Music

notes_for_107_students_1st_test_.pdf

Notes For 107 (1st Test)

Minstrelsy Minstrelsy is the first distinctively American form of popular culture. The minstrel show was the first form of musical and theatrical entertainment to be regarded by European audiences as distinctively American in character The minstrel show, or minstrelsy, was an American entertainment consisting of comic skits, variety acts, dancing, and music, performed by white people in blackface Minstrelsy featured mainly white performers who artificially blackened their skin and carried out parodies of African American music, dance, dress and dialect. Today black face minstrelsy is regarded with embarrassment or anger Minstrel shows lampooned black people as ignorant, lazy, buffoonish, superstitious, joyous, and musical Blackface minstrelsy was the first distinctly American theatrical form. In the 1830s and 1840s, it was at the core of the rise of an American music industry, and for several decades it provided the lens through which white America saw black America In 1848, blackface minstrel shows were the national art of the time Arbiters of public taste and morals, including newspaper and magazine publishers, politicians, and the clergy, ridiculed minstrelsy as an indicator of the deprived state of the lower classes, and urged its rejection in favor of more refined (i.e. European-‐derived) forms of entertainment As blacks began to score legal and social victories against racism and to successfully assert political power, minstrelsy lost popularity There are remnants of this practice even today. Up until the 1960’s (1930s for Duke Ellington) there are no roles in movies or stage where you see roles that were not demeaning for blacks. Duke Ellington and Sydney Poitier were the first to break out of such stereotype. The minstrel show is also the direct ancestor of vaudeville, a kind of variety show that became the dominant form of popular entertainment in the late 19th and early 20th century America. And while the mass success of the blackface minstrel show doubtless helped to reinforce racist attitudes among whites, minstrelsy also established a mobile performance tradition within which influential black musicians such as W. C. Handy, Ma Rainey, and Bessie Smith could later flourish

NOTE: Minstrelsy arose during the 1830s as an expression of a predominantly white urban youth culture, which sought to express its independence through the appropriation of black style. As minstrelsy became a mass phenomenon in the decades just before and after the American civil war, its form became routinized, and its portrayal of black characters more rigidly stereotyped. This basic pattern, in which a new genre of music arises within a marginalized community and then moves into the mainstream of mass popular culture, in the process losing much of the rebellious energy that gave rise to it in the first place, will be encountered many times in this class (whites coping blacks).

“Daddy” Rice Thomas Darkmouth “Daddy” Rice (1808-‐1860), was a white actor born in New York's Seventh Ward who demonstrated the potential popularity (and profitability) of minstrelsy His song "Jim Crow" (1829), became the first international American hit song Jim Crow was the name of: the stable hand, his stage character, his song title, then a derogatory racial epithet for blacks and later was the word used to describe segregationist laws

NOTE: "The early Jim Crow was not the late Jim Crow. Jim Crow went from fond alliance to hateful segregation as the civil war approached and then as the Nadir (point of greatest adversity) replaced Reconstruction. As the fires of white racism were stoked, first by the escalating conflict between the states and then by postbellum (after a period of war) fears of black backlash and

economic competition, minstrelsy both reflected and helped to promulgate (make known, proclaim) the national obsession with symbols of racial difference. It was during this period that the most pernicious (harmful, destructive) stereotypes of black people -‐ the old faithful slave -‐ aka the good negro, and the big city knife toting dandy (the bad negro) became enduring images in mainstream American popular culture, disseminated by an emerging entertainment industry and patronized by a predominately white mass audience.

When Rice toured England in the 1830s he became the first native-‐born American performer to export a type of music perceived abroad as quintessentially American The cakewalk was a dance he used to accompany his stage show

The Cake Walk Whites imitating blacks imitating whites created the Cake Walk dance Whites imitating blacks is what led to R&R (Elvis imitating Arthur Crudup, Bill Haley imitating Louis Jordan, Eric Clapton imitating Robert Johnson, etc.)

Dan Emmett/The Banjo The next big hit song after “Jim Crow” was "zip coon," also known as “Turkey in the Straw” “Turkey in the Straw” or “Zip Coon” was composed by George Washington Dixon The chorus consisted of the nonsense syllables "zip a duden duden duden zip a duden day" (direct ancestor of the song "zip a dee doo dah" featured in Walt Disney’s 1947 cartoon “Song of the South.” By the mid 19th century minstrel songs had become an important influence on the mainstream of American popular song Many of these "plantation songs" were very successful as sheet music, and they were a dominant force in the development of 19th century popular music Typical instrumentation of the early 1840s was a fiddle, one or more banjos, a tambourine, violin(s) and a pair of rib bones. This type of performance still had little to do with African American musical traditions of the American south. Nonetheless, minstrel troupes competed with one another on the basis of their attention to "authentic" details of southern black culture One main instrument that is associated with Minstrelsy is the Banjo The 5-‐string Banjo is the only instrument indigenous to the US Stretching a string over a drum is African and the fret board is European The most important thing about Banjo music is that it’s syncopated. The definition of syncopation is “rhythms that accent weak beats or parts of beats in the meter.” Dan Emmet was a virtuoso of the Banjo during Minstrelsy He was in a famous group called “The Virginia Minstrels” The song “Old Dan Tucker” was written by Dan Emmet He also wrote “Dixie” (the battle hymn of the Confederacy) Pete Seeger performs the recording of Old Dan Tucker.

Steven Foster Stephen Collins Foster composed around two hundred songs from the 1840s, to the early 1860s He is regarded as the first important composer of American popular song He was probably the first person in the US to make his living as a full time professional songwriter, surviving on the fees and royalties generated by sales of sheet music for songs such as "Oh! Susanna," "Old Folks at Home," "My Old Kentucky Home, Good Night," "Jeanie With the Light Brown Hair" “De Camptown Races” and "Beautiful Dreamer" He lived in Pittsburg, yet he wrote songs about the south and the ideal life on the plantation in order to get his songs in Minstrel shows He was looking for maximum exposure and the Minstrel Show was his medium. His songs were popularized through Minstrelsy Many of his songs were written in the AABA Ternary song form

His most famous song was “Oh Susanna.” He sold it before he knew about royalties. The song made millions of which he saw nothing He was the first American songwriter to get a contract to receive royalties He died of alcoholism at the age of 37 They found his body with no money, no identification, no valuables of any kind and only a piece of paper that had the catch phrase for his next’s song lyrics

Tin Pan Alley Tin Pan Alley is the name given to the music publishers and songwriters who dominated the American popular music in the late 19th century and early 20th century. Tin Pan Alley was a specific place in New York City (28th and Broadway) The start of Tin Pan Alley is about 1885 and its end was in the 1950s due to the rise of rock & roll Vaudeville performers would visit Tin Pan Alley firms to find new songs for their acts. Second-‐rate performers paid for rights to use a new song, while famous stars were given free copies or were paid to perform them. Tin Pan Alley’s goal was to get their music heard by as many people as possible to increase sheet music sales The focus of the power structure was on white, middle class, northern, adults The songs were very formulaic; the ternary form was ubiquitous (AABA) Tin Pan Alley started to lose its power when the baby boomers chose to distance themselves from their parent’s music. The power starts to change hands in the 40s and 50s due to the musician’s strike, the formation of BMI, the onset of TV (stealing radio programming), radio (playing alternative music like R&B and Country) and the baby boomers. The “The Man I Love” by George Gershwin, is an example of the music teenagers (baby boomers) were trying to avoid (also Patty Page and Bing Crosby). Patty Page (How Much Is That Doggy … by Bob Merrill, 1952), Bing Crosby (White Christmas by Irving Berlin, 1940) Ella (The Man I Love by George Gershwin, 1960) and Frank Sinatra (I Get A Kick Out of You by Cole Porter, 1953) are good examples of Tin Pan Alley songs. Also known as “The Great American Song Book.” The major income source of the American music industry from its beginnings and up until the mid 20th century was from the sale of sheet music.

Three Important Tin Pan Alley Composers Irving Berlin (1888-‐1989) was the most successful songwriter in American history until Lennon and McCartney supplanted him. His first big hit was “Alexander’s Ragtime Band” (not really ragtime, but the word was used to help sell the song due to ragtime’s popularity) He wrote “White Christmas” “Easter Parade” “America the Beautiful” and was a Jewish immigrant He had a moveable piano because he could only play in the key of C George Gershwin (1898-‐1937) worked as Berlin’s scribe His parents were Jewish immigrants Gershwin had an affinity for black music (Porgy and Bess, which is considered America’s first opera (also Joplin’s Treemonisha) Rhapsody in Blue, I Got Rhythm Summertime His brother, Ira, was his lyricist He had an ambition to become a serious composer, not just a songwriter First job was at Tin Pan Alley as a song plugger His first big hit was “Swanee” He died of a brain tumor

Cole Porter (1891-‐1964) went to Yale and Harvard where he studied music He was gay, however he was married and his love songs were written for men There is a movie about his life He was hurt early in 1937 when his horse rolled on him and crushed his legs, leaving him mostly crippled and in constant pain for the remainder of his life. Cole Porter is one of the few Tin Pan Alley composers to have written both the lyrics and the music for his songs His life style was extravagant and scandalous, with gay and bisexual activity and a large surplus of recreational drugs In 1918, he met Linda Thomas whom he married the following year. She knew of Porter's homosexuality, but it was mutually advantageous for them to marry: for Linda it offered continued social status; for Porter it brought a respectable heterosexual front in an era when homosexuality was not publicly acknowledged. They were genuinely devoted to each other and remained married from December 19, 1919 until Linda's death in 1954 Although he had some success before 1928, 1928 was the year he wrote, “Let’s Do It” which established him for the first time on Broadway Frank Sinatra singing “I Get a Kick Out of You”

ASCAP and BMI ASCAP (American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers) was founded in 1914 to protect the interests of established publishers and composers. They collected and distributed performance royalties New members were only admitted with sponsorship of existing members In the mid-‐19th century, copyright control on melodies was poorly regulated in the United States Competing publishers would often print their own versions of whatever songs were popular at the time Stephen Foster's songs probably generated millions of dollars in sheet music sales, but Foster saw little of it and died in poverty. ASCAP is a performance rights organization. They collect fees for people that composed music in their catalog. Radio stations, bars, concert halls, and any public performance of music in their catalog for profit is subject to fees from ASCAP. A good 90% of all popular music of that day was in ASCAP’s catalog. The NAB (National Association of Broadcasters) represented some 600-‐radio stations and challenged ASCAP by creating BMI (Broadcast Music Incorporated) on October 13th, 1939 to combat the rising costs of ASCAP’s licensing fees. BMI is therefore another performance rights organization (both ASCAP and BMI are around today) BMI had been gradually creating their own catalog by securing country and R&B music. BMI played only their music, which was not licensed by ASCAP The criticism of the new music was spear headed by ASCAP because they saw how the music was building in popularity. ASCAP was scared because this new music was singer/songwriter types, which would make ASCAP obsolete. ASCAP was trying to protect itself by discrediting the new music. The payola scandal was spear headed by ASCAP. By 1941 BMI’s catalog contained 36,000 copyrights from 52 publishers. “For the first time, the Tin Pan Alley/Broadway/Hollywood monopoly on public taste had been challenged.” By the end of the 40’s, early blues, R&B and country musicians began to redefine popular music.

The AFM Musicians’ Strike/Radio/TV/Movies/WWII: The American Federation of Musicians was founded in 1896 Radio started broadcasting in 1920 and from 1920 to the early 40’s, network radio was mostly live broadcasts, which created a lot of work for musicians

As radio broadcasts gradually shifts from live to recorded music (early 1940s), the AFM strikes When talking movies came out in 1927, thousands of musicians lost work because there were big orchestras in movie theaters The AFM saw this loss of work happening again because of radio and was upset at losing so many live paying jobs to recorded airplay The AFM strikes against the record companies rather than radio because they saw the problems ASCAP had with NBA (NBA started BMI) The AFM forbid all commercial recording by union members in 1942–44, in order to pressure record companies to make a better arrangement for paying royalties to union members This was sometimes called the Petrillo Ban because James Petrillo was the president of the AFM who called the strike This opens up the airwaves because professional musicians could not record, which helped the underground music like gospel, country, blues, R&B to get recorded. The most important thing about this strike is the rise of the small independent record companies. The big record companies held out, while the small companies signed agreements with the AFM. These small companies are the ones that played all the music that became known as R&R The AFM recording ban helped to official end the Big Band era (the last straw syndrome) The big bands were already fighting the effects of WWII, due to gas and tire rationing, the draft, and voluntary military enlistment, which depleted bands of their personnel and transportation means Throughout the recording ban vocalists were still allowed to record, which created a rise in popularity of vocalists who stole the spotlight once owned by the big band leaders of the Swing era; the shift from the instrumentalists having the marquee power to the vocalist begins at this time After WWII pop vocals with studio accompaniment were the norm The AFM strike occurred right after ASCAP and BMI’s war, which was another very important piece of the puzzle that caused the shift in popular music from ASCAP’s monopoly to the rise of R&R. BMI starts airing new music (gospel/country/R&B) and a ton of independent record labels start up as a result of the AFM strike So radio stops playing ASCAP’s inventory and then no new music is recorded due to the AFM strike, which left the void for this alternative music TV was first introduced to the general public at the 1939 World's Fair; the outbreak of World War II prevented TV from being manufactured on a large scale until after the end of the war True regular commercial network television programming did not begin in the U.S. until the mid 40s By the mid 40’s, TV became more and more popular and started broadcasting the popular radio shows, which opened up the possibilities for even more record play on radio and also opened doors to the African Americans to have a chance to be heard on radio

Baby Boomers: BMI’s war with ASCAP was the 1st strike to Tin Pan Alley’s control over popular music. The independent record companies rise; due to the AFM’s strike was the 2nd attack WWII helping to put an end to the Swing era was the 3rd The rise in popularity of TV, stealing popular radio broadcast, leaving a void for radio to broadcast even more alternative music, was the 4th The baby boomers coming of age was the 5th strike When white teenage girls started buying R&B in big numbers the 6th and final strike caused the last big shift in redefining popular music. Baby boomers were coming of age right about the time (early 50’s) BMI and the independent record companies had a firm hold on broadcasting alternative music (gospel/country/R&B), which helped redefine popular music Boomers are widely associated with privilege, as many grew up in a time of affluence As a group, boomers were the healthiest, and wealthiest generation to that time By sheer numbers, boomers were a demographic bulge that remodeled society

The boomers found R&R, was an expression of their generational identity, they wanted to distance themselves from their parents music: “How Much is That Doggy” for example The Baby Boom explosion was a result of WWII, (men leaving and returning from war). R&R history aliens itself with the baby boom generation R&R traces the tastes of this demographic, which is also the first time in American history that the term “teenager” is used The 50’s are considered the first time in American history when the teenagers had their own culture They had their own language, style and dress, and demanded their own music Baby Boomers were such a large portion of the population that it became economically adventitious to market stuff directly to them

When R&R Becomes a Media Event Black’s being shunned by whites (segregation/discrimination), helped the independents. Most “black people had to find entertainment in their homes, and the record was it. Most favored the electrified R&B sound.” (Ahmet Ertegun of Atlantic Records). During and after WWII, African Americans migrated north with money. The major record labels didn’t feel R&B was marketable to mainstream America, but the black immigrants were buying R&B from the independents in large numbers. “Sales (of R&B) were localized in ghetto markets. There was no white sale and no white radio play.” (Jerry Wexler of Atlantic Records) In the early 50’s white teenagers started buying R&B. “In 1952 The Dolphin record store in LA, which specialized in R&B records, reported that 40% of its sales were to whites. “This R&R began among Negro people, was first recorded by Negro performers and had its following among Negroes of the south and also Negro urban areas in the north. Suddenly millions of white teenagers who buy most of the ‘pop’ records in America have latched onto R&B.” (Mitch Miller, head of Columbia Records) “The music industry organized against R&R” The popular singers of the day (crooners) testified before congress in 1958: Frank Sinatra said, “R&R is the most brutal, ugly, desperate, vicious form of expression it has been my misfortune to hear. Rock and rollers are cretinous (a stupid, obtuse, or mentally defective person) goons that lure teenagers with imbecilic reiterations and sly, lewd, in plain fact dirty lyrics” DJ’s spoke out against R&R as they lost listeners from their established pop and classical programming. ASCAP hated the new music (R&R) because it was written and performed by the artists themselves ASCAP, in November of 1953, slapped Columbia Records, RCA and BMI with a $150 million antitrust lawsuit, which really had no effect on stopping the music. The main thing that is happening here is that the old power structures (ASCAP, crooners, DJ’s) are upset at loosing their control (money) to R&R and the people that create, produce, promote and benefit from R&R. The “Blackboard Jungle” where Bill Haley and his Comets played “Rock Around the Clock” for the opening and closing credits is what put R&R on the map. It’s where most people in the world became aware of this new style of music called R&R.

DJs/Alan Freed DJs became advocates for R&B The most popular DJ at the beginnings of R&R was Alan Freed He started out in Cleveland, Ohio in 1951 Freed became internationally known for promoting R&B (black music) on the radio to young white teenagers that were looking for an alternative to the “Doggy in the Window” He was the first white DJ to program black music for a white teenage audience Freed’s show was called “The Moondog Rock ‘n’ Roll House Party”

Ralph Sylvester Peer coined the term “race records” in 1920, and in 1946 Jerry Wexler of Billboard Magazine (and later Atlantic Records) coined the term “Rhythm and Blues.” Freed thought the term “Race Record” was too derogatory, so he changed the term R&B to R&R in the early 50s So Freed gets credit for coining the term “Rock and Roll” Freed realizes that the parents of his audience would be upset with their kids listening to black music (R&B), so he started calling it R&R based on the lyrics to a lot of the songs he was playing “Rhythm and Blues” represented black music and the term “Rock and Roll” was a metaphor for sexual intercourse Freed reasoned that the racial connotations of R&B would be more offensive than the sexual connotations of R&R Trixie Smith’s 1925 recording of “My Man Rocks me with one Steady Roll” was the first time the lyric “rock and roll” was used The car radio and the portable transistor radio became major conduits of the new music. By 1963 more than 50 million cars had radios in a “car-‐crazy generation.” He began organizing racially integrated R&R concerts, which were a huge success. The first show was called the “Moondog Coronation Ball.” 18,000 people showed to an auditorium that seated 9,000 The “Moondog Coronation Ball” is known as the first rock and roll concert Freed gained a priceless notoriety from this event. His radio show increased in airtime and his popularity soared. Freed called himself the "father of Rock and Roll" Many of the top African-‐American performers of the 1950s gave public credit to Freed for integrating the youth of America at a time when adults were still promoting racial segregation In the 1956 film Rock, Rock, Rock, Freed, as himself, tells the audience that "rock and roll" is a river of music that has absorbed many streams: rhythm and blues, jazz, rag time, cowboy songs, country songs, folk songs. All have contributed to the big beat." The Big Beat refers to the accent of beats 2 and 4 in a measure like “Shake, Rattle and Roll” His career was destroyed by the payola scandal that hit the broadcasting industry in the early 1960s There was also the conflict of interest that he had taken songwriting co-‐credits (most notably on Chuck Berry's "Maybellene"), which entitled him to receive part of a song's royalties Freed could increase his royalties by heavily promoting the record on his radio show In 1962, Freed pleaded guilty to two charges of commercial bribery, for which he received a fine and a suspended sentence He died in 1965 from complications brought on by alcoholism. Alan Freed died a poor and discouraged man

Recording Techniques: Thomas Edison invented the phonograph 1877 The problem with Edison’s invention was you could not duplicate the recordings Each pressing was a unique recording Sousa and Caruso were the two leading recording artists at the turn of the 20th century About a decade later (1888) Emile Berliner developed the Disc recording He said with my invention you could do 3 things: 1) You can use this as a master so you can make an infinite number of copies 2) People will buy them (as well as a phonograph player) to play in their homes 3) The performer and the record companies can make royalties off each copy In 1901 Berliner formed the Victor Talking Machine Company. Early disc recordings were produced in a variety of speeds ranging from 60 to 130 rpm Discs were produced in a variety of sizes ranging in recording time from 2 to 7 minutes The 10-‐inch size was the standard size for popular music, so almost all popular recordings were limited to around three minutes in length. By 1925, the speed of the record became standardized at 78 rpm

Early recordings were made entirely acoustically, the sound being collected by a horn (megaphone) and piped to a diaphragm, which vibrated the cutting stylus Lillian Hardin Armstrong, a member of King Oliver's Creole Jazz Band that recorded at Gennett Records in 1923, remembered that at first Oliver and his young second trumpet, Louis Armstrong, stood next to each other and Oliver's horn couldn't be heard. "They put Louis about fifteen feet over in the corner, looking all sad." During the 1920s, engineers developed technology for capturing sound with microphones During and after World War II, when shellac supplies were extremely limited, some 78 rpm records were pressed in vinyl instead of shellac, particularly the six-‐minute 12-‐inch 78 rpm records produced by V-‐ Disc for distribution to US troops in World War II. The 12-‐inch Long Play (LP) 33⅓ rpm record album was introduced by the Columbia Record Company in 1948. The original purpose was for recording serious music (classical music) because the works were of extended length. A main use became storing a number of artist singles In 1949, RCA released the first 45-‐rpm single, 7 inches in diameter; they had a playing time of eight minutes

The Blues: Blues is form and genre The form standard is 12 bars, (can be 8 or 16) established due to the commercial success in the African-‐ American community of singers like Bessie Smith The blues was black music created in the south The blues was born from spirituals, works songs, field hollers, shouts and chants The form is ubiquitous in jazz, rhythm and blues, and rock and roll Blue notes and crushed notes (piano playing a harmonic minor second) John Lennon compares the Blues to a chair The word “blue” has been a metaphor for sadness in the English language ever since the 1600’s (Elizabethan poetry) In America in the 1700’s the “Blue Devils” was a sickness due to some evil forces “Blue” had two meanings then: sadness and the devil’s influence. The blues is an expression of the secular side of black life. Gospel is the spiritual (sacred) expression of black life. AAB lyric form with instrumental fill The blues is the first true expression of black life and not the white mans version of it The blues lyrics are full of sexual metaphors “Frankie and Johnny” is the oldest known example of the blues progression Covered also under W. C. Handy:

W C Handy was known as “The Father of the Blues” “The Memphis Blues” was the first blues piece (sheet music) that WC published in 1912 His most famous piece, written in 1914 was “The St. Louis Blues” It was the most recorded song in the first half of the 20th century The first publication of blues sheet music was in 1912

The first recording by an African American singer was Mamie Smith's 1920 rendition of Perry Bradford's "Crazy Blues" Chroniclers began to report about blues music in Southern Texas and Deep South at the dawn of the 20th century John and Alan Lomax made a large number of non-‐commercial blues recordings Blues origins corresponds to the transition from slavery to sharecropping Scholars characterize the early 1900s development of blues music as a move from group performances to a more individualized style. The Diddley bow and the banjo are African-‐derived instruments

Blues and Country developed at the same time in the same place with the only distinction being Blues (race music or black) and Country (hillbilly music or white) Blues as a separate genre arose in the 1920s, which coincided with the development of the recording industry “Blues” became a code word for a record designed to sell to black listeners Blues were defined as the secular counterpart of the spirituals It was more or less considered as a sin to play the blues: it was the devil's music, musicians were therefore segregated into two categories: gospel and blues singers Gospel music was using musical forms of Christian hymns and blues had the 12-‐bar structure Also covered under W. C. Handy:

In the 1920s, the blues became a major element of African American and American popular music, reaching white audiences via Handy's arrangements and the classic female blues performers

TOBA booked blues musicians in nightclubs like the Cotton Club and bars along Beale Street in Memphis. Record companies, Okeh Records, and Paramount Records, began to record African American music. As the recording industry grew, country blues performers became more popular in the African American community. Sylvester Weaver was the first to record the slide guitar style in 1923, (knife blade or the sawed-‐off neck of a bottle). The slide guitar became an important part of the Delta blues. The first blues recordings from the 1920s are categorized as a traditional, rural country blues and a more polished 'city' or urban blues. Classic blues singers popular in the 1920s: Mamie Smith, Gertrude "Ma" Rainey, Bessie Smith The transition from country to urban blues began in the 1920s driven by the Great Migration. Blues influenced rock and roll and soul and became part of mainstream popular music. White performers had brought African-‐American music to new audiences. Black musicians popularity stopped. They started looking for new markets in Europe. Blues festivals in Europe popularized blues music abroad. In the UK, bands emulated US blues legends, and UK blues-‐rock-‐based bands had an influential role throughout the 1960s. White audiences' interest in the blues during the 1960s increased due to the Chicago-‐based Paul Butterfield Blues Band and the British blues movement. The style of British blues developed in the UK, when bands such as The Animals, Fleetwood Mac, The Rolling Stones, The Yardbirds, and Cream performed classic blues songs from the Delta or Chicago blues traditions. Many of Led Zeppelin's earlier hits were renditions of traditional blues songs. The British and blues musicians of the early 1960s inspired a number of American blues rock fusion performers, including Canned Heat, Jefferson Airplane, Janis Joplin, Johnny Winter, and The Allman Brothers Band. Jimi Hendrix, was a rarity: a black man who played psychedelic rock. Hendrix was a pioneer in the innovative use of distortion and feedback In the early 1970s, The Texas rock-‐blues style emerged, which used guitars in both solo and rhythm roles. The British rock-‐blues movement influenced the Texas style. Texas styles are Johnny Winter, Stevie Ray Vaughan, and ZZ Top.

W. C. Handy: W C was known as the "Father of the Blues" He was the first to popularize blues-‐influenced music among non-‐black Americans Handy is among the most influential of American songwriters He was one of many musicians that played the blues, yet he is credited with giving it its contemporary form Handy was not the first to publish music in the blues form but is often credited as such He took the blues from a regional music style to one of the dominant forces in American music His Father considered Handy’s music the Devil’s music In 1903 while waiting for a train in Tutwiler, in the Mississippi Delta, Handy was exposed to the blues

"Memphis Blues” was originally written for a political candidate "Memphis Blues" sheet music introduced his style of 12-‐bar blues and was credited as the inspiration for the invention of the foxtrot dance step by Vernon and Irene Castle "The primitive southern Negro, as he sang, was sure to bear down on the third and seventh tone of the scale, slurring between major and minor. I tried to convey this effect by introducing flat thirds and sevenths (now called blue notes) into my song, although its prevailing key was major, and I carried this device into my melody as well. "The transitional flat thirds and seventh in my melody" were his attempt "to suggest the typical slurs of the Negro voice" Handy first used the AAB lyric Handy wrote that the "(tonic, subdominant, dominant seventh) was already used by Negro roustabouts, honky-‐tonk piano players, wanderers and others” Because of the difficulty of getting his works published, Handy published many of his own works Although Handy wrote his famous blues works before jazz was first recorded, bands dove into Handy’s repertoire, making many of them jazz standards In 1912, Handy met Harry H. Pace and Pace later became manager of Pace and Handy Sheet Music. Whites were more likely to play Handy’s music than blacks because whites were looking for novelty songs while blacks played the hits of the day. "Negro vaudeville artists wanted songs that would not conflict with white acts on the bill. The result was that these performers became our most effective pluggers." Handy also published the original "Shake Rattle and Roll" written by Al Bernard. The Joe Smith recording of “Yellow Dog Blues (1919) became the best-‐selling recording of Handy's music to date (I couldn’t find the recording) The success of “Crazy Blues” created a lot of competition for Handy and his biz began to fail In 1920 Pace amicably left Handy, with whom he also collaborated as lyricist. As Handy wrote: "To add to my woes, my partner withdrew from the business. He disagreed with some of my business methods, but no harsh words were involved. He simply chose this time to sever connection with our firm in order that he might organize Pace Phonograph Company, issuing Black Swan Records and making a serious bid for the Negro market. With Pace went a large number of our employees. Still more confusion and anguish grew out of the fact that people did not generally know that I had no stake in the Black Swan Record Company." In 1920 Pace amicably left Handy to start Black Swan Record Co. In the 1920s, he founded the Handy Record Company in New York City. Bessie Smith's January 14, 1925, Columbia Records recording of "St. Louis Blues" with Louis Armstrong is considered by many to be one of the finest recordings of the 1920s. Handy's "St. Louis Blues" became a RCA motion picture shown before the main attraction. Handy used Bessie Smith because she of her popularity with that tune. The picture was shown in movie houses from 1929 to 1932. Handy's songs do not always follow the classic 12-‐bar pattern, often having 8-‐ or 16-‐bar bridges between 12-‐bar verses.

Mamie Smith: First female African American artist to make vocal blues recordings in 1920 "Crazy Blues," was a million-‐seller that revealed a fresh market for what Ralph Sylvester Peer labeled "race" records, performances by black artists specifically targeted at black buyers. “Crazy Blues” caused record companies to realize the benefit of selling to blacks, which created a sharp increase in the popularity of race records "Crazy Blues" was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame and was preserved in the National Recording Registry at the Library of Congres The success of Smith's record prompted record companies to seek to record other female blues singers and started the era of what is now known as classic female blues. She was billed as "The Queen of the Blues"

Ma Rainey: One of the earliest known blues singers Known as “The Mother of the Blues” Helped popularize the blues Influenced Bessie Smith She first recorded in 1923 and made over 100 recordings Ma Rainey also recorded with Louis Armstrong She retired in 1935 She was exposed to blues music in 1902, hearing a girl sing in a tent in Missouri, and incorporated it into her performances (proving blues was around well before it was documented) Rainey met Bessie in 1914, they worked together and became friends. Bessie sang backup for Ma Rainey In 1923, Rainey signed a recording contract with Paramount In 1924 she recorded “See See Rider” with Louis Armstrong In 1943, a version by Wee Bea Booze became a #1 hit on the Billboard "Harlem Hit Parade", precursor of the rhythm and blues chart. Some blues critics consider this to be the definitive version of the song The chart (Harlem Hit Parade), initiated in 1942, is used to track the success of popular music songs in urban, or primarily African American, venues, another name for race records Starting in 1924, she toured with TOBA Bob Dylan refers to Rainey in the song “Tombstone Blues” “See See Rider” was inducted in the Grammy Hall of Fame, and the National Recording Preservation Board in the Library of Congress

Bessie Smith: Bessie was known as "The Empress of the Blues," and was credited with being the most popular female blues singer of the 1920s She was a major influence on subsequent vocalists In 1912, she was hired by the Stokes troupe as a dancer rather than a singer, because Ma Rainey was already with the company In the early 1920s, Smith starred in a Broadway musical with Sidney Bechet called How Come? She lost the Broadway show due to a run in with the producer (she was replaced by Alberta Hunter) moved to Philly and married Jack Gee, a security guard, in 1923 just before her break through recording of “Down Hearted Blues” made her the highest-‐paid black entertainer of her day Alberta Hunter, the composer and singer had already turned it into a hit on the Paramount label The marriage strained, with cheating on both sides. During the marriage, Smith became the biggest headliner on the TOBA circuit. Bessie Smith's January 14, 1925, Columbia Records recording of "St. Louis Blues" with Louis Armstrong is considered by many to be one of the finest recordings of the 1920s In 1929, she ended the marriage, but never got a divorce. Smith then had a common-‐law husband, Richard Morgan, who was Lionel Hampton's uncle. She stayed with him until her death In 1933, John Hammond recounts that he asked Smith to record four sides for Okeh and said she was working as a hostess in a speakeasy in Philadelphia. Bessie worked at Art's Cafe on Ridge Avenue, but not as a hostess and not until the summer of 1936. In 1933, when she made the Okeh sides, Bessie was still touring. Hammond was known for his selective memory and gratuitous embellishments. His story about her death was also fabricated. The reason might have been to bring light upon the injustice of the African American. Bessie was paid a flat fee of $37.50 for each selection and these recordings were her last. Made November 24, 1933, they show the transformation she made her blues artistry into the "swing era". The relatively modern accompaniment is notable. "Gimme a Pigfoot and a Bottle of Beer" continues to be ranked among her most popular recordings. Died in a car crash on September 26th, 1937

After Smith's death, a discredited story emerged about the circumstances; namely, that she had died as a result of having been refused admission to a "whites only" hospital. John Hammond gave this account in an article in the November 1937 issue of Down Beat magazine. A one-‐act play was written about the fabricated story of her death 10,000 mourners filed past her coffin on Sunday, October 3 Her legal husband pocketed all the money raised for her stone The grave remained unmarked until August 7, 1970, when a tombstone, paid for by singer Janis Joplin and Juanita Green, who as a child had done housework for Smith, was erected As a teenager, she heard Bessie Smith and Leadbelly, whom Joplin later credited with influencing her decision to become a singer.

Blind Lemon Jefferson: He has been labeled "Father of the Texas Blues" The first rural blues man, folk blues man to be discovered and recorded was Blind Lemon Jefferson in 1926 or 27. Was blind, discovered on a street corner playing for money by a record executive Jefferson in 1917 met T-‐Bone Walker. Jefferson taught Walker the basics of blues guitar, in exchange for Walker's occasional services as a guide “Long Lonesome Blues," recorded in Chicago in 1926, became a success, with sales in six figures (one of his first recordings for Paramount) B L Jefferson and Ma Rainey helped Paramount become the leading recording company for the blues in the 1920s (Bessie was with Columbia) In 1927 Jefferson moved to OKeh Records, and OKeh quickly recorded and released Jefferson's "Matchbox Blues" backed with "Black Snake Moan" both very successful Matchbox Blues was later recorded by Led Zeppelin, which they called “The Lemon Song” after B. L. Jefferson There are different versions of how he died. The most resent version is from the book, "Tolbert's Texas," claimed that he was killed while being robbed of a large royalty cash payment by a guide escorting him to Union Station to catch a train home to Texas. We have learned that Sylvester Weaver was the first to record with a bottleneck or knife blade to create the slide guitar sound. I have also read where B L Jefferson was the first to do that.

The Work Song: The work song helped ease the burden of labor, more efficient, time passed faster The work song is the predecessor of the blues Even up till 1950, Blacks were considered a cheap source of labor Mississippi Delta area was originally a rain forest that was cleared with cheap labor Prison work gangs supplied much of the labor force Joe Turner, a lawman, placed many blacks in prison without cause to generate a labor force Whites racists had a hard time finding work and this fueled their hatred Two waves of the “Great Migration” caused the blues to become part of our national culture and heritage

Leadbelly: Leadbelly was an American folk and blues musician, had strong vocals, and played the 12-‐string guitar Often spelled Leadbelly but he spelled it Lead Belly Leadbelly was in and out of prison. John and Alan Lomax discovered him in prison and helped to secure his release There were many theories on how he got his nickname: One story for the name is that he had lead in his gut from a gunshot wound and the other is his stomach was strong as lead Leadbelly went to NY to work as Lomax’s driver and attained fame but not fortune He began recording for Columbia Records. Like many performers, what income he made during his lifetime would come from touring, not from record sales. The Lomax’s and Leadbelly parted ways in 1935

Life magazine ran a three-‐page article titled, "Lead Belly -‐ Bad Nigger Makes Good Minstrel," in the April 19, 1937 issue. They had photos showing Lead Belly's hands playing the guitar (with the caption "these hands once killed a man"). The article attributes both of his pardons to his singing of his petitions to the governors, who were so moved that they pardoned him. The article's text ends with "he may well be on the brink of a new and prosperous period." In 1939, Lead Belly was back in jail for stabbing a man. Alan Lomax (24) helped raise money for his legal expenses. After his release, he became a fixture in New York City's folk music scene and befriended Woody Guthrie, and Pete Seeger. Lead Belly was the first American country blues musician to see success in Europe. In 1949 Lead Belly was diagnosed with Lou Gehrig's disease. Lead Belly died later that year in New York City. In some recordings where Lead Belly accompanied himself, he would make an unusual type of grunt between his verses. Many of his songs feature this vocalization. Lead Belly explained that, "Every time the men say 'haah', the hammer falls. The hammer rings, and we swing, and we sing" a reference to prisoners' work songs. The grunt represents the tired deep breaths the men would take while working, singing and pausing in cadence with the work. Leadbelly recorded the folk song “The House of the Rising Sun” which became a hit for the Animals.

Charley Patton: He is considered the "Father of the Delta Blues" (as is Son House) Patton was one of the first stars of the Delta blues genre Patton was the first authentic Delta blues musician to be recorded He made his first records in 1927 Patton's music might have been a result of being hired rather than sharecropping He used the body of his guitar to produce rhythm Robert Palmer raves about Patton in his book Deep Blues Patton was a mix of white, black, and Cherokee In 1916, W C Handy offered Patton a position in his band He was about 38 when he first started recording in the late 20’s Died about 6 years later in 1934 of heart failure “Pony Blues” (his composition) was his first release Patton gained notoriety for his showmanship, often playing with the guitar down on his knees, behind his head, or behind his back

Boogie Woogie: The blues becomes danceable The rural or country tradition of the blues that is rhythmic and is the most direct influence on early American R&R is a instrumental version of the blues called Boogie Woogie The essence of what makes R&R is the blues but danceable and the blues doesn’t become danceable until you get to boogie woogie (BW) A lot of early R&R recordings are really instrumental BW The bass line is ubiquitous and defines the BW style (“8-‐to-‐the-‐bar” bass line) Big Bands in the Swing era made BW recordings, when they downsized, they could be considered the first R&R bands When you mix R&B with Swing, you have Jump Blues “Choo Choo Ch’Boogie” by Louis Jordon would be one example Chuck Berry said, “It used to be called boogie woogie, it used to called the blues, it used to be called R&B, its called rock now” The first BW recording, “Honky Tonk Train Blues” was made in 1927 my Meade Lux Lewis It’s piano music that grows out of Ragtime

It evolved out of ragtime spontaneously in the Midwest. Another theory was that it got its start with the piano players at Kaminski Park in Chicago entertaining the baseball fans The record companies success with the female blues era caused them to seek more talent The result is we start to see the recordings of the rural blues and BW by the late 20s The depression kills all recordings and BW goes underground until John Hammond’s Spirituals To Swing concert at Carnegie Hall BW was part of the concert Hammond found all the BW players in Chicago and KC doing odd jobs and brought them to the stage of CH where the music and the artists were rejuvenated and both became popular again due to this concert Big Joe Turner and Pete Johnson doing “It’s All Right Baby” and “Low Down Dog”

John Hammond: Hammond was an American record producer, musician and music critic from the 1930s to the early 1980s He discovered numerous musicians ranging in style and time fame to everyone from Benny Goodman, Charlie Christian, Billie Holiday, Count Basie, to Aretha Franklin, George Benson, Bob Dylan, Bruce Springsteen, and Stevie Ray Vaughan Born in New York to great wealth as the great-‐grandson of William Henry Vanderbilt His sister Alice married musician Benny Goodman in 1942. He studied classical music but was more interested in the music sung and played by his black servants In his teens he began listening to black musicians in Harlem In 1927 he heard Bessie Smith sing, which influenced the rest of his life In 1928, Hammond entered Yale University where he studied the violin In 1931 he dropped out of school for a career in music His first job was the U.S. correspondent for Melody Maker (a music newspaper in the UK) By 1932–1933, Hammond arranged for the US Columbia label to provide recordings for the UK Columbia label (most of it being black music) In 1938, he organized the first From Spirituals to Swing concert at Carnegie Hall Hammond oversaw the reissues of Robert Johnson’s recorded work and convinced Columbia Records to issue the album King of the Delta Blues Singers in 1961

Robert Johnson: Johnson is probably the most famous of the rural blues musicians He was probably the greatest and most influential of all the rural blues singers His songs dealt with death, dying and the devil. Two reasons could be: 1) Many in the black community believed a blues musician was doing the Devil’s work and so he came to believe that as well 2) At one point, he lived with his stepfather who ran a mortuary, so death and dying were concepts he understood. The most famous story about Johnson is how he sold his soul to the devil His mammoth transformation shocked those that knew him (supposedly before and then after he sold his soul to the Devil). Johnson himself helped to perpetuate the story He can play rhythmic and melodic lines at the same time He was a womanizer, which most likely contributed to his early death (he was poisoned by a jealous husband) He was only recorded on two different days in 1938 and his entire discography consists of only about 18 songs During his like time, only a handful of those recordings were released but none became big hits He supported himself as an itinerate blues musician John Hammond heard his recordings and booked him in the “Spirituals to Swing concert at Carnegie Hall

Johnson died just before the concert at CH and Big Bill Broonzy replaced him Columbia buys Vocalion records. Hammond works for Columbia and has all of Johnson’s recordings. He releases “The King of the Delta Blues” record and Johnson’s music becomes very influential on a number of early R&R musicians: Bob Dylan, Keith Richards, and Eric Clapton (to name 3) He became a star posthumously due to John Hammond and a lawyer from Pasadena named Scott Lavare, He bought all the rights to his music and started publicizing RJ Johnson’s most famous recording is “Crossroads Blues” which talks about his encounter with the devil (notice the guitar playing, it’s unusual for the time) Crossroads is a metaphor for making a decision and/or the Cross of Christ. Many say he is the beginning of R&R guitar playing Johnson was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as an "Early Influence" in their first induction ceremony in 1986 The most famous cover of “Crossroads” was by Eric Clapton and Cream (Ginger Baker, Jack Bruce, and Eric Clapton the first power trio) Songs by RJ that became R&R standards are “Sweet Home Chicago” “I’ll Dust My Broom” and “Crossroads Blues,” which could be considered the first R&R record There were many covers of RJ’s songs and “The Blues Brothers” covered “Sweet Home Chicago”

Big Bill Broonzy Broonzy copyrighted more than 300 songs during his lifetime, including both adaptations of traditional folk songs and original blues songs He was 1 of 17 children and his parents were born into slavery. His first instrument was the Violin (fiddle) He made his first recording in 1927 Between 1912 and 1917, he worked as a preacher He replaced Robert Johnson at John Hammond’s Dec. 23rd, 1938 concert at Carnegie Hall (which was dedicated to Bessie Smith). (This was Broonzy’s first appearance before a white audience where he preformed “It Was Just A Dream”). A year later he was invited back and preformed “Done Got Wise” and “Louis, Louis” “Big Bill was a stand-‐in for Robert Johnson, who had been murdered in Mississippi in August that year.” John Hammond stated in the program for the concert “nobody seems to know what caused Robert Johnson’s death.” “By late 1938 Bill was established as a session man and as a solo performer in Chicago and within weeks of the 1938 concert Bill was recording with small groups in a studio in the windy city.” “For years and years, he has been the best-‐selling blues singer on Vocalion’s “race” records.” (He did record for other labels, even Chess)

Ragtime/Scott Joplin: Was first developed in the Midwest. First popularized at World Fairs and possibly at Kaminski Park. Sedalia, Missouri is considered the birthplace of Ragtime probably because so many ragtime performers and players came from there. The name “ragtime” comes from ragged time or syncopation and evolved into Jazz Syncopation is defined as rhythms that accent weak beats in the meter or subdivisions of beats Ragtime was disseminated through piano rolls mostly because it was difficult for amateurs to play Ragtime like Marches has many different sections Ragtime was considered immoral and subversive and looked down upon by the pretentious upper class It was considered sexy as well because the syncopation caused people to do sexy dances The best-‐known composer of Ragtime works was Scott Joplin His best-‐known composition was “Maple Leaf rag” The Maple Leaf Rag was written after the Maple Leaf Club in Sedalia, Missouri

He made a lot of money from his royalties on Maple Leaf Rag (it sold over a million copies) Joplin wanted to make his music more respectable so he set his music to an opera His first one is lost but he spent his last dime (from his royalties on “Maple Leaf Rag) trying to produce his opera Treemonisha He died penniless in 1917 Jazz replaces Ragtime’s popularity and is forgotten until 1973 The 1973 movie “The Sting” popularized his music His composition “The Entertainer” was used throughout Treemonisha was finally produced due to popularity of the movie, The Sting

James Reese Europe: James Reese Europe studied violin and piano as a child in Washington, then moved to New York (l9O4) where he later became a director for musical comedies Between 1900 and 1920 there were a handful of black Broadway Shows They played into white peoples curiosity of black culture, a direct descendent of Minstrelsy Europe's band was the first black group to make recordings (from 1913) In 1910 he organized the Clef Club, a black musicians association (union) The Clef Club could be contacted to supply entertainment orchestras consisting of anywhere from 2 to 200 black musicians They played for upper society There were suggestive dances that caused controversy Dancing was couple dancing which made these dances questionable Out of this controversy comes Irene and Vernon Cassel The Cassel’s created the Fox Trot There was nothing dirty about their dancing JER backed them with his Syncopated Society Orchestra In 1919, Europe’s band recorded their instrumental version of WC Handy’s “Memphis Blues”, which would be labeled instrumental ragtime During World War I he won respect with his military band, the 369th Infantry, and for his jazz concerts given in France After returning to the USA in 1919 he embarked on a triumphant tour of the nation and was hailed everywhere for his "gorgeous racket of syncopation and jazzing," but he died during the course of the tour Just as JRE was getting really big he was stabbed by one of his musicians in the neck with a fountain pen and died from his injuries

Listening Test Guide 1) Crazy Blues Mamie Smith What is the significance of this recording? Name the artist: Mamie Smith Ralph Sylvester Peer labeled this music: Race Music 2) Cross Road Blues Robert Johnson Name the composer: Robert Johnson Name the artist: Robert Johnson

The subject of this song is: the Devil 3) De Camptown Races: Name the composer: Steven Foster This song rose to popularity during: Minstrelsy The composer of this song is unknown: False

4) The Entertainer Name the composer: Scott Joplin This music was popular during: the turn of the 20th century The style of this music is called: Ragtime

5) I Get A Kick Out Of You (Frank Sinatra) Name the composer: Cole Porter This song is an example of: The Great American Songbook: True Name the vocalist: Frank Sinatra 6) It Was Just A Deam Name the Artist: Big Bill Broonzy

Who produced this concert, where was it and when? John Hammond, Carnegie Hall, 12/23/38 Who was this artist replacing: Robert Johnson 7) Julia Ann Johnson This recording is an example of: A Work Song Artist: Leadbelly Who recorded this song: Alan Lomax 8) Black Snake Moan Name the artist: Blind Lemon Jefferson This artist has been labeled: "Father of the Texas Blues" 9) See See Rider Bea Booze Name the vocalist: Bea Booze

Who originally recorded this song? Ma Rainey

10) St Louis Blues Bessie Smith Name the vocalist: Bessie Smith Composer: WC Handy Trumpet: Louis Armstrong