Ten pages Paper
Lisa
lecture_1_-_traditions_approaches__theories_of_communication.pdf
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Foundations of Communication 1. Introduction: Worldviews, paradigms and
communication theories
Professor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMEC Professor of Public Communication
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57022 Foundations of Communication
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Housekeeping UTS email & UTS Online – access, check regularly Subject Outline and lecture notes online Library visit/demo
‘Communicating with Publics’ Tues 5 March 7.30 pm To attend e-mail Mai Hansford [email protected]
Referencing style = UTS Harvard. See online reference guide at UTS Library http://www.lib.uts.edu.au/help/referencing/harvard-uts- referencing-guide/more-information
Text book reading – see front table in text Postgrad welcome drinks – Week 2, 6 March,
7–7.45 pm @ Level 5, Bldg 10 lounge over bridge
57022 – Foundations of Communication Professor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMEC
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57022 – Managing Communication Professor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMEC
A roadmap for this subject
Look at what is communication … and how it works among humans
Review major theories, models, approaches and views on communication
Look at the application of models and approaches to professional practice
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57022 – Foundations of Communication Professor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMEC
Uh oh … theory!
Theory “An organised set of concepts, explanations and
principles of some aspect of human experience” (Chaffee cited in Littlejohn & Foss 2008, p. 14)
A set of concepts used to define and/or explain some phenomenon (Silverman 2000)
“Theory consists of plausible relationships produced among concepts and sets of concepts (Strauss & Corbin 1994, p. 278)
In everyday terms ... Best practice knowledge
What others have learned before you and elsewhere
The labels v the concepts, explanations, principles
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Three key elements of theory Concept
Terms and definitions that classify and label variables being studied according to perceived patterns (eg. symmetric communication)
Explanation The “logical force” behind a theory, answering the
question “why?” Can be causal or practical
Principles The final dimension of theories – guidelines that
enable interpretation of an event and aid interpretation and decisions on how to act
57022 – Foundations of Communication Professor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMEC
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Postmodern and multidisciplinary The ‘construction’ of knowledge
• No single ‘truth’ – unstable, ongoing, contested, slippery
Deconstruction of knowledge • QUESTION, PROBLEMATISE, ARGUE
See ‘Mud Wrestling 1’ Introductory paper on studying in arts and social
sciences and a culture of inquiry
Approach to this subject
57022 – Foundations of Communication Professor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMEC
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Three Approaches to Scholarship
Scientific Used in the ‘natural sciences’ (astronomy, physics,
chemistry, etc) Rationalist, empirical The “discovered world” – objective ‘truth’ is out there
Socio-scientific (behaviourist) Birth of the social sciences (psychology, sociology,
anthropology) Uses empirical scientific approach focused on
understanding humans in a social setting
Humanist Individual subjectivity, human interpretation “The discovering person” – ‘truth’ is constructed inside
57022 – Foundations of Communication Professor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMEC
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Which is best?
Scientific? Socio-scientific? Humanist?
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Theory and practice?
“There is nothing so practical as a good theory” (Kurt Lewin 1951, p. 169)
“Theory and practice vitally interact, and one renews the other” (Boyer 1990, p. 23)
57022 – Foundations of Communication Professor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMEC
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Communication
Dance (1970) reviewed 95 definitions of communication
Dance & Larson (1976) literature survey found 126 definitions of communication
Anderson (1996) identified 249 distinct communication theories Communication studied in mathematics, engineering,
literature, sociology, psychology, cultural studies
Bryant & Miron (2004) analysed 1,806 mass communication journals (1956-2000) – found 1,393 references to 604 theories related to communication
57022 – Foundations of Communication Professor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMEC
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Communication?
Interpersonal Small group Organisational
Corporate Business Internal
Media Public
Advertising Public relations Organisational
What is common?
57022 – Foundations of Communication Professor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMEC
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Communication?
It’s human communication – between people We are not talking about animal communication,
extra-terrestrial communication, telecommunications, etc
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Human communication
“Of all things, communication is most wonderful” (Dewey 1939, p. 385)
“Society exists not only by transmission, by communication, but it may fairly be said to exist in transmission, in communication” (Dewey 1916, p. 5)
“One cannot not communicate” (Watzlawick, Beavin & Jackson 1967, p. 48)
57022 – Foundations of Communication Professor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMEC
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Defining communication?
From electronics – transmitting messages? From etymology (language roots)
Latin noun communis – common, community
Latin verb communicare – to create, build
Nine definitions cited by Trenholm (2008, p. 20) Four key definitions cited by Mohan, McGregor,
Saunders & Archee (2008, p. 5) Transmission of messages
Social interaction through messages
Sharing of meaning through information, ideas and feelings
Reciprocal creation of meaning in a context
57022 – Foundations of Communication Professor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMEC
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Examples of definitions
Wrench, McCroskey & Richmond (2008, p. 3): “The process by which one person stimulates
meaning in the mind(s) of another person (or persons) through verbal and nonverbal messages”.
TRANSMISSIONAL
Alberts, Nakayama & Martin (2007, p. 21): “A transactional process in which people generate
meaning through the exchange of verbal and non- verbal messages in specific contexts, influenced by individual and societal forces and embedded in culture”
TRANSACTIONAL
57022 – Foundations of Communication Professor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMEC
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Examples of definitions
James W. Carey (1989, 2009, p. 19) “Communication is a symbolic process whereby
reality is produced, maintained, repaired and transformed”
57022 – Foundations of Communication Professor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMEC
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Defining communication
“A single definition has proved impossible and may not be very fruitful”
(Littlejohn & Foss 2008, p. 3)
57022 – Foundations of Communication Professor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMEC
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Key elements of communication
Generating meaning (Alberts, Nakayama & Martin 2007)
Exchanging and sharing meanings Communicating is about making, negotiating
and sharing meanings ‘Sharing/negotiating meanings’ v agreement?
Uses symbols / is symbolic Embedded and framed within social
interaction and culture
57022 – Foundations of Communication Professor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMEC
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Communication elements
Transactional, symbolic, interpretive, contextual processes in which people create, share and negotiate meanings (Lustig & Koester 1993)
Transactional Interactions, feedback, negotiation
Symbolic Written or spoken language, images, texts, non-verbal
Interpretive Cognition, reflection, critical analysis
Contextual Historical Social Cultural Economic Political
57022 – Foundations of Communication Professor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMEC
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Communication components
Participants Messages Channels (media) Noise Feedback Setting
(Alberts, Nakayama & Martin 2007, pp. 13-14)
57022 – Foundations of Communication Professor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMEC
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Our approach to communication
Look at a several perspectives and approaches Including various transactional, symbolic, interpretive
and contextual factors
Then communication practices drawing on those approaches
“Seven traditions” of communication – approaches, theoretical groupings (Robert Craig 1999; Craig & Muller 2007; Littlejohn & Foss 2008) Shaped by worldviews and discourses (metanarratives)
• Modernism
• Psychology and sociology
• Cultural studies
• Postmodernism
57022 – Foundations of Communication Professor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMEC
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Subject model
Communication practices (writing, journalism, advertising, etc)
Worldviews and metatheories (eg. poststructuralism, political economy,
social constructivism)
Communication approaches/traditions
Worldviews and metatheories
(eg. modernism, science)
Worldviews and metatheories
(eg. postmodernism, social science – eg.
psychology)
Communication approaches /
traditions
57022 – Foundations of Communication Professor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMEC
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Our approach to communication
Our approach is multidisciplinary and transtheoretical
Seven traditions draw on Rhetoric / rhetorical communication
Systems theory/cybernetics
Phenomenology (experience and interpretation)
Psychology and social psychology
Semiotics – symbols and signs including language
Sociology and cultural studies
Critical perspectives
Then applied to sub-disciplines such as Groups, organisations, public, media, etc
57022 – Foundations of Communication Professor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMEC
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Rationale for this approach
Communication = “a family of interrelated concepts” (Dance & Larson 1972, pp. 1-16; Trenholm 2008, p. 23)
Communication = a field (not one thing) Understand assumptions and beliefs that
underlie what we do Gives you a 360 degree view of communication
57022 – Foundations of Communication Professor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMEC
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Other approaches to communication
Two ‘approaches’ (Trenholm 2008, p. 13) Rhetorical tradition (humanist)
“More scientific approach” (i.e. social science)
Two ‘traditions’ (Alberts, Nakayama & Martin 2007, pp. 37-44) Rhetorical tradition (the art of speaking)
Behaviourist tradition (communication as science)
Some call the two broad approaches Humanist (rhetorical) Behaviourist (social science)
57022 – Foundations of Communication Professor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMEC
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Models of communication
Two models (Wrench, McCroskey & Richmond 2008, pp. 16-18) Rhetorical communication model
Interpersonal communication model
Two models (Mohan, et al 2009, p. 25) Transmission model
Transaction model (negotiated in social interaction)
Two models (James Carey 1989, 2009, p. 19) Transmission
Ritual (shared experiences, onoing community practices)
Two models (Grossberg, et al 2006, pp. 18-27) Transmission model
Cultural model (embedded in social interaction and culture)
57022 – Foundations of Communication Professor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMEC
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Models of communication
Three models (Beebe, Beebe & Ivy 2009, pp. 12-18) Action
Interaction
Transaction
Three traditional models of communication (Alberts, Nakayama & Martin 2007, pp. 14-17) Linear (transmissional)
Interactive (transmissional + feedback and psychological – field of experience, education attitudes, etc)
Transactional (interactive, ongoing, negotiating meaning)
57022 – Foundations of Communication Professor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMEC
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Problematising communication
Diversity of views – need to synthesise Some early and simpler approaches and models
pay little if any attention to Context
Psychology – traits, predispositions, attitudes, etc of senders and receivers of messages
Social influences
Political influences
Cultural influences?
Power
Language and symbols – eg. visual communication
57022 – Foundations of Communication Professor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMEC
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Modern views of communication
Four contemporary approaches (Alberts, Nakayama & Martin 2007, pp. 47-57) Social science (behaviourist) Interpretive (humanist) Critical (examines power, structures) Postmodern (cultural studies, relativism)
Four perspectives/models (Trenholm 2008) Message transmission (psychological) World building (social constructionism) Patterned interaction (pragmatism, systems) Cultural studies (relativism, culture, etc)
57022 – Foundations of Communication Professor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMEC
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D O Seven traditions/approaches explored in
this subject …
Rhetorical – persuasion, messages and ideas Systems/cybernetic – information transmission
including feedback loops, noise, networks Phenomenological – experience, perception and
interpretation Sociopsychological – individual cognition,
behaviour and information processing Semiotic – signs and symbols making meaning Sociocultural – social interaction, the social
construction of reality and cultural context Critical – power, domination, hegemony
57022 – Foundations of Communication Professor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMEC
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Communication management
Relevant to: Advertising
Public relations
Corporate communication
Marketing communication
Internal communication
Community relations, etc
Also includes sub-disciplines such as issues and crisis communication, brand, reputation and stakeholder relationships
57022 – Foundations of Communication Professor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMEC
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References Alberts, J. Nakayama, T. & Martin, J. 2007, Human Communication in
Society, Pearson/Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ. Anderson, J. 1996, Communication Theory: Epistemological Foundations,
Guildford Press, New York. Beebe, S, Beebe, S,& Ivy, D. 2009, Communication Principles for a Lifetime,
vol. 1, Principles of Communication, Pearson Education, Boston, MA. Boyer, E. 1990, Scholarship Reconsidered: Priorities of the Professoriate,
Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, Princeton, NJ. Bryant, J. & Miron, D. 2004, ‘Theory and research in mass communication’,
Journal of Communication, 54, pp. 662-704. Carey, J. 2009, Communication as Culture, Routledge, New York (Original
work published 1989) Craig, R. 1999, ‘Communication theory as a field’, Communication Theory,
9, 119-61. Craig, R. & Muller, H. (eds) 2007, Theorising Communication: Readings
Across Traditions, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA. Dance, F. 1970, ‘The concept of communication’, Journal of
Communication, 230, pp. 201-10. Dance, F. & Larson, C. 1972, Speech Communication: Concepts and
Behaviour, Holt, Rinehart & Winston, New York.
57022 – Foundations of Communication Professor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMEC
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References Dance, F. & Larson C. 1976, The Functions of Human Communication: A
Theoretical Approach, Holt, Rinehart & Winston, New York. Dewey, J. 1916, Democracy and Education, Macmillan, New York. Dewey, J. 1939, Intelligence in the Modern World (collected works), Modern
Library, New York. Frey, L. Botan, C. & Kreps, G. 2000, Investigating Communication: An
Introduction to Research Methods, Allyn & Bacon, Needham Heights, MA. Grossberg, L, Wartella, E, Whitney, D, & Wise, J. 2006, Media Making: Mass
Media in a Popular Culture, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA. Lewin, K. 1951, Field Theory in Social Science: Selected Theoretical Papers,
D. Cartwright (ed.), Harper & Row, New York. Littlejohn, S. & Foss, K. 2008, Theories of Human Communication, 9th edn,
Thomson-Wadsworth, Belmont, CA. Lustig, M. & Koester, J. 1993, Intercultural Competence: Interpersonal
Communication Across Culture, Harper Collins, New York. Mohan, T. McGregor, H. Saunders, S. & Archee, R. 2008, Communicating as
Professionals, 2nd edn, Cengage Learning Australia, South Melbourne. Severin, J. & Tankard, J. 2001, Communication Theories: Origins, Methods,
and Uses in the Mass Media, Addison Wesley Longman, New York. Silverman, D. 2000, Doing Qualitative Research, Sage, London.
57022 – Foundations of Communication Professor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMEC
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References Strauss, A. & Corbin, J. 1994, ‘Grounding theory methodology: An
overview’, in N. Denzin & Y. Lincoln (eds), Handbook of Qualitative Research, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA, pp. 273-85.
Trenholm, S. 2008, Thinking Through Communication: An Introduction to the Study of Human Communication, 5th edn, Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ.
Watzlawick, P. Beavin, J. & Jackson, D. 2008, ‘Some tentative axioms of communication’ in C. Mortensen (ed.), Communication Theory , 2nd edn, Transaction Publishers, New Brunswick, NJ, 74-85. (Original work published 1967)
Wrench, J. McCroskey, J. & Richmond, V. 2008, Human Communication in Everyday Life, Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ.
57022 – Foundations of Communication Professor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMEC
