business.

C O M M U N I C A T I O N M A T T E R S

Blundering with Words

Companies can make blunders in international business through their products, practices, and words. Here are some of those where words were the culprit.

• When Coca-Cola fi rst attempted to market its drink in China, the characters representing it sounded like Coca-Cola but translated to “a wax-fl attened mare.” Now the characters that represent it translate to “happiness in the mouth.”

• Olympia tried to introduce a copier in Chile under the name “Roto,” which is the Spanish word for broken.

• American Motor Company’s Matador translated into killer in Puerto Rico, clearly not a good name in a place with high traffi c fatality rates.

• Toyota’s MR2 did well in most countries, but in France it is often pronounced merde, meaning human waste.

• Ford encountered problems when it introduced a low-cost truck it named “Fiera.” The name translates to “ugly old woman.”

• Bacardi developed and launched a fruity drink, calling it Pavian. In German it means baboon.

• When Nike attempted to illustrate graphically fl ames on its shoes, it discovered that the illustration resembled the Arabic script meaning Allah, the word for God. The Council on American-Islamic Relations demanded an apology and withdrawal of the shoes from the market.

Selected from David A. Ricks, Blunders in International Business, 4th ed. (Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, 2006).

For very important oral messages, documents, or such, you might consider using a procedure called back translating. This procedure involves using two translators, one with fi rst-language skills in one of the languages involved and one with fi rst-language skills in the other language. The fi rst translator translates the message into his or her language, and the second translator then translates the message back into the original. If the translations are good, the second translation matches the original.

Diffi culties in Using English Fortunately for us, English is the primary language of international business. This is not to say that other languages are not used in international business, for they are. When business executives from different countries have a common language, whatever it may be, they are likely to use it. For example, an executive from Iraq and an executive from Saudi Arabia would communicate with each other in Arabic, for Arabic is their common fi rst language. For the same reason, an executive from Venezuela would use Spanish in dealing with an executive from Mexico. However, when executives have no common language, they are likely to use English. The members of the European Free Trade Association conduct all their business in English even though not one of them is a native English speaker. In the words of one international authority, “English has emerged as the lingua franca of world commerce in much the same way that Greek did in the ancient world of the West and Chinese did in the East.”11

Although we can take comfort from knowing that English is the primary language of international business, we must keep in mind that it is not the primary language of many of those who use it. Since many of these users have had to learn English as a second language, they are likely to use it less fl uently than we and to experience prob- lems in understanding us. Some of their more troublesome problems are reviewed in the following pages.

11 Naoki Kameda, Business Communication toward Transnationalism: The Signifi cance of Cross-Cultural Business English and Its Role (Tokyo: Kindaibungeisha Co., 1996) 34.

• But many nonnatives have problems using English.

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Two-Word Verbs. One of the most diffi cult problems for nonnative speakers of English is the use of two-word verbs. By two-word verbs we mean a wording consisting of (1) a verb and (2) a second element that, combined with the verb, produces a mean- ing that the verb alone does not have. For example, take the verb break and the word up. When combined, they have a meaning quite different from the meanings the words have alone. And look how the meaning changes when the same verb is combined with other words: break away, break out, break in, break down. Dictionaries are of little help to nonnatives who are seeking the meanings of these word combinations. There are many two-word verbs—so many, in fact, that a special dictionary of them has been compiled.12 Figure 16–1 lists some of the more common words that combine with verbs. Of course, nonnatives studying English learn some of these word combinations, for they are part of the English language. But many of them are not covered in language textbooks or listed in dictionaries. It is apparent that we should use these word combi- nations sparingly when communicating with nonnative speakers of English. Whenever

12 George A. Meyer, The Two-Word Verb (The Hague, Netherlands: Mouton, 1975).

• as in these combinations.

Figure 16–1

Some Two-Word Verbs That Confuse Nonnative Speakers

• Use two-word verbs sparingly. Find substitutes, as shown here.

Verb Plus Away

give away

keep away

lay away

pass away

throw away

Verb Plus Back

cut back

feed back

keep back

play back

read back

take back

turn back

win back

Verb Plus Down

calm down

die down

hand down

keep down

let down

lie down

mark down

pin down

play down

put down

run down

shut down

sit down

wear down

Verb Plus In

cash in

cave in

close in

dig in

give in

run in

take in

throw in

Verb Plus Off

break off

brush off

buy off

check off

clear off

cool off

cut off

fi nish off

let off

mark off

pay off

run off

send off

slow off

shut off

sound off

start off

take off

write off

Verb Plus Out

blow out

clean out

crowd out

cut out

die out

dry out

even out

fi gure out

fi ll out

fi nd out

give out

hold out

lose out

pull out

rule out

tire out

wear out

work out

Verb Plus Over

check over

do over

hold over

pass over

put over

roll over

run over

stop over

take over

talk over

think over

win over

Verb Plus Up

blow up

build up

call up

catch up

cover up

dig up

end up

fi ll up

get up

hang up

hold up

keep up

look up

mix up

pick up

save up

shake up

shut up

slow up

wrap up

Verb Plus Miscellaneous Words

bring about

catch on

get across

pass on

put across

put forth

set forth

• Two-word verbs are hard for nonnatives to understand,

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possible, we should substitute for them words that appear in standard dictionaries. Following are some two-word verbs and suggested substitutes:

Two-Word Verbs Suggested Substitutes

give up surrender

speed up, hurry up accelerate

go on, keep on continue

put off defer

take off depart, remove

come down descend

go in, come in, get in enter

go out, come out, get out exit, leave

blow up explode

think up imagine

fi gure out solve

take out, take away remove

go back, get back, be back return

Additional problems result from the fact that some two-word verbs have noun and adjective forms. These also tend to confuse nonnatives using English. Examples of such nouns are breakthrough, cover-up, drive-in, hookup, show-off, and sit-in. Examples of such adjectives are going away (a going-away gift), cover-up (cover-up tactics), cleanup (cleanup work), and turning-off (turning-off place). Fortunately, some nouns and adjec- tives of this kind are commonly used and appear in standard dictionaries (words such as hookup, feedback, breakthrough, lookout, and takeover). In writing to nonnative readers, you will need to use sparingly those that do not appear in standard dictionaries.

Culturally Derived Words. Words derived from our culture also present problems. The most apparent are the slang expressions that continually come into and go out of use. Some slang expressions catch on and fi nd a place in our dictionaries (brunch, hobo, blurb, bogus). But most are with us for a little while and then are gone. Exam- ples of such short-lived slang expressions are the “twenty-three skiddoo” and “oh you kid” of the 1920s and the ritzy, scram, natch, lousy, soused, all wet, hep, in the groove, and tops of following decades. More recent slang words that are probably destined for the same fate include nerd, wimp, earth pig, pig out, couch potato, squid, airhead, and cool. Perhaps you are not aware of just how much slang we use. For an eye- opener, you have only to visit ESL: Idioms and Slang Page, <http:iteslj.org/links/ESL/ Idioms_and_Slang/>, for links to many lists. Most slang words are not in dictionaries or on the word lists that non–English- speaking people study to learn English. The obvious conclusion is that you should not use slang in cross-cultural communication. Similar to and in fact overlapping slang are the words and expressions that we derive from our various activities—sports, social affairs, work, and the like. Sports especially have contributed such words, many of which are so widely used that they are part of our everyday vocabulary. From football we have kickoff, goal-line stand, and over the top. Baseball has given us out in left fi eld, strike out, touch base, off base, right off the bat, a steal, squeeze play, balk, and go to bat for. From boxing we have knockout, down for the count, below the belt, answer the bell, and on the ropes. From other sports and from sports in general we have jock, ace, par, stymie, from scratch, ballpark fi gure, and get the ball rolling. Similar to these words and expressions are words and expressions developed within our culture (colloquialisms). Some of these have similar meanings in other cultures, but most are diffi cult for nonnatives to understand. You will fi nd some examples in Figure 16–2.

• Some two-word verbs have noun and adjective forms. Use these sparingly.

• Culturally derived words, especially slang, cause problems.

• So avoid slang.

• Words derived from sports, social activities, and so on cause problems.

• Colloquialisms also cause problems.

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If you are like most of us, many of these words and expressions are a part of your vocabulary. You use them in your everyday communicating, which is all right. They are colorful, and they can communicate clearly to those who understand them. Nonna- tive English speakers are not likely to understand them, however; so you will need to eliminate such words and expressions in communicating with them. You will need to use words that are clearly defi ned in the dictionaries that these people are likely to use in translating your message. Following are some examples:

Not This

That’s just off the top of my head.

He frequently shoots from the hip.

We would be up the creek without a paddle.

They couldn’t make heads or tails of the report.

The sales campaign was a fl op.

I’ll touch base with you on this problem in August.

Take an educated guess on this question.

Your sales report put us in orbit.

We will wind down manufacturing opera- tions in November.

Your prediction was right on the beam.

Don’t let him get your goat.

But This

Here’s a quick idea.

He frequently acts before he thinks.

We would be in a helpless situation.

They couldn’t understand the report.

The sales campaign was a failure.

I’ll talk with you about this problem in August.

Answer this question to the best of your knowledge.

Your sales report pleased us very much.

We will end manufacturing operations in November.

Your prediction was correct.

Don’t let him upset you.

A GENERAL SUGGESTION FOR COMMUNICATING ACROSS CULTURES In addition to the specifi c suggestions for improving your communication in English with nonnative English speakers, you should follow one general suggestion: Write or talk simply and clearly. Talk slowly and enunciate each word. Remember that because most nonnative speakers learned English in school, they are acquainted mainly with primary dictionary meanings and are not likely to understand slang words or shades of difference in the meanings we give words. They will understand you better if you avoid these pitfalls. In the words of two highly regarded scholars in the fi eld, you should “educate yourself in the use of Simplifi ed English.”13

head for home

have an itching palm

grasp at straws

fl at-footed

on the beam

out to pasture

sitting duck

in the groove

nuts (crazy)

circle the wagons

shoot from the hip

tuckered out

gumption

crying in his beer

in orbit

a honey

a fl op

dope (crazy)

hood (gangster)

up the creek without a paddle

a fi sh out of water

a chicken with its head cut off

tote (carry)

in a rut

priming the pump

make heads or tails of it

tearjerker

countdown

shortcut

educated guess

all ears

slower than molasses

break the ice

Figure 16–2

Examples of Colloquialisms to Avoid with Nonnative Speakers

• Use simple, basic English.

13 Robert Sellers and Elaine Winters, Cultural Issues in Business Communication, 3 Nov. 2003 <http://www.bena.com/ ewinters/sect1.html>.

• We use such words in everyday communication. But avoid them in cross- cultural correspondence.

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C O M M U N I C A T I O N M A T T E R S

Words of Wisdom

The lexical differences between American English and British English can be traced to the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries when early settlers brought to North America the language of their homelands. British settlers found that their language was not adequate for life on a different continent. The new things they encountered necessitated their adapting the meanings of existing English words or fi nding new words.

James Calvert Scott, Utah State University

James Calvert Scott, “Differences in American and British Vocabulary: Implications for International Business Communication,” Business Communication Quarterly 63. 4 2000: 28.

You also will communicate better if you carefully word your questions. Be sure your questions are not double questions. Avoid “Do you want to go to dinner now or wait until after the rush hour is over?” Also, avoid the yes/no question that some cultures may have diffi culty answering directly. Use more open-ended questions such as “When would you like to go to dinner?” Also, avoid negative questions such as “Aren’t you going to dinner?” In some cultures a yes response confi rms whether the questioner is correct; in other cultures the response is directed toward the question be- ing asked. Finally, try to check and clarify your communication through continuous confi r- mation. Summarizing in writing also is a good idea, and today’s technology enables parties to do this on the spot. It allows you to be certain you have conveyed your mes- sage and received the response accurately. Even in Britain, whose culture similar to ours, similar words can have vastly different meanings. For example, we use a billion to mean 1,000,000,000 whereas the British use it to mean 1,000,000,000,000. If a British English speaker asked to table another item, an American English speaker will probably interpret that as a request to put it off when the real request was to bring it to attention.14 Continually checking for meaning and using written summaries can help ensure the accuracy of the communication process.

SUMMARY BY LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. Businesses are becoming increasingly global in their operations.

• Being able to communicate across cultures is necessary in these operations.

• Specifi cally, it helps in gaining additional business, in hiring good people, and generally in understanding and satisfying the needs of customers.

2. Culture may be defi ned as “the way of life of a group of people.”

• Cultures differ.

• People tend to view the practices of their culture as right and those of other cultures as peculiar or wrong.

• These views cause miscommunication.

• Continually check the accuracy of the communication.

14 Danielle Medina Walker, Thomas Walker, and Joerg Schmitz, Doing Business Internationally: The Guide to Cross- Cultural Success, 2nd ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill/Irwin, 2003) 211.

1Explain why communicating clearly across cultures is important to business.

2Defi ne culture and explain its effects on cross-cultural communication.

• Word questions carefully to elicit the response intended.

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3. Variations in how people of different cultures use body positions and body movements is a cause of miscommunication.

• How people walk, gesture, smile, and such varies from culture to culture.

• When people from different cultures attempt to communicate, each may not understand the other’s body movements.

4. People in different cultures differ in their ways of relating to people.

• Specifi cally, they differ in their practices and thinking concerning time, space, odors, frankness, relationships, values, and social behavior.

• We should not use our culture’s practices as standards for determining meaning.

• Instead, we should try to understand the other culture.

5. Language equivalency problems are another major cause of miscommunication in cross-cultural communication.

• About 3,000 languages are used on earth.

• They differ greatly in grammar and syntax.

• Like English, most have words with multiple meanings.

• As a result, equivalency in translation is diffi cult.

6. Overcoming the language equivalency problems involves hard and tedious work.

• The best advice is to master the language of the nonnative English speakers with whom you communicate.

• Also, you should be aware of the problems caused by language differences.

• Ask questions carefully to make sure you are understood.

• For important communications, consider back translation—the technique of using two translators, the fi rst to translate from one language to the other and the second to translate back to the original.

• Check the accuracy of the communication with written summaries.

5Explain the language equivalency problem as a cause of miscommunication.

6Describe what one can do to overcome the language equivalency problem.

C R I T I C A L T H I N K I N G Q U E S T I O N S

1 “Just as our culture has advanced in its technological sophistication, it has advanced in the sophistication of its body signals, gestures, and attitudes toward time, space, and such. Thus, the ways of our culture are sup- erior to those of most other cultures.” Discuss this view.

2 What are the prevailing attitudes in our culture toward the following, and how can those attitudes affect our communication with nonnatives? Discuss.

a. Negotiation methods

b. Truth in advertising

c. Company–worker loyalty

d. Women’s place in society

e. The Protestant work ethic

3 Some of our message-writing techniques are said to be unacceptable to people from such cultures as those of Japan and England.

a. Which techniques in particular do you think would be most inappropriate in these cultures?

b. Why?

4 Think of English words (other than text examples) that probably do not have a precise equivalent in some other culture. Tell how you would attempt to explain each of these words to a person from that culture.

5 Select a word with at least fi ve meanings. List those meanings and tell how you would communicate each of them to a nonnative.

6 From newspapers or magazines, fi nd and bring to class 10 sentences containing words and expressions that a nonnative English speaker would not be likely to un- derstand. Rewrite the sentences for this reader.

7 Is conversational style appropriate in writing to nonna- tive readers? Discuss.

500 PART 6 Cross-Cultural Communication, Correctness, Technology, Research

3Describe cultural differences in body positions and movements and use this knowledge effectively in communicating.

4Describe cultural differences in views and practices concerning time, space, odors, and such and use this knowledge effectively in communicating.

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8 Interview a nonnative speaker of English about com- munication differences between cultures he or she has experienced. Report your fi ndings to the class in a 10- minute presentation.

9 Research a non–English-speaking country on the Inter- net or in your library. Look for ways in which business communication can vary by culture. Report your work to the class in a short presentation.

10 Explain ethnocentrism in relation to the communica- tion model in Chapter 1.

11 On a recent trip to India, Mr. Yang, a prominent Chinese executive, dined with his client Himanshu Jain. Mr. Yang commented that the food was spicy, which Mr. Jain interpreted as an opportunity to discuss Indian cuisine. After lengthy explanations, Mr. Yang com- mented again that the food was spicy.

What happened here? What barrier is likely getting in the way of clear communication? (Adapted from Danielle Medina Walker, Thomas Walker, and Joerg Schmitz, Doing Business Internationally: The Guide to Cross- Cultural Success, [New York: McGraw-Hill, 2003] 237.)

C R I T I C A L T H I N K I N G E X E R C I S E S

Instructions: Rewrite the following sentences for a nonna- tive English speaker.

1 Last year our laboratory made a breakthrough in design that really put sales in orbit.

2 You will need to pin down Mr. Wang to put across the need to tighten up expenses.

3 Recent losses have us on the ropes now, but we expect to get out of the hole by the end of the year.

4 We will kick off the advertising campaign in February, and in April we will bring out the new products.

5 Maryellen gave us a ballpark fi gure on the project, but I think she is ready to back down from her estimate.

6 We will back up any of our products that are not up to par.

7 Mr. Maghrabi managed to straighten out and become our star salesperson.

8 Now that we have cut back on our telemarketing, we will have to build up our radio advertising.

9 If you want to improve sales, you should stay with your prospects until they see the light.

10 We should be able to bring about a savings of 8 or 10 grand.