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Lesikar−Flatley−Rentz: Business Communication: Making Connections in a Digital World, 11th Edition
IV. Fundamentals of Report Writing
12. Long, Formal Reports © The McGraw−Hill Companies, 2008
c h a p t e r t w e l v e
Long, Formal Reports
L E A R N I N G O B J E C T I V E S
Upon completing this chapter, you will be able to construct long, formal reports for important projects. To reach this goal, you should be able to
1 Describe the roles and contents and construct the prefatory parts of a long, formal report.
2 Organize the introduction of a long report by considering the likely readers and selecting the appropriate contents.
3 Prepare the body of a long, formal report by applying the advice in Chapter 10 and in other chapters.
4 Determine, based on the report’s purpose, the most effective way to end a report: a summary, a conclusion, a recommendation, or a combination of the three.
5 Describe the role and content of the appendix and bibliography of a report.
6 Prepare a structural coherence plan for a long, formal report.
Lesikar−Flatley−Rentz: Business Communication: Making Connections in a Digital World, 11th Edition
IV. Fundamentals of Report Writing
12. Long, Formal Reports © The McGraw−Hill Companies, 2008
374 PART 4 Fundamentals of Report Writing
I N T R O D U C T O R Y S I T U A T I O N
Long, Formal Reports Assume the role of associate director of research, Midwestern Research, Inc. As your title indicates, research is your business. Perhaps it would be more accurate to say that research and reports are your business. Research is your primary activity, of course. But you must present your fi ndings to your customers. The most effi cient way of doing so is through reports. Typical of your work is your current assignment with Nokia, a manufacturer of mobile phones. The sales division of Nokia wants information that will help improve the effectiveness of its salespeople. Specifi cally, it wants answers to the question of what its salespeople can do to improve their performance. The information gathered will be used in revising the curriculum of Nokia’s sales training program. To fi nd the answer to the basic question, you plan to investigate three areas of sales activities: how salespeople use their time, how they fi nd prospects, and how they make sales presentations. You will get this information for two groups of Nokia salespeople: the successful and the unsuccessful. Next, you will compare the information you get from these two groups. You will compare the groups on the three areas of sales activity (the bases of comparison). The differences you detect in these comparisons should identify the effective and the ineffective sales practices. Your next task will be to determine what your fi ndings mean. When you have done this, you will present your fi ndings, analyses, conclusions, and recommendations in a report to Nokia. Because Nokia executives will see the report as evidence of the work you did for the company, you will dress the report up. You know that what Nokia sees will affect what it thinks of your work. So you will use the formal arrangement that is traditional for reports of this importance. You will include the con- ventional prefatory pages. You will use headings to guide the readers through the text. And you will use graphics liberally to help tell the report story. If the situation calls for them, you may use appended parts. In other words, you will construct a report that matches the formality and importance of the situation. How to construct such reports is the subject of this chapter.
Although not numerous, long, formal reports are highly important in business. They usually concern major investigations, which explains their length. They are usually prepared for high-level executives, which explains their formality. The advice in Chapter 10 about creating reports—determining the purpose, gath- ering information, and choosing a logical structure adapted to the readers—applies to long, formal reports as well. And much of the advice in Chapter 11 about propos- als can apply to long, formal proposals. We will not repeat this advice here. Instead, this chapter will focus on the special components of formal reports, emphasizing their purpose and design. For any given case, you will need to decide which of these components to use and whether or not your report or proposal needs different special elements. As always, the facts of the situation and your readers’ preferences should be your guide.
ORGANIZATION AND CONTENT OF LONGER REPORTS In determining the structure of longer, more formal reports, you should view your work much as architects view theirs. You have a number of parts to work with. Your task is to design from those parts a report that meets your reader’s needs. The fi rst parts in your case are the prefatory pages. As noted in Chapter 11, the longest, most formal reports contain all of these. As the length of the report and the formality of the situation decrease, certain changes occur. As the report architect, you must decide which arrangement of prefatory parts meets the length and formality re- quirements of your situation.
• See Chapters 10 and 11 for advice about developing the contents and structure of reports and proposals.
• Long, formal reports are important but not numerous in business.
• Needs should determine the structure of long, formal reports.
• The need for the prefatory parts decreases as reports become shorter and less formal.
Lesikar−Flatley−Rentz: Business Communication: Making Connections in a Digital World, 11th Edition
IV. Fundamentals of Report Writing
12. Long, Formal Reports © The McGraw−Hill Companies, 2008
CHAPTER 12 Long, Formal Reports 375
To make this decision, you need to know these parts. Thus, we will describe them in the following pages. In addition, we will describe the remaining structure of the long- est, most formal report. As you proceed through these descriptions, it will be helpful to trace the parts through the illustration report at the end of this chapter. In addition, it will help to consult Appendix B for illustrations of page form. For convenience in the following discussion, the report parts are organized by groups. The fi rst group comprises the prefatory parts, the parts that are most closely related to the formality and length of the report. Then comes the report proper, which, of course, is the meat of all reports. It is the report story. The fi nal group comprises the appended parts. These parts contain supplementary materials, information that is not essential to the report but may be helpful to some readers. In summary, the presentation follows this pattern:
Prefatory parts: Title fl y. Title page. Authorization message. Transmittal message, preface, or foreword. Table of contents and list of illustrations. Executive summary.
The report proper: Introduction. The report fi ndings (presented in two or more divisions). Summary, conclusion, or recommendation.
Appended parts: Appendix. Bibliography.
THE PREFATORY PARTS As you know from preceding discussion, there may be many variations in the prefa- tory parts of a formal report. Even so, the six parts covered in the following pages are generally included in longer reports.
Title Fly The fi rst of the possible prefatory report pages is the title fl y (see page 387). It contains only the report title, and it is included solely for reasons of formality. Since the title appears again on the following page, the title fl y is somewhat repetitive. But most books have one, and so do most formal reports. Although constructing the title fl y is simple, composing the title is not. In fact, on a per-word basis, the title requires more time than any other part of the report. This is as it should be, for titles should be carefully worded. Their goal is to tell the reader at a glance what the report does and does not cover. A good title fi ts the report like a glove. It covers all the report information tightly.
• In determining which prefatory parts to include, you should know their roles and contents.
• Thus, they are reviewed in the following pages.
• The title fl y contains only the report title.
• Construct titles to make them describe the report precisely.
A long report can be daunting to readers. Be sure to provide prefatory material that invites them in and makes the key information easy to fi nd.
Lesikar−Flatley−Rentz: Business Communication: Making Connections in a Digital World, 11th Edition
IV. Fundamentals of Report Writing
12. Long, Formal Reports © The McGraw−Hill Companies, 2008
376 PART 4 Fundamentals of Report Writing
For completeness of coverage, you should build your titles around the fi ve Ws: who, what, where, when, why. Sometimes how may be important. In some problems, you will not need to use all the Ws. Nevertheless, they serve as a good checklist for completeness. For example, you might construct a title for the report described at the chapter beginning as follows:
Who: Nokia What: Sales training recommendations Where: Implied (Nokia regional offi ces) When: 2008 Why: Understood (to improve sales training) How: Based on a 2008 study of company sales activities
From this analysis comes this title: “Sales Training Recommendations for Nokia Based on a 2008 Study of Company Sales Activities.” For another example, take a report analyzing Petco’s 2008 advertising campaigns. This analysis would be appropriate:
Who: Petco What: Analysis of advertising campaigns Where: Not essential When: 2008 Why: Implied How: Not essential
Thus, this title emerges: “Analysis of Petco’s 2008 Advertising Campaigns.” Obviously, you cannot write a completely descriptive title in a word or two. Ex- tremely short titles tend to be broad and general. They cover everything; they touch nothing. Even so, your goal is to be concise as well as complete. So you must seek the most economical word pattern consistent with completeness. In your effort to be concise and complete, you may want to use subtitles. Here is an example: “A 2007 Measure of Employee Morale at Florida Human Resource Offi ces: A Study Based on a Survey Using the Semantic Differential.”
Title Page Like the title fl y, the title page presents the report title. In addition, it displays informa- tion essential to identifi cation of the report. In constructing your title page, you should include your complete identifi cation and that of the authorizer or recipient of the re- port. You also may include the date of writing, particularly if the date is not in the title. An example of a three-spot title page appears in the report at the end of the chapter. You can see a four-spot arrangement (used when writer and reader are within the same organization) in Appendix B.
Authorization Message Although not illustrated in the diagram of report structure in Chapter 11 or in the report at the end of this chapter, an authorization message can be a prefatory part. It was not shown in the diagram (Figure 11–1) because its presence in a report is not determined by formality or length but by whether the report was authorized in writing. A report authorized in writing should include a copy of the written authorization. This part usually follows the title page. As the report writer, you would not write the authorization message. But if you ever have to write one, handle it as you would a direct-order message. In the opening, authorize the research. Then cover the specifi c information that the reader needs in order to conduct it. This might include a clear description of the problem, time and money limitations, special instructions, and the due date. Close the message with an appropriate goodwill comment.
• As a checklist, use who, what, where, when, why, and sometimes how.
• One- or two-word titles are too broad. Subtitles can help conciseness.
• The title page displays the title, identifi cation of the writer and autho- rizer, and the date.
• Include the authorization message if the report was authorized in writing.
• Write the authorization message in the direct order: authorization, information about the problem, goodwill close.
Lesikar−Flatley−Rentz: Business Communication: Making Connections in a Digital World, 11th Edition
IV. Fundamentals of Report Writing
12. Long, Formal Reports © The McGraw−Hill Companies, 2008
CHAPTER 12 Long, Formal Reports 377
Transmittal Message, Foreword, Preface Most formal reports contain a personal message of some kind from the writer to the reader. In most business reports, the transmittal message performs this function. In some cases, particularly where the report is written for a group of readers, a foreword or preface is used instead. The transmittal message transmits the report to the reader. In less formal situations, the report is transmitted orally or by email. In more formal situations, a letter does the job. But keep in mind that a written message merely substitutes for a face-to-face meeting. What you write in it is much like what you would say if you were face to face with the reader. This personal touch enhances the communication effect of your report. Because the goal of transmitting the report is positive, you should begin the transmit- tal message directly, without explanation or other delaying information. Your opening words should say, in effect, “Here is the report.” Tied to or following the transmittal of the report, you should briefl y identify the report goal, and you can refer to the authori- zation (who assigned the report, when, why). What else you include in the transmittal message depends on the situation. In gen- eral, you should include anything that would be appropriate in a face-to-face presen- tation. What would you say if you were handing the report to the reader? It would probably be something about the report—how to understand, use, or appreciate it. You might make suggestions about follow-up studies, advise about limitations of the report, or comments about side issues. In fact, you might include anything that helps the reader understand and value the report. Typically, the transmittal message ends with an appropriate goodwill comment. An expression of gratefulness for the assign- ment or an offer to do additional research if necessary makes good closing material. When you combine the transmittal message with the executive summary (an accept- able arrangement), you follow the opening transmittal statement with a summary of the report highlights. In general, you follow the procedure for summarizing described in the discussion of the executive summary. Following the summary, you include appropriate talk about the report. Then you end with a goodwill comment. Because the transmittal message is a personal note to the reader, you may write in a personal style. In other words, you may use personal pronouns (you, I, we). In addition, you may write the message in conversational language that refl ects your personality. You may not want to use the personal style in very formal cases, however. For exam- ple, if you were writing a report for a committee of senators or for other high-ranking dignitaries, you might elect to write the transmittal message impersonally. But such instances are rare. In whatever style, you should convey genuine warmth to the contact with another human being.
• The transmittal message is a personal message from the writer to the reader.
• It substitutes for a face- to-face meeting.
• Its main goal is to transmit the report.
• In addition, it includes helpful comments about the report. The close is goodwill.
• A summary follows the opening when the executive summary and the transmittal message are combined.
Playing possum doesn’t work anymore, Stephmeyer! I want that report by 5 P.M. or else! SOURCE: Copyright © Tribune Media Services, Inc. All rights reserved. Reprinted with permission.
• The transmittal message is usually in personal style.
Lesikar−Flatley−Rentz: Business Communication: Making Connections in a Digital World, 11th Edition
IV. Fundamentals of Report Writing
12. Long, Formal Reports © The McGraw−Hill Companies, 2008
378 PART 4 Fundamentals of Report Writing
As noted previously, you may transmit reports to broad audiences in a foreword or a preface. Minor distinctions are sometimes drawn between forewords and prefaces. But for all practical purposes, they are the same. Both are preliminary messages from the writer to the reader. Although forewords and prefaces usually do not for- mally transmit the report, they do many of the other things transmittal messages do. Like transmittal messages, they seek to help the reader appreciate and understand the report. They may, for example, include helpful comments about the report—its use, interpretation, follow-up, and the like. In addition, they frequently contain expres- sions of indebtedness to those helpful in the research. Like transmittal messages, they are usually written in the fi rst person. But they are seldom as informal as some transmittal messages. There is no established pattern for arranging the contents of forewords and prefaces.
Table of Contents, List of Illustrations If your report is long enough to need a guide to its contents, you should include a table of contents. This table is the report outline in fi nished form with page numbers. It previews the structure and contents of the report and helps readers fi nd what they most want to read. It is especially helpful to those readers who want to read only a few selected parts of the report—and there can be many such readers for a given report or proposal. Because the table of contents is such an important reading support, be sure to follow the specifi c guidelines in Chapter 10 for preparing one. In addition to listing the text headings, the table of contents lists the parts of the report that appear before and after the report proper. Thus, it lists the prefatory parts (though not the title fl y or title page), the appended parts (bibliography, appendix), and the fi gures and tables that illustrate the report. Typically, the fi gures and tables appear as separate listings following the listings reviewed above. See the textbook website for instructions on how to generate a table of contents easily using Word.
Executive Summary The executive summary (also called synopsis, abstract, epitome, précis, digest) is the report in miniature. It concisely summarizes whatever is important in the report. For some readers, the executive summary serves as a preview to the report. But it is written primarily for busy executives who may not have time to read the whole report. Perhaps
C O M M U N I C A T I O N M A T T E R S
A Questionable Example of Effective Reporting
“How could I have hired this fellow Glutz?” the sales manager moaned as he read this fi rst report from his new salesper- son: “I have arrive in Detroit. Tomorry I will try to sell them companys here what ain’t never bought nothing from us.” Before the sales manager could fi re this stupid fellow, Glutz’s second report arrived: “I done good here. Sold them bout haff a millun dollars wirth. Tomorry I try to sell to them there Smith Company folks what threw out that last feller what sold for us.” Imagine how the sales manager’s viewpoint changed when he read Glutz’s third report: “Today I seen them Smith folks and sole them bout a millun dollars wirth. Also after dinner I got too little sails mountin to bout half a millun dollars. Tomorry I going to do better.” The sales manager was so moved that he tacked Glutz’s reports on the company bulletin board. Below them he posted his note to all the salespeople: “I want all you should reed these reports wrote by Glutz who are on the road doin a grate job. Then you should go out and do like he done.”
• For broad audiences, a foreword (or preface) is used. Forewords do not transmit the report—they comment about it.
• Include a table of contents when the report is long enough to need a guide to its contents.
• The table of contents lists text headings, prefatory parts, appended parts, and fi gures and tables. It gives page numbers.
• Follow the guidelines in Chapter 10 for preparing a table of contents.
• The executive summary summarizes the report.
Lesikar−Flatley−Rentz: Business Communication: Making Connections in a Digital World, 11th Edition
IV. Fundamentals of Report Writing
12. Long, Formal Reports © The McGraw−Hill Companies, 2008
CHAPTER 12 Long, Formal Reports 379
they can get all they need to know by reading the executive summary. If they need to know more about any part, they can fi nd that part through the table of contents. Thus, they can fi nd out whatever they need to know quickly and easily. You construct the executive summary by reducing the parts of the report in order and in proportion. More specifi cally, you go through the report, selecting whatever is essential. You should include the basic information about the report, such as its origin and purpose. You should include the key facts and all the major analyses of the infor- mation presented. And you should include all the conclusions and recommendations derived from these analyses. The fi nished product should be a miniature of the whole, with all the important ingredients. As a general rule, the executive summary is less than an eighth as long as the writing it summarizes. Because your goal is to cut the report to a fraction of its length, much of your suc- cess will depend on your skill in word economy. Loose writing is costly. But in your efforts to be concise, you are more likely to write in a dull style. You will need to avoid this tendency. The traditional executive summary reviews the report in the indirect order (intro- duction, body, conclusion). In recent years, however, the direct order has gained in popularity. This order shifts the conclusions and/or recommendations (as the case may be) to the major position of emphasis at the beginning. Direct-order executive sum- maries resemble the short reports described in Chapter 11. From this direct beginning, the summary moves to the introductory parts and then through the major highlights of the report in normal order. Diagrams of both arrangements appear in Figure 12–1. Whichever arrangement you choose, you will write the executive summary after the report proper is complete.
• It includes the report purpose, highlights of the facts, analyses, conclusions, and recommendations—in proportion.
• Work on writing style in this part.
• Either direct or indirect order is appropriate.
Figure 12–1
Diagram of the Executive Summary in Indirect and Direct Order
Executive summary (in indirect order)
Executive summary (in direct order)
I
I
II
III
IV
V
V
I
II
III
IV
II
III
IV
V
Lesikar−Flatley−Rentz: Business Communication: Making Connections in a Digital World, 11th Edition
IV. Fundamentals of Report Writing
12. Long, Formal Reports © The McGraw−Hill Companies, 2008
380 PART 4 Fundamentals of Report Writing
THE REPORT PROPER As noted in Chapter 11, the body of most longer reports is written in the indirect order (introduction, body, conclusion). But there are exceptions. Some longer reports are in the direct order—with summaries, conclusions, or recommendations at the beginning. And some are in an order prescribed by your company or the client. Even though the orders of longer reports may vary, the ingredients of all these reports are similar. Thus, the following review of the makeup of a report in the indirect order should help you in writing any report.
Introduction The purpose of the introduction of a report is to prepare the readers to receive the report. Whatever will help achieve this goal is appropriate content. Giving your readers what they need makes a good fi rst impression and displays good you-viewpoint. In determining what content is appropriate, consider all the likely readers of your report. As we noted earlier, the readers of many shorter reports are likely to know the problem well and have little or no need for an introduction. But such is not often the case for longer reports. Many of these reports are prepared for a large number of readers, some of whom know little about the problem. These reports often have long lives and are kept on fi le to be read in future years. Clearly, they require some introduc- tory explanation to prepare the readers. Determining what should be included is a matter of judgment. You should ask your- self what you would need or want to know about the problem if you were in your read- ers’ shoes. As the report’s author, you know more about the report than anyone else. So you will work hard not to assume that readers have the same knowledge of the problem that you do. In selecting the appropriate information, you would do well to use the fol- lowing checklist of likely introduction contents. Remember, though, that it is only a checklist. Only on rare occasions, such as in the longest, most complex reports, would you include all the items.
Origin of the Report. The fi rst part of your introduction might well include a review of the facts of authorization. Some writers, however, leave this part out. If you decide to include it, you should present such facts as when, how, and by whom the report was authorized; who wrote the report; and when the report was submit- ted. Information of this kind is particularly useful in reports that have no transmittal message.
Problem and Purpose. A vital part of almost every report is a statement of its problem. The problem is what the report seeks to do, the situation that it addresses. It is the need that prompted the investigation. You may state the problem of your report in three ways, as shown in Chapter 10. One common way is to word it in the infi nitive form: “To determine standards for corporate annual reports.” Another common way is to word it as a question: “What retail advertising practices do Springfi eld consumers disapprove of?” Still another way is to word it as a declarative statement: “Company X wants to know the char- acteristics of the buyers of Y perfume as a guide to its advertising planning.” Any of the three should give your reader a clear picture of what your report seeks to do. But the problem statement is not the only item you include. You will need to elaborate on what you are going to do. Closely related to what you are doing is why you are doing it. The purpose (often called by other names such as objective, aim, goal) tells the reason of the report. For example, you might be determining standards for the corporate annual report in order to streamline the production process. You will need to weave the why and what of the report together for a smooth fl ow of thoughts.
• Then determine what those readers need to know. Use the following checklist.
• 1. Origin—the facts of authorization.
• 2. Problem—what prompted the report.
• The problem is commonly stated in infi nitive, question, or declarative form.
• Arrangements of the report proper may vary, but the following review of the indirect order should be helpful.
• The introduction should prepare the readers.
• In deciding what to include, consider all likely readers.
• The purpose is the reason for the report.
Lesikar−Flatley−Rentz: Business Communication: Making Connections in a Digital World, 11th Edition
IV. Fundamentals of Report Writing
12. Long, Formal Reports © The McGraw−Hill Companies, 2008
CHAPTER 12 Long, Formal Reports 381
The table of contents generator tool in today’s word pro- cessors frees writers from both the physical formatting and the accuracy tasks. Just a few clicks produces and formats the table of contents, along with leaders and page numbers. Additionally, today’s generators add links so that those reading the report on the screen rather than on paper can easily navigate to a particular section or page by simply clicking on it in the table of contents. The table of contents generator works with styles, using them as tags for marking items to include in the table of contents. If you are using a standard report
template, styles are already incorporated in it. If you are creating your own report from a blank document, you could use predefi ned styles or defi ne your own styles to create titles, headings, and subheads. Styles provide consistency so that headings at certain levels always ap- pear the same, helping the reader see the relationship of the parts of your report. Furthermore, if you decide to change the material in your report after you have generated the table of contents, you simply regenerate it to update page numbers with only a few clicks.
T E C H N O L O G Y I N B R I E F
Using a Table of Contents Generator for Speed and Accuracy
Scope. If the scope of the problem is not clearly covered in any of the other intro- ductory parts, you may need to include it in a separate part. By scope we mean the boundaries of the problem. In this part of the introduction—in plain, clear language— you should describe what is included in the problem. You also should identify the limitations—what you have not included.
Limitations. In some reports, you will need to explain limitations. By limitations we mean things that keep your report from being an ideal treatment of the problem. Of course, in reality there is no such thing as an ideal treatment. No real-world prob- lem can be completely explored, and because different writers will approach the same problem differently, what seems complete to one person may not seem complete to another. Everyone understands that no report can provide coverage of a given topic in an absolute sense. But in certain cases, you will want to state explicitly what forms of research were not employed so that your readers will know how to evaluate your in- formation. For example, if time constraints permitted only a quick email survey rather than in-depth interviews of your sources, you would say so. Or if a major source of
• 3. Scope—the boundaries of the problem.
• 4. Limitations—anything that limits the report’s treatment of the problem.
Lesikar−Flatley−Rentz: Business Communication: Making Connections in a Digital World, 11th Edition
IV. Fundamentals of Report Writing
12. Long, Formal Reports © The McGraw−Hill Companies, 2008
382 PART 4 Fundamentals of Report Writing
• 5. History—how the problem developed and what is known about it.
• 6. Sources and methods—how you got the information.
information was unavailable (perhaps a key informant had left the company or relevant industry reports were too expensive), you would note this limitation in your report. Be frank in this section but not too negative. State clearly what was not done and why, but do so without apology or such negative wording as “impair” or “compromised the validity of our fi ndings.” If you have done a good job with the resources at your disposal, this section of the report can use a directness that shows confi dence in the report’s usefulness despite its limitations.
Historical Background. Knowledge of the history of the problem is sometimes essential to understanding the report. Thus, you may need to cover that history in your introduction. You will need to do more than merely list and present facts. You will need to organize and interpret them for the readers. Your general aim in this part is to acquaint the readers with how the problem developed and what has been done about it. Your discussion here should bring out the main issues. It should review what past investigations have determined about the problem, and it should lead to what still needs to be done.
Sources and Methods of Collecting Information. You usually need to tell the readers how you collected the information in the report. That is, you explain your research methodology and you justify it. You specify whether you used published re- search, surveys, experiments, or what not. And you describe the steps you followed. In general, you describe your work in enough detail to allow your readers to judge it. You tell them enough to convince them that your work was done competently. In a simple case in which you gathered published research, you need to say little. If most of your fi ndings came from a few sources, you could name the sources. If you used a large number of sources, you would be wise to note that you used secondary research and refer to the bibliography in the report appendix. More complex research usually requires a more detailed description. If you con- ducted a survey, for example, you probably would need to explain all parts of the in- vestigation. You would cover sample determination, construction of the questionnaire, interview procedure, and checking techniques. In fact, you would include as much detail as is needed to gain the readers’ confi dence in your work.
Definitions, Initialisms, and Acronyms. If you use words, initialisms, or ac- ronyms that are likely to be unfamiliar to readers of the report, you should defi ne these words and initials. You can do this in either of two ways: you can defi ne each term in the text or as a footnote when it is fi rst used in the report, or you can defi ne all unfamil- iar terms in a separate part of the introduction. This part begins with an introductory statement and then lists the terms with their defi nitions. If the list is long, you may choose to arrange the terms alphabetically.
Report Preview. In very long reports, a fi nal part of the introduction should pre- view the report presentation. In this part you tell the readers how the report will be presented—what topics will be taken up fi rst, second, third, and so on. Of even greater importance, you give your reasons for following this plan. That is, you explain the strategy of your report. In short, you give your readers a clear picture of the road ahead. As you will see later in the chapter, this part of the introduction is a basic ingre- dient of the coherence plan of the long report. Illustrations of report previews appear in the discussion of this plan (page 385) and in the report at the end of the chapter (see Figure 12–3, page 387).
The Report Body In the report body, the information collected is presented and related to the problem. Normally, this part of the report comprises most of its content. In a sense, the report body is the report. With the exception of the conclusion or recommendation part, the other parts of the report are attached parts.
• Sometimes it is necessary to cite sources.
• More complex research requires thorough description.
• 7. Defi nitions of unfamiliar words, acronyms, or initialisms used.
• 8. Preview—a description of the route ahead.
• The report body presents and analyzes the information gathered.
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CHAPTER 12 Long, Formal Reports 383
Advice presented throughout this book will help you prepare this part of the report. Its organization was discussed extensively in Chapter 10. It is written in accord with the instructions on style presented in Chapter 10 and with the general principles for clear writing presented in the early chapters. It may use the components of shorter re- ports and proposals discussed in Chapter 11. Any sources used must be appropriately noted and documented as illustrated in Appendix E. It uses good presentation form as discussed in Appendix B and elsewhere, and it follows the guidelines for use of fi gures and tables discussed in Chapter 13. In short, writing this major section of the long, formal report will require virtually all your organizing, writing, and formatting skills.
The Ending of the Report You can end your report in any of a number of ways: with a summary, a conclusion, a recommendation, or a combination of the three. Your choice depends on the purpose of your report. You should choose the way that enables you to satisfy that purpose.
Ending Summary. When the purpose of the report is to present information, the ending is logically a summary of the major fi ndings. There is no attempt to interpret at this point. Any interpretations of the information in the report occur on the reader’s part at this point, but not the writer’s. Such reports usually have minor summaries at the end of the major sections. When this arrangement is followed, the ending summary recapitulates these summaries. You should not confuse the ending summary with the executive summary. The ex- ecutive summary is a prefatory part of the report; the ending summary is a part of the report text. Also, the executive summary is more complete than the ending summary. The executive summary reviews the entire report, usually from the beginning to the end. The ending summary reviews only the highlights of the report.
Conclusions. Some reports must do more than just present information. They must analyze the information in light of the problem; and from this analysis, they must reach a conclusion. Such reports typically end with this conclusion. The make-up of the conclusion section varies from case to case. In problems for which a single answer is sought, the conclusion section normally reviews the preced- ing information and analyses and, from this review, arrives at the answer. In problems with more than one goal, the report plan may treat each goal in a separate section and draw conclusions in each section. The conclusion section of such a report might well summarize the conclusions previously drawn. There are other arrangements. In fact, almost any plan that brings the analyses together to reach the goals of the report is appropriate.
• Preparing this part will employ much of the advice in this book.
• Reports can end in various ways.
• Informational reports usually end with a summary of the major fi ndings.
• The ending summary is not as complete as the executive summary.
• Reports that seek an answer end with a conclusion.
• The structure of the conclusion varies by problem.
C O M M U N I C A T I O N M A T T E R S
Technical Writer’s Report on Humpty Dumpty
A 72-gram brown Rhode Island Red country-fresh candled egg was secured and washed free of feathers, blood, dirt, and grit. Held between thumb and index fi nger, about 3 ft. or more from an electric fan (GE Model No. MC-2404, Serial No. JC23023, nonoscillating, rotating on “Hi” speed at approximately 1045.23 plus or minus 0.02 rpm), the egg was sus- pended on a pendulum (string) so that it arrived at the fan with essentially zero velocity normal to the fan rotation plane. The product adhered strongly to the walls and ceiling and was diffi cult to recover. However, using putty knives a total of 13 grams was obtained and put in a skillet with 11.2 grams of hickory-smoked Armour’s old-style bacon and heated over a low Bunsen fl ame for 7 min. 32 sec. What there was of it was of excellent quality.
“The DP Report,” Du Pont Explosives Department, Atomic Energy Division, Savannah River Laboratories, 12 July 1954.
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Recommendations. When the goal of the report is not only to draw conclusions but also to present a course of action, a recommendation is in order. You may organize it as a separate section following the conclusion section. Or you may include it in the conclusion section. In some problems, the conclusion is the recommendation—or at least a logical interpretation of it. Whether you include a recommendation should be determined by whether the readers want or expect one.
Appended Parts Sometimes you will need to include an appendix, a bibliography, or both at the end of the report. Whether you include these parts should be determined by need.
Appendix. The appendix, as its name implies, is a tacked-on part. You use it for supplementary information that supports the body of the report but has no logical place within the body. Possible appendix contents are questionnaires, working papers, sum- mary tables, additional references, and other reports. As a rule, the appendix should not include the charts, graphs, and tables that directly support the report. These should be placed in the body of the report, where they support the fi ndings. Reports should be designed for the convenience of the readers. Obviously, it is not convenient for readers to look to the appendix for illustrations of the facts they read in the report body. They would have to thumb back and forth in the report, thus losing their concentration. Such a practice would not help the reader.
Bibliography. When your investigation makes heavy use of published sources, you normally include a bibliography (a list of the publications used). The construction of this list is described in Appendix E of this book.
THE STRUCTURAL COHERENCE PLAN As we have noted, the writing in the longer reports is much like the writing in the shorter ones. In general, the instructions given in earlier chapters apply to the longer reports. But the longer reports have one writing need that is not present in the shorter ones—the need for a structural coherence plan. By structural coherence plan we mean a network of explanations, introductions, summaries, and conclusions that guide the reader through the report. Of course, you will also employ the devices for coherent writing discussed in Chapters 3 and 4. But because of the formal report’s length, your reader will probably need additional help relating the parts of the report to each other or keeping track of where he or she is in the report. A structural coherence plan provides this extra help. Although you should not use its components mechanically, it is likely to follow the general plan illustrated in Figure 12–2. The coherence plan begins with the report preview in the introduction. As you will recall, the preview tells the readers what lies ahead. It covers three things: the topics to be discussed, their order, and the logic of that order. With this information in mind, the readers know how the parts of the report relate to one another. They know the overall strategy of the presentation. The following paragraphs do a good job of previewing a report comparing four automobiles to determine which is the best for a company’s sales fl eet.
To identify which light car Allied Distributors should buy, this report compares the cars under consideration on the basis of three factors: cost, safety, and performance. Each of these factors is broken down into its component parts, which are applied to the specifi c models being considered. Because cost is the most tangible factor, it is examined in the fi rst major section. In this section, the four automobiles are compared for initial and trade-in values. Then they are compared for operating costs, as determined by mileage, oil use, repair expense, and the like. In the second major section, the safety of the four makes is compared. Driver visibility, special safety features, brakes, steering quality,
• Information that directly supports the report belongs in the text of the report.
• Include a bibliography if you make heavy use of published sources.
• Longer reports need extra structural coherence devices.
• These are a network of explanations, introductions, summaries, and conclusions.
• The coherence plan begins with the preview, which describes the route ahead.
• Include recommenda- tions when the readers want or expect them.
• Add an appendix or a bibliography when needed.
• The appendix contains information that indirectly supports the report.
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acceleration rate, and traction are the main considerations here. In the third major section, the dependability of the four makes is compared on the basis of repair records and salespersons’ time lost because of automobile failure. In the fi nal major section, weights are assigned to the foregoing comparisons, and the automobile that is best suited to the company’s needs is recommended.
In addition to the preview in the introduction, the plan uses introductory and sum- mary sections at convenient places throughout the report. Typically, these sections are at the beginning and end of major divisions, but you should use them wherever
• Introductions to and summaries of the report sections keep readers informed of where they are in the report.
Figure 12–2
Diagram of the Structural Coherence Plan of a Long, Formal Report
Summaries and conclusions help readers to gather their thoughts and see the relationships of the report topics.
Completing the plan, a final summary or conclusion section brings the report to a head. Here, previous section summaries and conclusions are brought together. From these a final conclusion and recommendation may be drawn.
The first part of the structural coherence plan is the introduction preview. Here readers are told how the report will unfold. Specifically, they are told what will be covered, in what order it will be covered, and the reasons for this order.
Because the report is long and involved, introductions are needed at the beginnings of the major sections to remind readers where they are in the plan outlined in the preview. These parts introduce the topics to be discussed, point the way through the sections, and relate the topics of the sections to the overall plan of the report.
I
II
III
IV
V
Structural coherence helpers guide readers through the report. Helpers are similar to today’s car navigational systems. Readers can clearly see where they have been, where they are, and where they will go next. By constructing paragraphs, sentences, and words at important positions throughout the report, readers can be guided skillfully to the report’s ending.
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they are needed. Such sections remind the readers where they are in the report. They tell the readers where they have been, where they are going, and perhaps why they are going there. These transition statements should not include facts, conclusions, refer- ences to graphics, and such, which belong in the content paragraphs. Illustrating this technique is the following paragraph, which introduces a major section of a report. Note how the paragraph ties in with the preceding discussion, which concerned industrial activity in three geographic areas. Note also how it justifi es covering secondary areas in the next section of the report.
Although the great bulk of industry is concentrated in three areas (Grand City, Mill- town, and Port Starr), a thorough industrial survey needs to consider the secondary, but nevertheless important, areas of the state. In the rank of their current industrial potential, these areas are the Southeast, with Hartsburg as its center; the Central West, dominated by Parrington; and the North Central, where Pineview is the center of activities.
The following summary-conclusion paragraph is a good ending to a major section. The paragraph brings to a head the fi ndings presented in the section and points the way to the subject of the next section.
These fi ndings and those pointed out in preceding paragraphs all lead to one obvious conclusion. The small-business executives are concerned primarily with subject matter that will assist them directly in their work. That is, they favor a curriculum slanted in favor of the practical subjects. They insist, however, on some coverage of the liberal arts, and they also are convinced of the value of studying business administration. On all these points, they are clearly out of tune with the bulk of the big-business leaders who have voiced their positions on this question. Even the most dedicated business administration professors would fi nd it diffi cult to support such an extremely practical approach. Nevertheless, these are the opinions of the small-business executives. Because they are the consumers of the business- education product, their opinions should at least be considered. Likewise, their specifi c recommendations on courses (the subject of the following section) deserve careful review.
Completing the coherence plan is the fi nal major section of the report. In this sec- tion, you achieve the goal of the report. Here you recall from the preceding section summaries all the major fi ndings and analyses. Then you apply them to the problem and present the conclusion. Sometimes you will make recommendations. Thus, you complete the strategy explained in the introduction preview and recalled at convenient places throughout the report. Wisely used coherence helpers can form a network of connections throughout the report. You should keep in mind, however, that these helpers should be used only when they are needed. That is, you should use them when your readers need help in seeing relationships and in knowing where they are and where they are going. If you use them well, they will appear as natural parts of the report story. They should never appear to be mechanical additions. When paragraphs are combined with sentence and word tran- sitions, as discussed in Chapters 3, 4, and 10, the total plan should guide your readers smoothly and naturally through the report.
THE LONG ANALYTICAL REPORT ILLUSTRATED Illustrating the long analytical report is the report presented at the end of this chapter (Figure 12–3). The report’s structure includes the formal elements described in the preceding pages.
• The fi nal major section of the report brings together the preceding information and applies it to the goal.
• Use coherence helpers naturally—when they are needed.
• Figure 12–3 is an illustration of a long, formal report.
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Figure 12–3
Illustration of a Long, Formal Report. This long, formal report presents the fi ndings of an observational study of successful and unsuccessful salespeople to determine the differences in how each group works. The results will be used to revise the content of the company’s sales training program. Because the report is extensive and the situation formal, the report has all the major prefatory parts. The signifi cant statistical fi ndings are effectively emphasized by graphics. Whenever secondary sources are used, they are appropriately noted and listed in the bibliography. Its physical presentation uses Word’s contemporary report template. Its documentation uses MLA style.
Title fly Checklist of 5Ws and 1H creates complete title.
What
Why
When
How
Who
SALES TRAINING RECOMMENDATIONS FOR NOKIA
BASED ON A 2008 STUDY OF COMPANY SALES ACTIVITIES
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Figure 12–3
Continued
Three-spot title page
Recipient of report receives prime position on page.
Writer receives subordinate page position.
SALES TRAINING RECOMMENDATIONS FOR NOKIA
BASED ON A 2008 STUDY OF COMPANY SALES ACTIVITIES
Prepared for Mr. Peter R. Simpson, Vice President for Sales Nokia Inc. 72117 North Musselman Road Dearborn, MI 48126-2351
Prepared by Ashlee P. Callahan Midwestern Research Associates Suite D, Brownfield Towers 212 North Bedford Avenue Detroit, MI 48219-6708
November 17, 2008
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Figure 12–3
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Midwestern Research Associates Suite D, Brownfield Towers 212 North Bedford Avenue
Detroit, MI 48219-6708 312-222-2575 [email protected]
November 17, 2008
Mr. Peter R. Simpson Vice President for Sales Nokia Inc. 72117 North Musselman Road Dearborn, MI 48126-2351
Dear Mr. Simpson:
Here is the report on the observational study of your salespeople that you asked us to conduct on August 28.
Our study of two groups of salespeople—20 top performers and 20 low performers—revealed significant differences in three areas: use of work time, ability to generate prospects, and quality of sales presentations. The resulting recommendations for your sales training program should help you correct the shortcomings in your sales force.
We appreciate your choosing Midwestern for this assignment. If you should need any additional research or assistance in implementing our recommendations, please contact us at [email protected] or 312-222-2575.
Sincerely yours,
Ashlee P. Callahan Senior Research Associate
Transmittal message
Begins directly, with the transmittal.
Brief summary helps the reader understand and appreciate the research.
Goodwill comment ends letter.
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Figure 12–3
Continued
TABLE OF CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
INTRODUCTION
Incidentals of Authorization and Submittal
Objective of the Study
Use of Observational Techniques
A Preview of the Presentation
ANALYSIS OF WORK TIME USE
Negative Effect of Idle Time
Correlation of Prospect Contacting and Success
Vital Role of Prospect Building
Necessity of Miscellaneous Activities
DIFFERENCES IN FINDING PROSPECTS
Near Equal Distribution of Web Inquiries
Value of Cultivating Repeat Customers
Limited Effectiveness of Using Bird Dogs
Scant Use of Other Techniques
OBSERVABLE VARIATIONS IN PRESENTATIONS
Positive Effect of Integrity
Apparent Value of Moderate Pressure
Necessity of Product Knowledge
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR TRAINING
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Table of contents
Background details of the problem prepare the reader to receive the report.
Three areas of sales work investigated logically form main headings.
Subfactors of the work areas make logical second- level headings.
First- and second-level headings are parallel.
Conciseness in headings improves readability.
Talking captions avoid monotonous repetition in wording.
Divisions of main body parts by factors (and subdivisions) show good thought and logical solution to problem.
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Continued
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. How productive and marginal salespeople use work time
Figure 2. Prospects contacted during observation period by productive and marginal salespeople by method of obtaining them
Figure 3. Observed images of integrity in sales presentations of marginal and productive salespeople
Figure 4. Observed use of pressure in sales presentations of marginal and productive salespeople
Figure 5. Product knowledge ratings of productive and marginal salespeople
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List of figures (a continuation of the table of contents)
Titles use 5 Ws and 1H in title construction.
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Figure 12–3
Continued
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
To enhance the performance of Nokia’s salespeople, this report recommends adding the following topics to Nokia's sales training program:
■ Negative effects of idle time ■ Techniques of cultivating prospects ■ Development of bird dog networks ■ Cultivation of repeat sales ■ Projection of integrity image ■ Use of moderate persuasion ■ Value of product knowledge
Supporting these recommendations are the following findings and conclusions drawn from an observational study of 20 productive and 20 marginal salespeople. The two groups were compared on three types of sales activities.
The data show that the productive salespeople used their time more effectively than did the marginal salespeople. Compared with marginal salespeople, the productive salespeople spent less time in idleness (28% vs. 53%). They also spent more time in contact with prospects (31.3% vs. 19.8%) and more time developing prospects (10.4% vs. 4.4%).
Investigation of how the salespeople got their prospects showed that because field assignments were about equal, both groups profited about the same from unsolicited web inquiries. The productive group got 282; the marginal group got 274. The productive group used bird dogs more extensively, having 64 contacts derived from this source during the observation period. The marginal group had 8. Productive salespeople also were more successful in turning these contacts into sales.
Observations of sales presentations revealed that productive salespeople displayed higher integrity, used pressure more reasonably, and knew the product better than marginal salespeople. Of the 20 productive salespeople, 16 displayed images of moderately high integrity (Group II). Marginal group members ranged widely with 7 in Group III (questionable) and 5 each in Group II (moderately high integrity) and Group IV (deceitful). Most (15) of the productive salespeople used moderate pressure, whereas the marginal salespeople tended toward extremes (10 high pressure, 7 low pressure). On the product knowledge test, 17 of the productive salespeople scored excellent and 3 fair. Of the marginal members, 5 scored excellent, 6 fair, and 9 inadequate.
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Executive summary
Following the direct-order plan, this executive summary places the recommendations first. Highlights of the supporting findings follow.
Remaining paragraphs summarize the major findings in the order presented in the report.
Significant comparisons and conclusions are emphasized throughout.
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Continued
SALES TRAINING RECOMMENDATIONS FOR NOKIA
BASED ON A 2008 STUDY OF COMPANY SALES ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCTION
Incidentals of Authorization and Submittal
This study of Nokia salespeople's sales activities is submitted to Mr. Peter R. Simpson, Vice President for Sales, on November 17, 2008. As authorized on August 28, the investigation was conducted under the direction of Ashlee P. Callahan of Midwestern Research Associates.
Objective of the Study
There is a significant performance gap between Nokia’s top salespeople and its lowest performers. The objective of this study was to discover the reasons for this disparity and, given these findings, to recommend changes in Nokia’s sales training program.
Use of Observational Techniques
The methodology used in this investigation was an observational study of Nokia salespeople. Specifically, the study employed the contrived observation technique, which is a unique means of observing work performance under real conditions.1 A detailed description of this technique is a part of the proposal approved at the August meeting and is not repeated here. Specific items relative to the application of this method in this case are summarized below.
Two groups of 20 Nokia salespeople were selected for the observation—a productive and a marginal group. The productive group was made up of the company's top producers for the past year; the marginal group comprised the lowest producers. Only salespeople with three years or more of experience were eligible.
A team of two highly trained observers observed each of the salespeople selected for a continuous period of five working days. Using specially designed forms, the observers recorded the work activities of the salespeople. At the end of the observation period, the
1 William G. Zikmund, Business Research Methods, 7th ed. (Cincinnati, OH: South-Western, 2003) 240.
1
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Authorization facts identify participants in the report.
Purpose section explains the problem clearly and precisely.
Thorough review of methodology permits reader to judge credibility of research.
All sources used are appropriately credited and thoroughly documented.
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Figure 12–3
Continued
observers conducted an exit interview, recording certain demographic data and administering a test of the salesperson's knowledge of Nokia 's mobile phones.
A Preview of the Presentation
In the following pages, the findings and analysis appear in the arrangement discussed at the August meeting. First comes a comparison of how the productive and the marginal salespeople spend their work time. Second is an analysis of how the productive and the marginal salespeople find their prospects. Third is a comparative analysis of the observable differences in sales presentations of the two groups. Conclusions drawn from these comparisons form the bases for recommendations regarding the content in Nokia's sales training program.
ANALYSIS OF WORK TIME USE
The time-duty observation records were examined to determine whether differences exist between the productive and marginal salespeople in their use of work time. Activities were grouped into four general categories: (1) idleness, (2) contacting prospects, (3) finding prospects, and (4) miscellaneous activities. This examination revealed the followingresults.
Negative Effect of Idle Time
As shown in Figure 1, the productive salespeople spent less work time in idleness (28%) than did the marginal salespeople (53%). Further examination of the observations reveals that the top five of the 20 productive salespeople spent even less time in idleness (13%), and the bottom five of the marginal salespeople spent more time in idleness (67%). Clearly, these observations suggest the predictable conclusion that successful salespeople work more than their less productive counterparts.
Preview prepares reader for what follows in body sections.
Subordinate reference to figure ties text and graphic together and allows inter- pretation to begin in main sentence.
Body sections contain facts, interpretations, and solutions to report problems.
Section introductions tell what follows in subdivisions.
Graphics add to interpreta- tions.
2
Figure 1. How productive and marginal salespeople use work time.
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Sentence conclusions complement formal coherence plan.
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Correlation of Prospect Contacting and Success
Productive salespeople spent more time contacting prospects face to face, by telephone, and by mail (31.3%) than did marginal salespeople (19.8%). The specific means of making these contacts show similar differences. Productive and marginal salespeople spent their work time, respectively, 23.2% and 13.5% in face-to-face contacts, 4.8% and 2.0% in mail contacts, and 8.3% and 4.6% in telephone contacts. These data lend additional support to the conclusion that work explains sales success.
Vital Role of Prospect Building
During the observation period, productive salespeople spent more than twice as much time (10.5%) as marginal salespeople (4.4%) in building prospects. Activities observed in this category include contacting bird dogs (people who give sales leads) and other lead sources and mailing literature to established and prospective customers.
Necessity of Miscellaneous Activities
Both productive and marginal salespeople spent about a fourth of their work time in miscellaneous activities (tending to personal affairs, studying sales literature, attending sales meetings, sending and responding to email, and such). The productive group averaged 25.2%; the marginal group averaged 22.5%. As some of this time is related to mobile phone sales, productive salespeople would be expected to spend more time in this category.
The preceding data reveal that the way salespeople spend their time affects their productivity. Productive salespeople work at selling. In sharp contrast with the marginal salespeople, they spend little time in idleness. They work hard to contact prospects and to build prospect lists. Like all mobile phone salespeople, they spend some time in performing miscellaneous duties.
DIFFERENCES IN FINDING PROSPECTS
A comparison of how productive and marginal salespeople find prospects and the productivity of these methods were a second area of investigation. For this study, the observations were classified by the four primary sources of prospects: (1) unsolicited web inquiries, (2) bird dogs and other referrals, (3) repeat customers, and (4) other. Only prospects that were contacted in person or by telephone during the observation period were included. Prospects were counted only once, even though some were contacted more than once.
Near Equal Distribution of Web Inquiries
As expected, most of the contacts of both productive and marginal salespeople were web inquiries. Because both groups had about equal field assignments, they got about the same number of prospects from this source. As illustrated in Figure 2, productive members got 282 (an average of 14.1 each) and marginal members got 274 (an average of 13.7 each).
Although both groups got about the same number of prospects from web inquiries, productive salespeople got better results. A review of sales records shows that productive salespeople averaged 260 units per week from web inquiries; marginal salespeople averaged 220 units. The difference, although appearing slight, represents roughly 40 mobile phones per week.
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Report text presents data thoroughly yet concisely — and with appropriate comparisons.
Report length and situation formality justify third-person writing.
Tense consistency places concepts in appropriate time frames and gives a present time viewpoint.
Key transitional words used in emphasis positions keep ideas moving.
Section summary helps the reader identify and remember the major findings.
Section introduction continues formal coherence plan.
Variety in sentence design helps maintain reader interest.
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Figure 12–3
Continued
Value of Cultivating Repeat Customers
Repeat customers and friends referred by them constitute the second most productive source of prospects. During the observation period, productive salespeople had contacts with 49 such prospects; marginal salespeople had 13. Productive salespeople also had better sales success with these prospects, turning 40 of them into sales—an average of two per week. Marginal group members made sales to seven of these prospects—an average of 0.35 per person. These findings agree with those of a recent study reported in the American Salesman.2 These differences appear to be a direct result of effort (or lack of it) in maintaining contacts with customers after the sale.
4
Color adds interest and helps reader visualize comparisons in graphics.
Use of graphics allows only important details to be emphasized in report text.
Figure 2. Prospects contacted during observation period by productive and marginal salespeople by method of obtaining them.
2 Alex Hatzivassilis and Igor Kotlyar, “Increase the Number of Top Performers on Your Team,” American Salesman 48.7 (2003): 17.
Predominance of active voice verbs provide flow and concreteness in text.
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Productive salespeople Marginal salespeople
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Figure 12–3
Continued
Limited Effectiveness of Using Bird Dogs
Contacts from bird dogs comprise the third largest group, producing 64 total contacts for the productive and 8 for the marginal salespeople. Sales from this source totaled 9 for productive salespeople and 2 for marginal salespeople—an average of 0.45 and 0.1 sales per person, respectively. Although not large in terms of volume, these data explain much of the difference between the two groups. The use of bird dogs involves work,3 and the willingness to work varies sharply between the two groups.
Scant Use of Other Techniques
Other prospect-gaining techniques were little used among the salespeople observed. Techniques long discussed in industry sales literature such as cold spearing, placing written messages on automobile windshields, and random telephoning produced no prospects for either group during the observation period.4 All of the salespeople observed noted that they had used these techniques in the past, but with little success. The lack of evidence in this study leaves unanswered the question of the effectiveness of these techniques.
The obvious conclusion drawn from the preceding review of how prospects are found is that the productive salespeople work harder to get them. Although both groups get about the same number of web inquiries, the successful ones work harder at maintaining contacts with past customers and at getting contacts from a network of bird dogs and friends.
OBSERVABLE VARIATIONS IN PRESENTATIONS
Differences in the sales presentations used constituted the third area of study. Criteria used in this investigation were (1) integrity, (2) pressure, and (3) product knowledge. Obviously, the first two of these criteria had to be evaluated subjectively. Even so, highly trained observers who used comprehensive guidelines made the evaluations. These guidelines are described in detail in the approved observation plan.
Positive Effect of Integrity
Evaluations of the salespeople’s integrity primarily measured the apparent degree of truthfulness of the sales presentations. The observers classified the images of integrity they perceived during the sales presentations into four groups: Group I—Impeccable (displayed the highest degree of truthfulness), Group II—Moderately High (generally truthful, some exaggeration), Group III—Questionable (mildly deceitful and tricky); and Group IV—Deceitful (untruthful and tricky).
Of the 20 productive salespeople observed, 16 were classified in Group II, as shown in Figure 3. Of the remaining four, 2 were in Group I and 2 in Group III.
5
3 Julie Jahn, “Big Business Encourages Effective Use of Bird Dogs throughout Their Organizations,” BusinessWeek 22 April 2003, 22 Oct. 2007 <http://:www.businessweek.com/bwdaily/dnflash/ ap203126__085.htm>. 4 James Poon Teng Fatt, “Criteria Used for Evaluating Sales Persons,” Management Research News 23.1 (2000): 27.
Talking headings help emphasize the major findings.
Sectional summary draws ideas together before report moves to next section.
Formal coherence pattern continues with sectional introduction.
Word choice and sentence length contribute to readability.
Interweaving facts and interpretations gives good emphasis.
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Figure 12–3
Continued
Distribution of the marginal salespeople was markedly different: 3 in Group I, 5 in Group II, 7 in Group III, and 5 in Group IV. Clearly, integrity was more apparent among the productive salespeople.
Apparent Value of Moderate Pressure
Measurements (by observation) of pressure used in the sales presentations were made in order to determine the relationship of pressure to sales success. Using the guidelines approved at the August meeting, the observers classified each salesperson's presentations into three categories: (1) high pressure, (2) moderate pressure, and (3) low pressure. Observers reported difficulties in making some borderline decisions, but they felt that most of the presentations were easily classified.
Of the 20 productive salespeople, 15 used moderate pressure, 3 used low pressure, and 2 used high pressure, as depicted in Figure 4. The 20 marginal salespeople presented a different picture. Only 3 of them used moderate pressure. Of the remainder, 10 used high pressure and 7 used low pressure. The evidence suggests that moderate pressure is most effective.
Pattern of subordinate reference to graphic and interpretation of facts shows effective report structure throughout.
Figure 3. Observed images of integrity in sales presentations of productive and marginal salespeople.
Impeccable
Moderately high
Questionable
Deceitful
2 3
16 5
2 7
0 5
Productive salespeople Marginal salespeople
Number of salespeople
6
Interpretation of significant report facts follows subordinate reference to graphic.
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
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Figure 12–3
Continued
Necessity of Product Knowledge
Product knowledge, a widely accepted requirement for successful selling, was determined during the exit interview.5 Using the 30 basic questions developed by Nokia management from sales literature, observers measured the salespeople's product knowledge. Correct responses to 27 or more of the questions was determined to be excellent, 24 through 26 was fair, and below 24 was classified as inadequate.
Productive salespeople displayed superior knowledge of the product with 17 of the 20 scoring excellent. As shown in Figure 5, the remaining 3 scored fair.
7
The facts are not just presented. They are compared and conclusions are drawn from them.
Central idea and factual support demonstrate paragraph unity.
Balanced, short paragraphs indicate good organization of thought and improve readability.
Graphic placement amplifies text analysis.
Figure 4. Observed use of pressure in sales presentations of productive and marginal salespeople.
High pressure
Productive salespeople Marginal salespeople
Number of salespeople
Low pressure
Moderate pressure
5 Barton Weitz, Stephen B. Castleberry, and John F. Tanner, Selling: Building Partnerships, 5th ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2004) 247.
2 10
15
3
3 7
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
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Figure 12–3
Continued
Scores for product knowledge were sharply different in the marginal salesperson group. Although 5 of them scored excellent, 6 scored fair, and 9 scored inadequate. These data point to an apparent weakness in training or a lack of individual preparation.
The preceding presentation reveals some basic differences in the sales presentations of the productive and marginal salespeople. The productive salespeople displayed higher integrity (though not the highest). They used moderate pressure, whereas the marginal people tended toward high or low extremes. Also, the productive people knew their products better.
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR TRAINING
The conclusions reached in the preceding sections suggest certain actions that Nokia Inc. should take in training its sales force. Specifically, the instruction should be altered to include the following topics:
■ Importance of minimizing idle time. ■ Sales rewards from productive work (mailing literature, telephoning, cultivating
prospects, etc.). ■ Significance of creating a network of bird dogs and friends in building prospects. ■ Value of maintaining contacts with past customers. ■ Need for integrity, within reasonable limits. ■ Use of moderate pressure, avoiding extremes in either direction. ■ Need for a thorough knowledge of the product.
8
Another summary- conclusion brings section to a close.
Text and graphics work closely together to present the information.
From the summary- conclusions of the preceding three sections the recommendations are derived.
Bulleting shows the reader recommendations are unordered and equally weighted.
Clustered bar chart is appropriate for presenting information.
Figure 5. Product knowledge ratings of productive and marginal salespeople.
Excellent
Productive salespeople Marginal salespeople
Number of salespeople
Inadequate
Fair
17 5
3
6
0 9
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
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Figure 12–3
Continued
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Fatt, James Poon Teng. “Criteria Used for Evaluating Sales Persons.” Management Research News 23.1 (2000): 27–32.
Hatzivassilis, Alex, and Igor Kotlyar. “Increase the Number of Top Performers on Your Team.” American Salesman 48.7 (2003): 17.
Jahn, Julie. “Big Business Encourages Effective Use of Bird Dogs throughout Their Organizations.” BusinessWeek 22 April 2003. 22 Oct. 2007 <http://:www.businessweek.com/ bwdaily/dnflash/ap203126__085.htm>.
Weitz, Barton, Stephen B. Castleberry, and John F. Tanner. Selling: Building Partnerships. 5th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2004.
Zikmund, William G. Business Research Methods. 7th ed. Cincinnati, OH: South-Western, 2003.
9
Bibliography sources are presented alphabetically and completely. They present last name first and use the hanging indent format.
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1. The prefatory section of the long, formal report consists of these conventional parts:
• Title fl y—a page displaying only the title.
— As a checklist for constructing the title, use the 5 Ws (who, what, where, when, why).
— Sometimes how is important.
• Title page—a page displaying the title, identifi cation of writer and recipient, and date.
• Authorization message—included only when a message authorized the report.
• Transmittal message—a message transmitting the report (a foreword or preface in very long and highly formal papers).
— This part takes the place of a face-to-face presentation.
— Begin it with a presentation of the report.
— Include comments about the report you would have made in a face-to-face presentation.
— In some cases you may combine it with the executive summary.
— Write the message in personal style (fi rst and second person).
• Table of contents, list of illustrations—a listing of the report parts and illustrations with page numbers.
• Executive summary—the report in miniature.
— Include, in proportion, everything that is important—all the major facts, analyses, and conclusions.
— Write it in either direct or indirect order.
2. The report introduction prepares the readers to follow and interpret the report.
• Include whatever helps reach this goal.
• Use these items as a checklist for content: purpose, scope, limitations, problem history, methodology, defi nitions, preview.
• A preview telling the order and reasoning for the order is useful in longer, more involved reports.
3. Preparing the body of a long, formal report will require virtually all your organizing, writing, and formatting skills.
4. The ending of the report achieves the report purpose.
• Use a summary if the purpose is to review information.
• Use a conclusion if the purpose is to reach an answer.
• Use a recommendation if the purpose is to determine a desirable action.
5. An appendix and/or bibliography can follow the report text.
• The appendix contains items that support the text but have no specifi c place in the text (such as questionnaires, working papers, summary tables).
• The bibliography is a descriptive list of the secondary sources that were used in the investigation.
6. The longer reports need various structural devices to give them coherence.
• These devices consist of a network of explanations, introductions, summaries, and conclusions that guide the reader through the report.
• Begin the coherence plan with the introduction preview, which tells the structure of the report.
• Then use the introductions and summaries in following parts to tell readers where they are in this structure.
1Describe the roles and contents and construct the prefatory parts of a long, formal report.
2Organize each introduction of a long report by considering the likely readers and selecting the appropriate contents.
3Prepare the body of a long, formal report by applying the advice in Chapter 10 and in other chapters.
4Determine, based on the report’s purpose, the most effective way to end a report: a summary, a conclusion, a recommendation, or a combination of the three.
5Describe the role and content of the appendix and bibliography of a report.
SUMMARY BY LEARNING OBJECTIVES
6Prepare a structural coherence plan for a long, formal report.
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• At the end, bring together the preceding information, analyses, and conclusions to reach the report goal.
• Make these coherence helpers inconspicuous—that is, make them appear to be a natural part of the message.
C R I T I C A L T H I N K I N G Q U E S T I O N S
CHAPTER 12 Long, Formal Reports 403
1 Long, formal reports are not often written in business. So why should you know how to write them?
2 A good title should be complete and concise. Are not these requirements contradictory? Explain.
3 Discuss the relative importance of the title fl y and the title page in a report.
4 Distinguish among the transmittal message, the fore- word, and the preface.
5 Describe the role and content of a transmittal message. 6 Why is personal style typically used in the transmittal
message?
7 What is the basis for determining whether a report should have a table of contents?
8 Explain how to write the executive summary of a report.
9 Why does the executive summary include key facts and fi gures in addition to the analyses and conclusions drawn from them?
10 Some reports need little or no introduction; others need a very long introduction. Why is this so?
11 Give examples of report problems whose introduction could require coverage of methods of collecting data, historical background, and limitations.
12 Explain how the advice in Chapter 10 can help you pre- pare the body of a long report.
13 Give examples of report problems that would require, respectively, (a) an ending summary, (b) an ending con- clusion, and (c) an ending recommendation.
14 Using as a guide the diagram in Figure 12–2, summa- rize the coherence plan of the long, formal report.
C R I T I C A L T H I N K I N G E X E R C I S E S
1 Making any assumptions needed, construct complete yet concise titles for the reports described below:
a. A report writer reviewed records of exit interviews of employees at Marvel-Floyd Manufacturing Com- pany who quit their jobs voluntarily. The objective of the investigation was to determine the reasons for leaving.
b. A researcher studied data from employee personnel records at Magna-Tech, Inc., to determine whether permanent (long-term) employees differ from short- term employees. Any differences found would be used in hiring employees in the future. The data studied in- cluded age, education, experience, sex, marital status, test scores, and such.
c. A report writer compared historical fi nancial records (1935 to the present) of Super Saver Foods to deter- mine whether this grocery chain should own or rent store buildings. In the past it did both.
2 Criticize the following beginning sentences of transmittal messages:
a. “In your hands is the report you requested January 7 concerning . . .”
b. “As you will recall, last January 7 you requested a report on . . .”
c. “That we should open a new outlet in Bragg City is the conclusion of this report, which you authorized January 7.”
3 In a report comparing four automobiles (Alpha, Beta, Gamma, and Delta) to determine which one is the best buy for a company, section II of the report body covered these cost data: (a) initial costs, (b) trade-in values, and (c) operating expenses. Section III presented a compari- son of these safety features of the automobiles: (a) stan- dard safety features, (b) acceleration data, (c) weight dis- tribution, and (d) braking quality.
a. Criticize this introductory paragraph at the beginning of section III:
In the preceding section was presented a thorough analysis of the cost data. Now safety of the cars will be compared. Although costs are important, Warren-Burke also is concerned about the safety of its salespeople, who spend almost half their work time driving.
b. Write a more appropriate introductory paragraph.
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4 The next section of the report (section IV) covered these topics: (a) handling, (b) quality of ride, and (c) durability.
a. Criticize this introductory paragraph for the section:
This section of the report presents a comparison of the overall construction of the four automobiles. These considerations also are important because they affect how a car rides, and this is important. Thus, we will take up in this order: handling, general riding quality, and construction qualities.
b. Write a more appropriate introductory paragraph.
5 Criticize this fi nal paragraph (a preview) of the introduc- tion of the report described above:
This report compares the automobiles by three factors. These are costs, safety, and comfort and construction, in that order. Costs include initial ex- penditure, trade-in value, and operating expense. Safety covers safety devices, acceleration, weight distribution, and braking. Comfort and construc- tion includes handling, ride quality, and durability. A ranking is derived from this comparison.
C R I T I C A L T H I N K I N G P R O B L E M S
Long Report Problems
1 Selecting a university for a scholarship. In your role as training offi cer for Galloway Manufacturing, Inc., a manu- facturer of kitchenware, you have been asked by your presi- dent to select a university to receive a scholarship. President Blake W. Reddoch wants to establish the scholarship in the hope that the recipient will consider signing on after gradua- tion. But there would be no legal obligation to do so. The scholarship will be in (accounting, mar- keting, information systems, etc., as determined by your in- structor). It will cover all expenses: tuition, fees, supplies, incidentals, room, and board. It will be awarded to a begin- ning student selected on the basis of academic ability. And it will continue for four years as long as the student maintains a minimum grade-point average of 3.0 and makes satisfac- tory progress toward graduation. Your role now is to fi nd the university that will receive this scholarship. President Reddoch explains his instructions to you in these words: “I want you to help me select the school that will give us the very best training in this curriculum.
Find three leading schools in this general geographic area. Review their curricula. Evaluate their offerings, their facilities, their reputation, their standards, their students— everything that will help us select the best one. Find out what it costs to go there. This includes tuition, fees, living cost estimates—all we need to know in determining the amount to put in to the scholarship. But cost is not the only consideration. Equally important is the quality of the education obtained. You might help me if you ranked the three schools. Of course, there is no guarantee I’ll follow your rankings.” You will get most of what you need on the websites of the schools. But you may use other sources as well: opinions of knowledgeable people, catalogs, brochures, and such. When you have the information you need, you’ll study it, make comparisons, and organize your fi ndings and analyses in appropriate report form. You will address the report to Mr. Reddoch. Probably he will want additional copies for the other executives who will be in on the decision.
2 Determining what business will be like in the months ahead. Nicole Garza, president of Bon Marche Department Stores, Inc., has assigned you, her assistant, the task of writ- ing a consensus business forecast for presentation at the next board of directors meeting. Bon Marche does not have an economist. “Why should we pay for one?” Ms. Garza rea- sons. “We can’t afford such frills. We can get all we need from current business periodicals, newspapers, and the Internet.” Since Ms. Garza’s instructions were—as usual—quite vague, much of what you do will depend on your good judg- ment. All she said was that she wanted you to survey the pre-
dictions of the leading economic forecasters for the months ahead and to present your fi nding in a clear and meaning- ful report to herself and the board. She wants the forecasts consolidated—that is, she does not want a mere succes- sion of individual forecasts. Your report, covering the entire economy, will be largely general in nature. But you will give special emphasis to forecasts pertaining to retailing. Of course, your report will be in a form appropriate for the board. Because the members will want to get at the most important material quickly, be sure to include a fast- moving executive summary. Address the report to the board. Ms. Garza chairs the board.
3 Recommending a resort for Sterling Pharmaceutical’s annual sales meeting. As assistant to Felix W. Baskin, national sales manager for Sterling Pharmaceuticals, Inc.,
you have just concluded a meeting with your boss. He wants you to help him select a resort for Sterling’s annual sales meeting.
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4 Evaluating the quality of life in a selected city. Cutting- Edge Technology, Inc., is considering moving its headquar- ters to (a city selected by your instructor). The company has completed a study considering the economic advantages of relocating, and this study was positive. But before fi nally deciding, the company’s leaders want to know more about the quality of life that they and their employees could expect there. They have hired your research organiza- tion to get the information they need. Although quality of life is a very general term, you and the company’s top executives have agreed that housing, edu- cational institutions, recreational and cultural facilities, and climate would be considered. You may think of other factors as you get into the problem. Your fi rst step is to gather the information available for the factors involved. Some of it you can get from Internet
sources—the website of the Chamber of Commerce in par- ticular. More may come from local libraries, the telephone directory, travel brochures, and such. Some you may get by personal observation and knowledge. After you have gathered, assembled, and analyzed the information you need, you will organize it for presentation in a formal report. You will present the information and in- terpret it objectively. In the end, you will arrive at a recom- mendation on whether this city would offer a good quality of life for the 227 employees and their families who would move there. Address the report to Geraldine Probst, the CEO of Cutting-Edge Technologies, and to the members of her board of directors. Give your report the formality expected at this level of administration.
Mr. Baskin explained your assignment in these words: “As you know, we hold our annual sales meeting at a resort—a place where we can work and play a little. The meeting is scheduled for fi ve days in late August. As you can imagine, I have had many suggestions about where we should meet. My three favorites are the Grand Hotel Marriott Resort and Golf Club in Alabama, the PGA National Resort and Spa in Florida, and the Horseshoe Bay Resort and Conference Cen- ter in Texas. (Your instructor may choose to change these selections.) I want you to investigate these three, evaluate them, and recommend one of them.” “I may not go along with your recommendation,” he added, “so give me suffi cient information to permit me to make my decision. Cost is important, but not the major fac- tor. We will negotiate price after we have a fi nal selection.
But give me the prospects’ listed cost information, and make it a part of your evaluation. As you know, we hold sales meeting in the mornings. For this we’ll need a meeting room that holds 56 people. The afternoons and evenings will be fun times. We want to reward our people for their hard work throughout the year. So they may do whatever they like after lunch. I know we have a good number of golfers and some tennis players. Some like swimming. Of course, they all like to eat and party. If you can think of anything else to include, do so. I want a thorough report. I am pretty sure you can get what you need from their websites.” After gathering the information available, you will evalu- ate it, make comparisons, and reach a decision. Probably you will rank the three. Of course, you will present all this to Mr. Baskin in appropriate report form.
5 Evaluating three charities for a philanthropist. You are the business manager for Elise M. Fahrendorf, a multimil- lionaire, successful business leader, and philanthropist of the fi rst order. Today she gave you a challenging assignment. “As you know,” she explained to you, “I make substantial contributions to what I think are worthy causes every year. But I really don’t know whether my selections are the most worthy ones. I want my money to go to the most deserving groups. I want it to do the most good for the most people. I hear horror stories about how some of them are run— especially how high their administrative costs are. And I hear reports that much of the money some charities raise goes to the people who solicit it. So I want you to check out my three favorites—the three that have received most of my money in recent years. They are the Alzheimer’s Association, National
Multiple Sclerosis Society, and Memorial Sloan- Kettering Cancer Center. (Your instructor may choose to change this selection.) I want you to fi nd out what good they do, how effi cient they are—and anything else that will help me decide on whether to favor them. Your objective will be to determine how deserving they are. When you have gathered all this information, analyze it, compare, and conclude. You might even rank these three. I might decide to give only to one, give to all equally, or vary among them. I’ll do whatever appears to be right.” Now you must follow your boss’s instructions. You will present the results of your work in a formal report (she likes formality). As usual, you will include a fast-moving execu- tive summary that will give her the answers right away.
6 Investigating the outlook for investments in an industry. Assume you are employed in the Investments Research De- partment of the Warneke Foundation, a philanthropic trust with over $550 million of invested funds. You have been
assigned the task of determining the general outlook for in- vestments in the industry. (Choose one from this list or another with your instructor’s approval:)
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8 Determining the best Internet source for buying . Play the role of assistant to the purchasing manager for Sen- tinel Insurance, Inc. In response to criticisms that the com- pany’s current source of (offi ce supplies, furniture, or such to be determined by your instructor) is not giving the company the best deals, you have been asked to help correct the situation. Specifi cally, you have been asked to “survey the major outlets on the Internet, get their prices on the items Sentinel buys as well as their return policies, and recom- mend a source for us.” Currently, Sentinel gets its from (to be determined by your instructor). You will begin your effort by making a list of the items Sentinel typically purchases. Use your best judgment here, but certainly the list will include all those items common to most offi ces. But since these items vary in quality and
style, select only items that are comparable to items carried by most of the outlets. That is, you will want to be certain that you are not comparing apples to oranges. With your list completed, you will then search for these items on the Internet. Then you will record the prices for the items on your list. As you will see, there are many outlets, but make certain that you fi nd at least two. Of course, in ad- dition you will include Sentinel’s current supplier. After you have gathered the information you need and made comparisons, you will make your recommendation. (Sentinel prefers to do business primarily with one supplier.) Because the report will be read by various top management people, you will dress it up with the trappings suitable for a report of this nature. If they will help, you will use appropri- ate graphics.
Aircraft Electronics (technology) Chemicals
Aluminum Steel Textiles
Shoes Pharmaceuticals Tobacco
Paper Food processing Automotive
Petroleum Publishing Clothing
Mining Utilities
Using the Internet as well as the leading business databases and publications, you will review the past and present status of the industry’s profi ts, sales, production, and the like. From these reviews you will look for trends that will suggest the
industry’s future. Also, you will gather all facts and authori- tative opinions relating to future growth. From all of this you hope to be able to make a recommendation about invest- ments in the industry in general. Although your report will concern the industry rather than a specifi c company (or companies), you are likely to refer frequently to the major fi rms in the industry. And your recommendation might point out the industry leaders. Write your report in a form appropriate for the formality of this situation. Submit it to Theodore M. McMichael, Chair, The Investment Board, The Warneke Foundation.
7 Presenting the pros and cons of gun control to an arms manufacturer. Assume the position of a research associate employed by the Abraham-Doral Company, manufacturers of a full line of rifl es, shotguns, and handguns. In recent years advocates of gun control have exerted increasing pressure on the company. Until now, the management of Abraham-Doral has ignored them. But now it believes that their position must be given due consideration. As a result, you were called into a long executive staff meeting, in which President Samuel T. Abraham’s fi nal words summarized your instructions.
“As you can see, we are disturbed. We think we should know more about this matter. So we’re asking you to get for us the principal arguments for and against gun control and the supporting evidence for those arguments. This should lead to recommendations concerning what our stand should be, what messages we should communicate, what actions we should take, and so on. Of course, we’re biased—guns are our livelihood. But we want your report to look at this ques- tion objectively. Please have your research in our hands for the board meeting one month from today.”
9 Determining how prices at near-campus stores compare with prices away from campus. As a member of your student government, you have heard many complaints about the high prices students must pay at stores in the campus area. Many of the complaints you heard suggest that the local stores are gouging students—that prices at stores off campus are much lower. After long debate, the student government members agreed that they needed specifi c information, and they formed a special committee to study and report on the question. You were chosen to serve as chairperson of this committee. Working with your committee members, you selected a few campus stores and some comparable off-campus stores
(in a mall or shopping district some distance away). You then worked out a student’s market basket—products fre- quently bought by students. Next, you got prices for these items at the two groups of stores. Of course, you ignored special promotions and the like. (Your instructor may permit you to collect this information in teams, but of course the writing will be done individually.) When you have gathered this information, you are ready to give it meaning. You will carefully analyze it and organize it for presentation. Then you will present it in the formal report form you learned in your business communication course. As the information is largely statistical, you will present the major facts in graphic form. Your conclusion
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10 Solving a problem on your campus. Certain problems exist on most college campuses. At least, they exist in the minds of many of the faculty, students, and staff. From the following list of such problems, you (or your instructor) will select one that needs attention on your campus.
Library operation
Campus security
Policies on sales of tickets to athletic events
Regulation of social activities
Faculty–student relations
Orientation program for beginning students
Curriculum improvement
Increasing (or decreasing) enrollments
Scholastic honesty
Campus crime
Cultural atmosphere on campus
Class attendance policies
Scholastic probation policies
Parking, traffi c control
Grade infl ation
Student government
Emphasis on athletics
Campus beautifi cation
Fire prevention
Admission policies (including diversifi cation practices)
You will fi rst gather all the signifi cant facts regarding the problem you select. When you are thoroughly acquainted with them, you will gather authoritative opinions concern- ing the solution. Obtaining such information may involve looking through bibliographic sources as well as the Internet to fi nd out what has been done on other campuses. It may involve interview- ing people on campus who are attempting to deal with the problem. Next you will carefully analyze your problem in light of all you have learned about it. Then you will develop a solution. To make the situation appear realistic, place yourself in the proper role at your school to handle such a problem. Then write your work in a report appropriate for the situa- tion. Address it to the person or persons at your school who would be likely to handle such matters.
will determine whether there is truth to the complaint that campus stores have higher prices. You will not only address the general question but also look into differences in the
major categories of items in your shopping basket. Address the report to your student-body president.
TOPIC SUGGESTIONS FOR INTERMEDIATE-LENGTH AND LONG REPORTS
Following are suggestions for additional report problems ranging from the simple to the highly complex. You can convert them into realistic business problems by supplying details and/or adapting them to real-life business situations. For most of these problems, you can obtain the needed infor- mation through secondary research. The topics are arranged by business fi eld, although many of them cross fi elds.
Accounting
1 Report on current depreciation accounting practices, and recommend depreciation accounting procedures for Company X.
2 Design an inventory control system for X Company. 3 Report to Company X executives on how tax court
decisions handed down over the past six months will affect their fi rm.
4 What security measures should Company X take re- garding access to its accounting data online?
5 Advise the managers of X Company on the account- ing problems that they can anticipate when the com- pany begins overseas operations.
6 Analyze break-even analysis as a decision-making tool for X Company.
7 Explain to potential investors which sections in Company X’s most recent annual report they should review most carefully.
8 Analyze the relative effects on income of the fi rst-in, fi rst-out (FIFO) and last-in, fi rst-out (LIFO) methods of inventory valuation during a prolonged period of infl ation.
9 Write a report for the American Accounting Associa- tion on the demand for accountants with computer systems training.
10 Develop information for accounting students at your college that will help them choose between careers in public accounting and careers in private accounting.
11 Advise the management of X Company on the validity of return on investment as a measure of performance.
12 Report on operations research as a decision-making tool for accountants and managers.
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13 Report to the management of X Company on trends in the content and design of corporate annual reports.
14 Report to an association of accountants the status of professional ethics in accounting.
15 Report to management of X Company on the com- munication skills important to accounting.
16 Investigate the matching principle and its effects on fi nancial statements for Company X.
17 Report to the board of directors at X on Company whether the balance sheet fails to recognize impor- tant intangible assets.
18 Explain the extent to which accounting refl ects the intent of Company X’s business decisions.
19 Review for Company X whether disclosure could be an effective substitute for recognition in fi nancial statements.
20 Report to the management of Company X on whether intangible assets have fi nite or infi nite lives.
21 Advise the founders of new Company X on income tax considerations in the selection of a form of busi- ness organization.
22 Review for Company X the pros and cons of current methods of securities evaluation.
General Business
23 Evaluate the adequacy of current college programs for developing business leadership.
24 Which business skills should schools and colleges teach, and which should companies teach?
25 What should be the role of business leaders in devel- oping courses and curricula for business schools?
26 Report on ways to build and use good teams in the workplace.
27 Identify the criteria Company X should use in select- ing a public relations fi rm.
28 Report on the advisability of including business in- ternships in a business degree program.
29 Investigate the impact of electronic signatures on the business community.
30 How does today’s business community regard the master of business administration (MBA) degree?
31 Evaluate the contribution that campus business and professional clubs make to business education.
32 How effective is online training in education for business?
33 Should education for business be specialized, or should it provide a generalized, well-rounded education?
34 Determine how to get and use permission for music added to business presentations.
35 Determine which of three franchises (your instructor will select) offer the best opportunity for investment.
36 Determine guidelines for avoiding sexual harassment for Company X.
37 Determine cultural problems likely to be encountered by employees going to work in _____ (a foreign country).
38 Investigate the pros and cons of international busi- ness majors studying abroad for one term.
39 Should Company X use the U.S. Postal Service or a pri- vate courier (Federal Express, United Parcel Service)?
40 For an instructor, answer the question of whether IM should be used as a class teaching tool.
41 Advise a client on whether to invest in a company producing renewable energy (wind, solar, etc.).
Labor
42 For the executives of the National Association of Manufacturers (or some such group), report on the outlook for labor–management relations in the next 12 months.
43 For the offi cers of a major labor union, research and report progress toward decreasing job discrimination against minorities.
44 For X Union, project the effects that a particular technology (you choose) will have on traditionally unionized industries by the year 2012.
45 Advise the management of X Company on how to deal with Y Union, which is attempting to organize the employees of X Company.
46 Interpret the change in the number of union members over the past years.
47 Report on the successes and failures of employee-run businesses.
48 Report on the status and effects of “right to work” laws.
49 Evaluate the effects of a particular strike (your choice) on the union, the company, the stockholders, and the public. Write the report for a government investigating committee.
50 For Union X, prepare an objective report on union leadership in the nation during the past decade.
51 Layoffs based on seniority are causing a dispro- portionate reduction in the number of women and minority workers at Company X. Investigate alterna- tives that the company can present to the union.
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52 Investigate recent trends relative to the older worker and the stands that unions have taken in this area.
53 Review the appropriateness of unionizing govern- ment workers, and recommend to a body of govern- ment leaders the stand they should take on this issue.
54 Report on the role of unions (or management) in pol- itics, and recommend a course for them to follow.
55 Reevaluate (unions or employment relations—your instructor will specify) for the man- agement of X Company.
56 Analyze the changing nature of work for the leaders of union (your instructor will designate).
57 Report on the blending of work and family issues for X Union.
Finance
58 As a fi nancial consultant, evaluate a specifi c form of tax shelter for a client.
59 Review the customer-relations practices of banks and recommend customer relations procedures for Bank X.
60 Review current employee loan practices and recom- mend whether Company X should make employee loans.
61 Report on what Company X needs to know about fi nancial matters in doing business with (foreign country).
62 Give estate planning advice to a client with a unique personal situation.
63 Advise X Company on whether it should lease capi- tal equipment or buy it.
64 Advise Company X on whether it should engage in a joint venture with a company overseas or establish a wholly owned foreign subsidiary.
65 Compare the costs for X Company of offering its workers child care or elder care benefi ts.
66 Should Company X accept national credit cards or set up its own credit card system?
67 Advise Company X on how to avoid a hostile takeover.
68 Which will be the better investment in the next three years: stocks or bonds?
69 Advise Company X on whether it should list its stock on a major stock exchange.
70 Advise Company X, which is having problems with liquidity, on the pros and cons of factoring accounts receivable.
71 Recommend the most feasible way to fi nance a start- up restaurant.
Management
72 Develop for Company X a guide to ethics in its high- ly competitive business situation.
73 After reviewing pertinent literature and experiences of other companies, develop a plan for selecting and training administrators for an overseas operation for Company X.
74 Survey the current literature and advise Company X on whether its management should become politi- cally active.
75 After reviewing the pros and cons, advise X Company on whether it should begin a pro- gram of hiring individuals with disabilities or the disadvantaged.
76 Report on the behavioral and psychological effects of introducing wellness programs to Company X.
77 The executives of X Company (a manufacturer of automobile and truck tires) want a report on recent court decisions relating to warranties. Include any recommendations that your report justifi es.
78 Report on the problems involved in moving Com- pany X headquarters from (city) to
(city).
79 After reviewing current practices with regard to worker participation in management, advise Compa- ny X on whether it should permit such participation.
80 Should Company X outsource for (service) or establish its own department?
81 Review the advantages and disadvantages of rotat- ing executive jobs at Company X, and then make a recommendation.
82 What should be Company X’s policy on offi ce romances?
83 Develop an energy conservation or recycling plan for X Company.
84 Evaluate the effectiveness of a portal for handling internal communications for Company X.
85 Design a security system for preventing computer espionage at Company X, a leader in the highly com- petitive industry.
86 Evaluate the various methods for determining corpo- rate performance and select the one most appropriate for Company X.
87 Advise X Company on the procedures for incorpo- rating in (state or province).
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88 Report to Company X on the civil and criminal li- abilities of its corporate executives.
89 Report on the quality awards being given to businesses.
90 Determine how diversity enrichment is addressed at Company X.
91 Determine for a legislative committee the extent of minority recruiting, hiring, and training in the industry.
92 As a consultant for an association of farmers, evalu- ate the recent past and project the future of growing, raising, or bioengineering (your choice— cattle, poultry, wheat, soybeans, or the like).
93 Develop a plan for reducing employee turnover for Company X.
94 Report to a labor union on recent evidence of sexual harassment, and recommend steps that the union should take to correct any problems you fi nd.
95 Investigate the feasibility of hiring older workers for part-time work for Company X.
Personnel/Human Resource Administration
96 Report on and interpret for Company X the effects of recent court decisions on the testing and hiring of employees.
97 Survey company retirement practices and recom- mend retirement policies for Company X.
98 Report on practices in compensating key personnel in overseas assignments and recommend for Company X policies for the compensation of such personnel.
99 Report on what human resource executives look for in application documents.
100 Report on the advantages and disadvantages of Com- pany X’s providing on-site day care for children of employees.
101 After reviewing the legal and ethical questions in- volved, recommend whether Company X should use integrity tests in employee hiring.
102 Review what other companies are doing about em- ployees suffering from drug or alcohol abuse, and recommend a policy on the matter for Company X.
103 Report on effective interviewing techniques used to identify the best people to hire.
104 Investigate the impact of the Family Leave Act on Company X.
105 Compare the pros and cons of alternative methods of dispute resolution.
106 Report on ways Company X can link performance improvement plans to discipline and pay.
107 Investigate the impact of the legal aspects of hu- man resource management (EEO, ADA, wrongful termination, harassment, family care and medical leave, workplace violence—your instructor will se- lect one or several) on Company X.
108 Analyze the impact of changing work priorities in a culturally diverse workplace for Company X.
109 Report on recent issues in employee communication for Company X.
Marketing
110 Review the available literature and advise Com- pany X on whether it should franchise its business.
111 Select a recent national marketing program and ana- lyze why it succeeded or failed.
112 Advise the advertising vice president of Company X on whether the company should respond to or ig- nore a competitor’s direct attack on the quality of its product.
113 Review the ethical considerations involved in adver- tising to children and advise Company X on the matter.
114 Determine for Company X the social and ethical as- pects of pricing for the market.
115 Explore the possibilities of trade with (a foreign country) for Company X.
116 Determine for a national department store chain changing trends in the services that customers expect when shopping online.
117 Prepare a report to help a contingent of your legisla- ture decide whether current regulation of advertising should be changed.
118 Determine the problems X Company will encounter in introducing a new product to its line.
119 Report on the success of rebates as a sales stimula- tor and advise Company X on whether it should use rebates.
120 Should Company X buy or lease minivans for dis- tributing its products?
121 Determine the trends in packaging in the industry.
122 Should X Company establish its own sales force, use manufacturer’s agents, or use selling agents?
123 How should Company X evaluate the performance of its salespeople?
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124 Determine for X Company how it can evaluate the effectiveness of its (online, print, or radio) advertising.
125 Select the best channel of distribution for new product Y and justify your choice.
126 Should X Company establish its own advertising de- partment or use an advertising agency?
127 Conduct a market study of (city) to deter- mine whether it is a suitable location for (a type of business).
128 Report to X Company on drip marketing and rec- ommend whether it should use drip marketing to in- crease sales.
129 Investigate the factors to consider when marketing online through the Internet to children.
130 Compare the effectiveness of three different types of online advertising and recommend one for Company X.
131 Determine whether any of the products of Company X are good candidates for infomercials.
Computer Applications
132 Recommend a handheld computer for use by the salespeople of Company X.
133 Advise Company X about the steps it can take to pro- tect its computer fi les from internal sabotage.
134 Determine whether Company X should purchase or lease its computer equipment.
135 Report to the president of Company X the copyright and contract laws that apply to the use of computer programs.
136 Investigate the possibility of using the majority of offi ce applications from the Internet rather than con- tinually purchasing and upgrading programs.
137 Determine which positions Company X should des- ignate as possible telecommuting candidates.
138 Report to the CIO on the impact of wireless technol- ogy on Company X.
139 Report on the future developments of robotics in the industry.
140 Review and rank for possible adoption three software programs that Company X might use for its work (name the fi eld of operations).
141 Determine for Company X the factors it should con- sider in selecting computer insurance.
142 Compare three online programs for training your employees on (name the software applica- tion) and recommend one.
143 Report on the collaborative web-based meeting tools used in businesses similar to Company X.
144 Explore the procedures and methods for measuring information system effectiveness and productivity for Company X.
145 Investigate how to improve information security and control for Company X.
146 Identify and recommend web-based survey tools that would be appropriate for Company X.
147 Should (a small company) use blogs as a marketing tool?
Business Education
148 Evaluate the effect of remodeling your new offi ce site using both ergonomic and feng shui principles.
149 Report on ways companies now use and plan to use desktop meeting applications.
150 Analyze the possibility of instituting companywide training on etiquette, covering everything from handling telephone calls, to sexual harassment, to dining out.
151 Advise management on the importance of the air quality in its offi ces.
152 Investigate ways to complete and submit company forms on the web or the company portal.
153 Evaluate the reprographic services and practices at your school from an environmental perspective.
154 Report on ways to hire and keep the best employees in the computer support center.
155 Report on ways to improve literacy in the workplace. 156 Report on the availability and quality of online train-
ing programs.
157 Report on ways to improve the communication of cross-cultural work groups.
158 Analyze the possibility of using voice-recognition software with the products available today.
159 Determine for Company X whether it should replace the laptop computers of its sales reps with tablet PCs.
160 Evaluate at least three data visualization programs and recommend one for use at Company X.
