Learning Preferences

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learning styles building and using self-knowledge ISBN

1-256-09222-3

Keys to Effective Learning: Study Skills and Habits for Success, Sixth Edition, by Carol Carter, Joyce Bishop, and Sarah Lyman Kravits. Published by Allyn & Bacon. Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc.

c h a p t e r 2

I n t h i s c h a p t e r . . . you explore answers to the following questions:

WHY understand how you learn? p. 28

WHAT can assessments teach you about yourself? p. 29

HOW can you use your self-knowledge? p. 36

HOW can you identify and manage learning disabilities? p. 49

merlette perceives herself as more of a words person than a numbers person. From middle school on, she has had more

trouble in math and science classes than in English and social

studies. However, her experience during the first term of college

has left her confused about what she does well. In her algebra

class, which had a group-study focus that was new to her, she

kept her head above water. On the other hand, in her

lecture-based history and freshman composition courses, she

struggled. She isn’t sure what to make of it all—and how to

improve.

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Learnin g Style

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Habit for Success Always strive to know more, to understand something new and different about the world, yourself, and others. Explore how you learn so you can get the most from college.

■ Real People Keep Learning p. 40

■ Powerful Questions about Continuing to Learn p. 47

■ Habit Summary p. 52

■ Test Prep: Start It Now p. 56

keep learning

Why Understand How You Learn?

As a college student, you invest valuable resources—time, effort, andmoney— in your education. Getting a good return on that investment depends in part on how well you understand yourself as a learner and how you use that self-knowledge to make specific decisions about how to approach your studies.

The way you think about yourself—your strengths and challenges—comes from many different sources and starts in childhood. Maybe your mother thinks you are “the funny one” or “the quiet one.” Merlette, the student you just read about, considers herself a “words person” based on her school experi- ences. These labels—from yourself and others—influence your day-to-day decisions and long-term goals. However, the danger in accepting a label as truth is that it can shut down the potential for growth.

Your Abilities Can Change and Develop Every person has a unique learning style. You are also born with particular levels of ability and potential in different areas. However, you are not simply stuck with what you’ve been given. Studies support the idea that intelligence can grow over time no matter your starting point, if you start with solid knowledge of where you are and work to keep learning.1

Picture a bag of rubber bands of different sizes. Some are thick, and some are thin; some are long, and some are short—but all of them can stretch. A small rubber band, stretched out, can reach the length of a larger one that lies unstretched. In other words, with effort and focus, you can grow to some extent whatever raw material you have at the start. To begin thinking about

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29Learning Styles

Be yourself. Everyone else is already taken. Oscar Wilde, author and playwright

where you can go, ask yourself: Who am I right now? Where would I like to be in five years? In 10 years?

Self-Knowledge Gives You the Power of Choice There is much about yourself, your surroundings, and your experiences that you cannot control. However, self-knowledge gives you tools to choose how you respond to circumstances. Merlette, like nearly all students, cannot control the courses she’s required to take or the way her instructors teach. But she can manage how she responds in each situation.

Understanding yourself as a learner will also help you choose how to respond to others in a group situation. In a study group, classroom, or workplace, each person takes in material in a unique way. You can use what you know about how others learn to improve communication and teamwork.

The two assessments in this chapter—Multiple Pathways to Learning and the Personality Spectrum—will give you greater insight into your strengths and weaknesses. This knowledge will help you make specific choices about what you do in class and during study time.

What Can Assessments Teach You about Yourself?

Unlike the dozens of tests you will take in college, self-assessments haveno right or wrong answers. Rather, they are a snapshot of who you are at a given moment. Completed honestly, they have the potential to guide your future. As you respond to the assessment questions in this chapter, it might help you to compare the experience to trying on new glasses to correct blurred vision. The glasses will not create new paths and possibilities, but they will enable you to see more clearly the ones that are right in front of you.

The two assessments in this chapter have different objectives. Multiple Pathways to Learning is inner-directed as it focuses on eight unique learning styles. In contrast, the Personality Spectrum is outer-directed as it helps you evaluate how you react to people and situations.

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By the way . . . nearly half of all U.S. adults are involved in some formal type of lifelong learning.2

30 Chapter 2

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Following each assessment is informa- tion about the typical traits of each intelligence or personality spectrum di- mension. As you will see from your scores, you have abilities in all areas, though some are more developed than others.

Assess Your Multiple Intelligences with Pathways to Learning In 1983, Howard Gardner changed the way people perceived intelligence and learning with his theory of Multiple Intelligences. Gardner believes that the

traditional view of intelligence—based on mathematical, logical, and verbal measurements comprising an “intelligence quotient,” or IQ—does not reflect the spectrum of human ability. He focuses on the idea that humans possess a number of different areas of natural ability and potential.

The Theory of Multiple Intelligences Gardner’s research led him to believe that there are eight unique “intelligences,” or areas of ability. These include the areas traditionally associated with the term “intelligence”—logic and verbal skills—but go beyond, to encompass a range of human ability. These intelligences almost never function in isolation. You will almost always use several at a time for any significant task.3

Look at Key 2.1 for descriptions of each intelligence along with examples of people who have unusually high levels of ability in each intelligence. Although few people will have the verbal-linguistic intelligence of William Shakespeare or the interpersonal intelligence of Oprah Winfrey, everyone has some level of ability in each intelligence. Your goal is to identify what your levels are and to work your strongest intelligences to your advantage.

Different cultures value different abilities and therefore place a premium on different intelligences. In Tibet, mountain dwellers prize the bodily-kinesthetic ability of a top-notch Himalayan mountain guide. In Detroit, auto makers appreciate the visual-spatial talents of a master car designer.

Your Own Eight Intelligences Gardner believes that all people possess some capacity in each of the eight in- telligences and that every person has developed some intelligences more fully than others.When you find a task or subject easy, you are probably using a more fully developed intelligence. When you have trouble, you may be using a less developed intelligence.4

Furthermore, Gardner believes your levels of development in the eight intelligences can grow or recede throughout your life, depending on your

A strong visual-spatial intelligence may have helped this film and television production student find his area of interest.

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efforts and experiences. Although Merlette might never become a world- class mathematician, she can grow her ability with focus and work. Conversely, even a highly talented numbers person will lose ability without practice. This reflects how the brain grows with learning and becomes sluggish without it.

A related self-assessment that you may have heard of, or have already taken, is the VAK or VARK questionnaire. VAK/VARK assesses learning prefer- ences in three (or four) areas: Visual, Auditory, (Read/Write), and Kinesthetic. The Multiple Intelligences (MI) assessment is this book’s choice because it incorporates the elements of VAK/VARK and expands upon them, giving you

Key 2.1 Each intelligence is linked to specific abilities

INTELLIGENCE DESCRIPTION HIGH-ACHIEVING EXAMPLE

Verbal-Linguistic Ability to communicate through language; Playwright William Shakespeare listening, reading, writing, speaking

Logical-Mathematical Ability to understand logical reasoning Microsoft founder Bill Gates and problem solving; math, science, patterns, sequences

Bodily-Kinesthetic Ability to use the physical body skillfully Olympic swimmer Dara Torres and to take in knowledge through bodily sensation; coordination, working with hands

Visual-Spatial Ability to understand spatial relationships Architect Maya Lin and to perceive and create images; visual art, graphic design, charts and maps

Interpersonal Ability to relate to others, noticing their Telejournalist Oprah Winfrey moods, motivations, and feelings; social activity, cooperative learning, teamwork

Intrapersonal Ability to understand one’s own Tenzin Gyatso, the Dalai Lama behavior and feelings; self-awareness, independence, time spent alone

Musical Ability to comprehend and create Singer and musician Alicia Keys meaningful sound; sensitivity to music and musical patterns

Naturalist Ability to identify, distinguish, categorize, Conservationist Steve Irwin and classify species or items, often incorporating high interest in elements of the natural environment

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Chapter 2

a more comprehensive picture of your abilities. If you would like further information about VARK, go to www.vark-learn.com.

A note about auditory learners who learn and remember best through lis- tening: Auditory learning is part of two MI dimensions.

● Many auditory learners have strong verbal intelligence but prefer to hear words (in a lecture or discussion or on a recording) instead of reading them.

● Many auditory learners have strong musical intelligence and remember and retain information based on sounds and rhythms.

If you tend to absorb information better through listening, try study suggestions for these two intelligences. Podcasts are especially helpful to auditory learners, and an increasing number of instructors are converting their lectures into digital format for downloading. Check out the podcasts for this textbook at www.mystudentsuccesslab.com.

Use the Multiple Pathways to Learning assessment to determine where you are right now in the eight intelligence areas. Then look at Key 2.2, immediately follow- ing the assessment, to identify specific skills associated with the each area. Finally, the Multiple Intelligence Strategies grids in Chapters 3 through 12 will help you apply different learning styles in an effort to solve a chapter-specific problem.

Assess Your Style of Interaction with the Personality Spectrum Personality assessments help you understand how you respond to the world around you, including people, work, and school. They also can help guide you as you explore majors and careers.

The concept of dividing human beings into four basic “personality types” goes as far back as Aristotle and Hippocrates, ancient Greek philosophers. Psychologist and philosopher Carl Jung, working early in the 20th century, focused on personality typology. He defined the following:5

● An individual’s preferred “world.” Jung said that extroverts tend to prefer the outside world of people and activities, while introverts tend to prefer the inner world of thoughts, feelings, and fantasies.

● Different ways of dealing with the world. Jung defined four distinct interaction dimensions, which are used to different degrees: sensing (learning through what your senses take in), thinking (evaluating information rationally), intuiting (learning through an instinct that comes from many integrated sources of information), and feeling (evalu- ating information through emotional response).

Katharine Briggs and her daughter, Isabel Briggs Myers, developed an assess- ment based on Jung’s typology, called the Myers-Briggs Type Inventory, or MBTI (information is available online at www.myersbriggs.org). One of the most widely used personality inventories in the world, it creates 16 possible types from four dimensions. A comprehensive inventory, it is also quite

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1. _____ I enjoy physical activities. 2. _____ I am uncomfortable sitting still. 3. _____ I prefer to learn through doing. 4. _____ When sitting I move my legs or hands. 5. _____ I enjoy working with my hands. 6. _____ I like to pace when I’m thinking or studying.

_____ TOTAL for BODILY–KINESTHETIC

1. _____ I use maps easily. 2. _____ I draw pictures/diagrams when explaining

ideas. 3. _____ I can assemble items easily from

diagrams. 4. _____ I enjoy drawing or photography. 5. _____ I do not like to read long paragraphs. 6. _____ I prefer a drawn map over written direc-

tions. _____ TOTAL for VISUAL–SPATIAL

1. ____ I listen to music. 2. _____ I move my fingers or feet when I hear

music. 3. _____ I have good rhythm. 4. _____ I like to sing along with music. 5. _____ People have said I have musical talent. 6. _____ I like to express my ideas through music.

_____ TOTAL for MUSICAL

1. _____ I like doing a project with other people.

2. _____ People come to me to help settle conflicts.

3. _____ I like to spend time with friends. 4. _____ I am good at understanding people. 5. _____ I am good at making people feel

comfortable. 6. _____ I enjoy helping others.

_____ TOTAL for INTERPERSONAL

1. _____ I enjoy telling stories. 2. _____ I like to write. 3. _____ I like to read. 4. _____ I express myself clearly. 5. _____ I am good at negotiating. 6. _____ I like to discuss topics that interest me.

_____ TOTAL for VERBAL–LINGUISTIC

1. _____ I like math in school. 2. _____ I like science. 3. _____ I problem-solve well. 4. _____ I question how things work. 5. _____ I enjoy planning or designing something

new. 6. _____ I am able to fix things.

_____ TOTAL for LOGICAL–MATHEMATICAL

1. _____ I need quiet time to think. 2. _____ I think about issues before I want to talk. 3. _____ I am interested in self-improvement. 4. _____ I understand my thoughts and feelings. 5. _____ I know what I want out of life. 6. _____ I prefer to work on projects alone.

_____ TOTAL for INTRAPERSONAL

1. _____ I like to think about how things, ideas, or people fit into categories.

2. _____ I enjoy studying plants, animals, or oceans. 3. _____ I tend to see how things relate to, or are

distinct from, one another. 4. _____ I think about having a career in the natural

sciences. 5. _____ As a child I often played with bugs and

leaves. 6. _____ I like to investigate the natural world

around me. _____ TOTAL for NATURALISTIC

Source: Developed by Joyce Bishop, Ph.D., Golden West College, Huntington Beach, CA. Based on Howard Gardner, Frames of Mind: The Theory of Mulitple Intelligences, New York: Harper Collins, 1993.

Multiple Pathways to Learning Each intelligence has a set of numbered statements. Consider each statement on its own. Then, on a scale from 1 (lowest) to 4 (highest), rate how closely it matches who you are right now and write that number on the line next to the statement. Finally, total each set of six questions.

1. rarely 2. sometimes 3. usually 4. always

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Multiple Pathways to Learning

For each intelligence, shade the box in the row that corresponds with the range where your score falls. For example, if you scored 17 in Bodily–Kinesthetic intelligence, you would shade the middle box in that row; if you scored a 13 in Visual–Spatial, you would shade the last box in that row. When you have shaded one box for each row, you will see a “map” of your range of development at a glance.

A score of 20–24 indicates a high level of development in that particular type of intelligence, 14–19 a moderate level, and below 14 an underdeveloped intelligence.

scoring grid for multiple pathways to learning

20–24 (Highly Developed)

14–19 (Moderately Developed)

Below 14 (Underdeveloped)

Bodily-Kinesthetic

Visual-Spatial

Verbal-Linguistic

Logical-Mathematical

Musical

Interpersonal

Intrapersonal

Naturalistic

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Verbal- ■ Analyzing own use of language Linguistic ■ Remembering terms easily

■ Explaining, teaching, learning, using humor ■ Understanding syntax and word meaning ■ Using writing or speech to convince someone to do or believe something

Musical- ■ Sensing tonal qualities Rhythmic ■ Creating/enjoying rhythms, melodies

■ Being sensitive to sounds and rhythms ■ Using an understanding of musical patterns to hear music ■ Understanding the symbols and structure of music

Logical- ■ Recognizing abstract patterns Mathematical ■ Using facts to support an idea, and generating ideas based on evidence

■ Discerning relationships and connections ■ Performing complex calculations ■ Reasoning scientifically (formulating and testing a hypothesis)

Visual- ■ Perceiving and forming objects accurately Spatial ■ Recognizing relationships between objects

■ Representing something graphically ■ Manipulating images ■ Finding one’s way in space

Bodily- ■ Strong mind–body connection Kinesthetic ■ Controlling and coordinating body movement

■ Improving body functions ■ Expanding body awareness to all senses ■ Using the body to create products or express emotion

Intrapersonal ■ Accessing one’s internal emotions ■ Understanding feelings and using them to guide behavior ■ Evaluating own thinking ■ Understanding self in relation to others ■ Forming a comprehensive self-concept

Interpersonal ■ Seeing things from others’ perspectives ■ Noticing moods, intentions, and temperaments of others ■ Cooperating within a group ■ Communicating verbally and nonverbally ■ Creating and maintaining relationships

Naturalistic ■ Ability to categorize something as a member of a group or species ■ Ability to distinguish items in a group from one another ■ Understanding of relationships among natural organisms ■ Appreciation of the delicate balance in nature ■ Deep comfort with, and respect for, the natural world

Source: Adapted from David Lazear, Seven Pathways of Learning, Tucson: Zephyr, 1994.

Key 2.2 Particular abilities and skills are associated with each intelligence

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complex. David Keirsey and Marilyn Bates later condensed the MBTI types into four temperaments, creating the Keirsey Sorter (found at www.keirsey.com).

When author Joyce Bishop developed the Personality Spectrum assess- ment in this chapter, she adapted and simplified the Keirsey Sorter and MBTI material into four personality types—Thinker, Organizer, Giver, and Adven- turer. Like the assessments on which it is based, the Personality Spectrum helps you identify the kinds of interactions that are most, and least, comfort- able for you. As with the Multiple Intelligences, these results may change over time as you experience new things, change, and continue to learn. Key 2.3, on page 39, shows skills characteristic of each personality type.

By the way . . . almost half of all the job growth taking place in the next 10 years will be in areas requiring a college education.6

How Can You Use Your Self-Knowledge?

In completing the Multiple Pathways to Learning and Personality Spectrumassessments, you developed a clearer picture of who you are and how you interact with others. Now focus on how you can use this new picture to choose effective strategies inside the classroom, during study time, relating to your career, and relating to technology.

Classroom Choices Most students have to complete a set of “core curriculum” courses, as well as whatever courses their majors require. Additionally, busy students don’t have a lot of flexibility when it comes to choosing particular sections of courses—you usually sign up for what fits best into your jam-packed weekly schedule and gen- erally don’t know what to expect in terms of your instructors and their styles. You may be asking: Where are the choices in this situation? Merlette, the student from the beginning of the chapter, is probably asking the same question about the trouble she is having in the classes that she thought would be easiest for her.

Here’s the answer for you and for Merlette: The opportunity for choice lies in how you interact with your instructor and function in the classroom. It is impossible for instructors to tailor classroom presentation to 15, 40, or 300 unique learners—especially since they operate according to their own teaching styles. As a result, you may find yourself in a great learning situation with one teacher and in a complete mismatch with another. Sometimes, the way the class is structured can have more of an effect on your success than the subject matter, which may be why Merlette can stay on her feet in a course she ex- pected would cause trouble for her.

After several class meetings, you should be able to assess each instruc- tor’s dominant teaching styles (see Key 2.4) and figure out how to maximize your learning.

Although presentation styles vary, the standard lecture is still the norm in most classrooms. For this reason, the traditional college classroom is generally

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Personality Spectrum

1. I like instructors who

a. tell me exactly what is expected of me. b. make learning active and exciting. c. maintain a safe and supportive

classroom. d. challenge me to think at higher levels.

2. I learn best when the material is

a. well organized. b. something I can do hands-on. c. about understanding and improving

the human condition. d. intellectually challenging.

3. A high priority in my life is to

a. keep my commitments. b. experience as much of life as possible. c. make a difference in the lives of others. d. understand how things work.

4. Other people think of me as

a. dependable and loyal. b. dynamic and creative. c. caring and honest. d. intelligent and inventive.

5. When I experience stress I would most likely

a. do something to help me feel more in control of my life.

b. do something physical and daring. c. talk with a friend. d. go off by myself and think about my

situation.

6. I would probably not be close friends with someone who is

a. irresponsible. b. unwilling to try new things. c. selfish and unkind to others. d. an illogical thinker.

7. My vacations could be described as

a. traditional. b. adventuresome. c. pleasing to others. d. a new learning experience.

8. One word that best describes me is

a. sensible. b. spontaneous. c. giving. d. analytical.

STEP 1 Rank-order all four responses to each question from most like you (4) to least like you (1) so that for each question you use the numbers 1, 2, 3, and 4 one time each. Place numbers in the boxes next to the responses.

4. most like me 3. more like me 3. less like me 1. least like me

STEP 2 Add up the total points for each letter.

TOTAL FOR a. Organizer b. Adventurer c. Giver d. Thinker

STEP 3 Plot these numbers on the brain diagram on page 38.

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Personality Spectrum

scoring diagram for personality spectrum Write your scores from page 37 in the four squares just outside the brain diagram—Thinker score at top left, Giver score at top right, Organizer score at bottom left, and Adventurer score at bottom right.

Each square has a line of numbers that go from the square to the center of the diagram. For each of your four scores, place a dot on the appropriate number in the line near that square. For example, if you scored 15 in the Giver spectrum, you would place a dot between the 14 and 16 in the upper right-hand line of numbers. If you scored a 26 in the Organizer spectrum, you would place a dot on the 26 in the lower left-hand line of numbers.

THINKER

Technical Scientific Mathematical Dispassionate Rational Analytical Logical Problem Solving Theoretical Intellectual Objective Quantitative Explicit Realistic Literal Precise Formal

ORGANIZER

Tactical Planning Detailed Practical Confident Predictable Controlled Dependable Systematic Sequential Structured Administrative Procedural Organized Conservative Safekeeping Disciplined

GIVER

Interpersonal Emotional Caring Sociable Giving Spiritual Musical Romantic Feeling Peacemaker Trusting Adaptable Passionate Harmonious Idealistic Talkative Honest

ADVENTURER

Active Visual Risking Original Artistic Spatial Skillful Impulsive Metaphoric Experimental Divergent Fast-paced Simultaneous Competitive Imaginative Open-minded Adventuresome

For the Personality Spectrum, 26–36 indicates a strong tendency in that dimension,

14–25 a moderate tendency, and below 14 a minimal tendency.

Connect the four dots to make a four-sided shape. If you like, shade the four sections inside the shape using four different colors.

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32 34

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Thinker ■ Solving problems ■ Developing models and systems ■ Analytical and abstract thinking ■ Exploring ideas and potentials ■ Ingenuity ■ Going beyond established boundaries ■ Global thinking—seeking universal truth

Organizer ■ Responsibility, reliability ■ Operating successfully within social structures ■ Sense of history, culture, and dignity ■ Neatness and organization ■ Loyalty ■ Orientation to detail ■ Comprehensive follow-through on tasks ■ Efficiency ■ Helping others

Giver ■ Honesty, authenticity ■ Successful, close relationships ■ Making a difference in the world ■ Cultivating potential of self and others ■ Negotiation; promoting peace ■ Openness ■ Helping others

Adventurer ■ High ability in a variety of fields ■ Courage and daring ■ Hands-on problem solving ■ Living in the present ■ Spontaneity and action ■ Ability to negotiate ■ Nontraditional style ■ Flexibility ■ Zest for life

Key 2.3 Particular abilities and skills are associated with each personality spectrum dimension

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Tiki Barber emerged from a college career at the University of Virginia to become a star running back with the New York Giants. To the shock of many, Barber retired at the peak of his football career, determined to keep learning about more than football. He now works as a television correspondent as well as a writer.

keep learning

Professor of Psychology, Golden West College, Huntington Beach, California

I have a learning disability that causes problems with understanding words I hear, which made listening to lectures in college very hard. No one, including me, knew I had this difficulty because I learned how to compensate for it. In fact, I didn’t know it myself until years after I graduated.

College was confusing for me. I did well in some classes and felt totally lost in others. The hardest were the lecture- based classes. When I wasn’t familiar with the information or the words, I couldn’t make sense of what I was hear- ing. If I read the material ahead of time and looked up concepts, the lectures made more sense. Also, I bargained with my classmates to borrow their notes in exchange for typing their term papers. Typing is bodily-kinesthetic and helped me to internalize what I was learning.

Stop and Think Like Joyce, every student faces learning challenges. What are yours?

My strengths in logical-mathematical and visual intelligence helped me get by. Science classes were easiest for me because they are more visual. I switched from sociology to biology my freshman year; it was easier for me to remember the visual biology material as opposed to the more verbal liberal arts classes. Without my commitment to my education and my will to learn, I probably would not have graduated.

Determined to get back up on the horse and keep learning, I pursued my master’s in public health 12 years later. My graduate classes were much more hands-on, but there was still a great deal of reading. One day my eye doctor expressed concern about the stress my schoolwork was causing my eyes and suggested that I get tested for a learn- ing problem. He sent me to a center that usually tests small children for learning disabilities. The therapist giving the test said words, and I was to spell out the words with blocks. I consistently con- fused words with close sounds. It was determined that I processed language on a fourth-grade level, a condition that has not changed in my adult life.

Stop and Think Joyce found out key information about herself through her determination to continue learning. What has your own determination to come to college taught you about yourself?

After the test, the therapist asked me, “How far did you go through school?” I asked her, “How far do you think I

went?” She guessed that I had not made it past the tenth grade. I shared that I was just completing my master’s degree. Her eyes got big, and she said, “You work really hard in school, don’t you?” At that moment my head flooded with memories of report cards saying “doesn’t pay attention in class” and “isn’t working up to potential.” I started to cry. An explanation for what had brought years of pain and strug- gle had finally surfaced.

Now that I know what the problem is, I can continue to learn, choosing strategies that work best for me. We all have our strengths and weaknesses; the way we work to manage those weaknesses while maximizing our strengths makes all the difference.

Think about Joyce and Think about Yourself ■ What have the assessments in this

chapter taught you about how you can strengthen your learning?

■ Which of your personal goals are you likely to reach through lifelong learning?

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a happy home for the verbal or logical learner and the Thinker and Organizer. However, many students learn best when interacting with other students more than a traditional lecture allows. What can you do when your preferences don’t match up with how your instructor teaches? Here are three suggestions:

Play to your strengths. For example, if you are a musical learner who easily picks up information through listening, with an instructor who has a random delivery style, you might record and listen to the lecture several times on your MP3 player (get permission from your instructor before you record). Likewise, if you are a Giver with an instructor who delivers straight lectures, you should consider setting up a study group to go over details and fill in factual gaps.

Work to strengthen weaker areas. As a visual learner reviews notes from a structured lecture, he could use logical-mathematical strategies such as outlining notes or thinking about cause-and-effect relationships within the material. An Organizer, studying for a test from notes delivered by an

TEACHING STYLE WHAT TO EXPECT IN CLASS

Lecture, verbal focus Instructor speaks to the class for the entire period, with little class interaction. Lesson is taught primarily through words, either spoken or written on the board, overhead projector, handouts, or text.

Lecture with group Instructor presents material but encourages class discussion discussion.

Small groups Instructor presents material and then breaks class into small groups for discussion or project work.

Visual focus Instructor uses visual elements such as PowerPoint slides, diagrams, photographs, drawings, transparencies, and videos.

Logical presentation Instructor organizes material in a logical sequence, such as by steps, time, or importance.

Random presentation Instructor tackles topics in no particular order and may jump around a lot or digress.

Conceptual presentation Instructor spends the majority of time on the big picture, focusing on abstract concepts and umbrella ideas.

Detailed presentation Instructor spends the majority of time, after introducing ideas, on the details and facts that underlie them.

Experience-based Instructor uses demonstrations, experiments, props, presentation and class activities to show key points.

Key 2.4 Instructors often prefer one or more teaching styles IS

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instructor with a random presenta- tion, could organize the material in different formats, including tables and timelines.

Ask your instructor for additional help. If you are having trouble with coursework, take the initiative to communicate with your instructor or teaching assistant through e-mail or during office hours. This is especially important in large lectures where you are anonymous unless you speak up. A visual learner, for example, might ask the instructor to recommend graphs, figures, or videos that illustrate the lecture.

Merlette will be able to improve her classroom experience after taking the assessments. If she shows strengths in interpersonal and verbal-linguistic intel- ligences as well as Giver and Organizer dimensions, she might begin to under- stand why the group-study focus helped her even in an area that she considers difficult. She can then organize and run study groups for other courses or look for courses that feature discussion sections or small-group work.

No instructor can completely mesh with how you learn, so don’t expect it. Instead, adapt by finding a way to apply what you do well to the situation. This kind of flexibility will serve you well in your career and life. Just as you can’t handpick your instructors, you will rarely, if ever, be able to choose your work colleagues or their work styles.

A final point: Some students try to find out more about an instructor by asking students who have already taken the course or looking up comments that appear online. Be careful with investigations like this. You may not know or be able to trust an anonymous poster who comments on an instructor, and even if you hear a review from a friend you do trust, every student-instructor relation- ship is unique. An instructor your friend loved may turn out to be a bad match for you, or vice versa. Prioritize taking the courses that you need, and know that you will find a way to make the most of what your instructors offer, no matter who they are.

Study Choices Start now to use what you have learned about yourself to choose the best study techniques. For example, if you tend to learn successfully from a linear, logical presentation, you can look for order (for example, a chronology—information organized sequentially according to event dates—or a problem–solution struc- ture) as you review notes. If you are strong in interpersonal intelligence, you should try to work in study groups whenever possible or learn dry facts in the context of stories.

These students find that sitting in a circle and taking turns sharing ideas works for their group study session. An off-duty classroom serves as a useful location.

en ce

r G

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/P ho

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First, on paper or on a computer, summarize yourself as a learner in a paragraph or two. Focus on what you learned about yourself from the chapter assessments. Done? Check here. ________

Next, schedule a meeting with your academic advisor (use your interpersonal intelligence).

Name of advisor:

Time/date of meeting:

Give the advisor an overview of your learning strengths and challenges, based on your summary. Ask for advice about courses that might interest you and majors that might suit you. Take notes.

Indicate two courses to consider in the next year:

Indicate two possible majors:

Finally, create a separate to-do list of how you plan to explore one course offering and one major. Set a deadline for each task.

When faced with a task that challenges your weaknesses, use strategies that boost your ability. For example, if you are an Adventurer who does not respond well to linear information, you can apply your strengths to the material—for example, through a hands-on approach. Or you can focus on developing your area of weakness by using study skills that work well for Thinker-dominant learners.

T A K E A C T I O N Link How You Learn to Coursework and Major

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Chapter 2

When you study with others, you and the entire group will be more success- ful if you understand the different learning styles in the group. For example:

● An Interpersonal learner could take the lead in teaching material to others.

● An Organizer could coordinate the group schedule.

● A Naturalistic learner might organize facts into categories that solidify concepts.

Key 2.5 shows study strategies that suit each intelligence, and Key 2.6 shows study strategies that suit each Personality Spectrum dimension. Because you have some level of ability in each area, and because there will be times that you need to boost your ability in a weaker area, you may find useful sugges- tions under any of the headings. Try different techniques, analyze how effec- tive they are, and use what works best for you.

Technology Choices Technology is everywhere these days. You see it in social settings, as people com- municate using e-mail, text messaging, and social networking sites on the Inter- net. It also plays a significant role in academic settings, where you may encounter:

● Instructors who require students to communicate via e-mail

● Courses that have their own Web sites where you can access the syllabus and connect with resources and classmates

● Textbooks that have corresponding Web sites that you can, or are required to, use to complete assignments and e-mail them to your instructor

For some with extensive know-how, technology comes easily. For everyone else, knowing your strengths and chal- lenges as a learner can help you make decisions about how to approach tech- nology. Are you strong in the logical- mathematical intelligence or Thinker dimension? Working with an online tutorial may be a good choice. Are you an interpersonal learner? Find a tech-savvy classmate to help you get the hang of it. An Adventurer may want to just dive in and try out the features of a book or course Web site in a random way. Know your- self, and make choices that can best help you demystify technology and get you up to speed.

Inside Tips fr om Carol, Ca

reer Coach

Some student s “fall in love”

with a career

by watching a TV show. How

ever, if CSI is

your favorite show, for exam

ple, it doesn’t neces-

sarily mean yo u would be w

ell-suited to f orensics.

Are you good in math and s

cience? Are yo u a

strong detail p erson? Can yo

u deal with th e

seamy and sca ry? Listen to w

ho you are an d what

you are intere sted in, and tr

y out the thin gs you think y

ou want to do . If

you don’t try out a field or

profession, it is like marryin

g someone wi thout

ever dating. S o, when you s

tart to think a bout careers a

nd fields, deve lop

a list of place s where you m

ight intern or work to find o

ut if the field and

the job really make you tick

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Verbal- ■ Reading text; highlighting selectively Linguistic ■ Using a computer to retype and summarize notes

■ Outlining chapters ■ Teaching someone else ■ Reciting information or writing scripts/debates

Musical- ■ Creating rhythms out of words Rhythmic ■ Beating out rhythms with hand or stick while reciting concepts

■ Writing songs/raps that help you learn concepts ■ Chanting or singing study material to a wordless tune ■ Taking music breaks

Logical- ■ Organizing material logically; if it suits the topic, using a spreadsheet program Mathematical ■ Explaining material sequentially to someone

■ Developing systems and finding patterns ■ Writing outlines ■ Analyzing and evaluating information

Visual- ■ Developing graphic organizers for new material Spatial ■ Drawing mind maps and think links

■ Using a computer to develop charts and tables ■ Using color in notes to organize ■ Linking material in your mind with items or places that you can visualize

(method of loci)

Bodily- ■ Moving while you learn; pacing and reciting Kinesthetic ■ Using tangible items as memory devices

■ Rewriting or retyping notes to engage “muscle memory” ■ Designing and playing games to learn material ■ Acting out scripts of material

Intrapersonal ■ Reflecting on personal meaning of information ■ Visualizing information ■ Keeping a journal ■ Studying in quiet areas ■ Imagining essays or experiments before beginning

Interpersonal ■ Studying in a group ■ As you study, discussing information over the phone or sending IMs ■ Using flash cards with others ■ Teaching someone else the material ■ Making time to discuss assignments and tests with your instructor

Naturalistic ■ Breaking down information into categories ■ Looking for ways that items fit or don’t fit together ■ Looking for relationships among ideas, events, facts ■ Studying in a natural setting if it helps you to focus ■ Forming study groups of people with similar interests

Source: Adapted from David Lazear, Seven Pathways of Learning, Tucson: Zephyr, 1994.

Key 2.5 Particular study techniques maximize each intelligence IS

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Thinker ■ Finding time to reflect independently on new information ■ Learning through problem solving ■ Designing new ways of approaching issues ■ Converting material into logical charts, flow diagrams, and

outlines ■ Trying to minimize repetitive tasks ■ Looking for opportunities to work independently

Organizer ■ Defining tasks in concrete terms so that you know what is required

■ Looking for a well-structured study environment ■ Requesting feedback from instructors and classmates via e-mail

or phone ■ Using a planner or PDA to schedule tasks and dates ■ Organizing material by rewriting and summarizing class and/or

text notes ■ Using flash cards ■ Highlighting materials and notes carefully

Giver ■ Studying with others in person, on the phone, or using instant messages

■ Teaching material to others ■ Seeking out tasks, groups, and subjects that involve helping

people ■ Expressing thoughts and feelings clearly and honestly ■ Prioritizing your most important academic relationships

Adventurer ■ Looking for environments/courses that encourage nontradi- tional approaches

■ Finding hands-on ways to learn ■ Seeking instructors and students whom you find stimulating ■ Using or developing games and puzzles to help memorize terms ■ Fighting boredom by asking to do something extra or perform-

ing a task in a more active way

Key 2.6 Particular study techniques maximize each personality spectrum dimension

Chapter 246

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Workplace Choices The self-knowledge you build as you work through this chapter will help you work more effectively at any job, helping you to focus on what you do well and ask for help in areas that pose more of a challenge. It can also make you more successful in a team. Finally, it will help you plan your career.

Key 2.7 links majors and internships to the eight intelligences. This list represents only a fraction of the available opportunities. Use it to inspire thought and spur investigation. If something from this list or else- where interests you, consider looking for an opportunity to “shadow” someone (follow the person for a day to see what he or she does) to see if the more significant commitments of interships and majoring will make sense for you.

Internship a temporary workprogram in which astudent can gain su-pervised practicalexperience in a joband career area.

keep learning

It is now common to have more than one career, and perhaps several, over your lifetime. Whether you change careers

because you don’t like what you’re doing or because you lose your job in an economic downturn, you may have to return to

school to learn new skills. Imagine yourself back in school sev- eral years after finishing college as you answer these questions:

What would your attitude be if you had to further your education? What are you willing to do

now to acquire the “keep learning” Habit for Success so that you can weather the ups and downs of life and work?

Q U E S T I O N S P O W E R F U L

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48 Chapter 2

Bodily- Kinesthetic

Intrapersonal

Interpersonal

Naturalistic

Musical

Logical- Mathematical

MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE . . . CONSIDER MAJORING IN . . . THINK ABOUT AN INTERNSHIP AT A . . .

Massage or physical therapy Sports physician’s office Kinesiology Physical or massage therapy center Construction engineering Construction company Sports medicine Dance studio or theater company Dance or theater Athletic club

Psychology Accounting firm Finance Biology lab Computer science Pharmaceutical company Biology Publishing house Philosophy Computer or Internet company

Education Hotel or restaurant Public relations Social service agency Nursing Public relations firm Business Human resources department Hotel/restaurant management Charter school

Geology Museum Zoology National park Atmospheric sciences Environmental law firm Agriculture Zoo Environmental law Geological research firm

Music Performance hall Music theory Radio station Voice Record label or recording studio Composition Children’s music camp Performing arts Orchestra or opera company

Math Law firm Physics Consulting firm Economics Bank Banking/finance Information technology company Computer science Research lab

Key 2.7 Multiple intelligences may open doors to majors and internships IS

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49Learning Styles

Key 2.7 Continued

Verbal- Linguistic

Visual- Spatial

Communications Newspaper or magazine Marketing PR/marketing firm English/literature Ad agency Journalism Publishing house Foreign languages Network TV affiliate

Architecture Photo or art studio Visual arts Multimedia design firm Multimedia design Architecture firm Photography Interior design firm Art history Art gallery

How Can You Identify and Manage Learning Disabilities?

Although all students have areas of strength and weakness, some challenges are more significant and are diagnosed as learning disabilities. These merit specific attention. Focused assistance can help students who are learning disabled manage their conditions and excel in school.

Identifying a Learning Disability The National Center for Learning Disabilities (NCLD) defines learning dis- abilities as:7

● Neurological disorders that interfere with one’s ability to store, process, and produce information

● Often running in families and being lifelong conditions, although learn- ing-disabled people can use specific strategies to manage and even over- come areas of weakness

● Requiring a professional diagnosis in order for the disabled person to receive federally funded aid

● Not including mental retardation, autism, behavioral disorders, impaired vision, hearing loss, or other physical disabilities

● Not including attention deficit disorder and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, although these problems may accompany learning disabilities8

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50 Chapter 2

How can you determine if you should be evaluated for a learning disabil- ity? According to the NCLD, persistent problems in any of the following areas may indicate a learning disability:9

● Reading or reading comprehension

● Math calculations, understanding language and concepts

● Social skills or interpreting social cues

● Following a schedule, being on time, meeting deadlines

● Reading or following maps

● Balancing a checkbook

● Following directions, especially on multistep tasks

● Writing, sentence structure, spelling, and organizing written work

Details on specific learning disabilities appear in Key 2.8. For an evaluation, contact your school’s learning center or student health center for a referral to a licensed professional.

Key 2.8 What different learning disabilities are and how to recognize them

DISABILITY OR CONDITION WHAT ARE THE SIGNS?

Dyslexia and related Problems with reading (spelling, word sequencing, comprehension) and reading disorders processing (translating written language to thought or the reverse)

Dyscalculia (developmental Difficulties in recognizing numbers and symbols, memorizing facts, arithmetic disorders) understanding abstract math concepts, and applying math to life skills (time

management, handling money)

Developmental writing Difficulties in composing sentences, organizing a writing assignment, or disorders translating thoughts coherently to the page

Handwriting disorders Disorder characterized by writing disabilities, including distorted or incorrect (dysgraphia) language, inappropriately sized and spaced letters, or wrong or misspelled

words

Speech and language Problems with producing speech sounds, using spoken language to disorders communicate, and/or understanding what others say

LD-related social issues Problems in recognizing facial or vocal cues from others, controlling verbal and physical impulsivity, and respecting others’ personal space

LD-related organizational Difficulties in scheduling and in organizing personal, academic, and issues work-related materials

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Managing a Learning Disability If you are diagnosed with a learning disability, take steps to manage it and maximize your ability to learn:

Be informed about your disability. Search the library and the Internet— try NCLD at www.ncld.org or LD Online at www.ldonline.org. Or call NCLD at 1-888-575-7373. If you have an Individualized Education Program (IEP)— a document describing your disability and recommended strategies—read it and make sure you understand it.

Seek assistance from your school. Speak with your advisor about getting a referral to the counselor who can help you get specific accommodations in your classes. Services mandated by law for students who are learning disabled include:

● Extended time on tests

● Note-taking assistance (for example, having a fellow student take notes for you)

● Assistive technology devices (MP3 players, tape recorders, laptop computers)

● Modified assignments

● Alternative assessments and test formats

Other services that may be offered include tutoring, study skills assistance, and counseling.

Be a dedicated student. Be on time and attend class. Read assignments before class. Sit where you can focus. Review notes soon after class. Spend extra time on assignments. Ask for help.

Build a positive attitude. See your accomplishments in light of how far you have come. Rely on support from others, knowing that it will give you the best possible chance to succeed.

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52 Chapter 2

No two selves, no two consciousnesses, no two minds are exactly alike. Each of us is therefore situated to make a unique contribution to the world.

Howard Gardner, psychologist and educator

Habit for Success keep learning

Below are examples of how you can put this habit into action in different situations. Use the three spaces to add your own ideas for actions you can accomplish now or in the future. Be specific and be realistic.

Take a course, outside of your major, that

interests you.

Ask friends to recommend books that changed their lives. Read them.

Read a local or national newspaper

regularly.

Keep Learning Habit for Success

When employed, find a web site that posts news and developments in your

field, and register for updates.

Get a “how-to” book on something you’ve

always wanted to learn to do, and give

it a try.

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Building Skills f o r s u c c e s s f u l l e a r n i n g

Note the Important Points

Why understand how you learn?

How would you define the term “learning style”? ______________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________

Name two benefits of getting to know your unique way of learning and interacting.__________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________

What can assessments teach you about yourself?

Describe what the Multiple Intelligences assessment can help you discover. ____________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________

What are the four dimensions of the Personality Spectrum assessment? _____________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________

How can you use your self-knowledge?

Name one way to use your understanding of how you learn in . . .

. . . the classroom. _______________________________________________________________________

. . . your study time. _______________________________________________________________________

. . . the workplace. _______________________________________________________________________

How can you identify and manage learning disabilities?

Name a fact about learning disabilities. _______________________________________________________

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Critical Thinking applying learning to life

Maximize Your Classroom Experience

Consider first what you know about yourself as a learner. Then reflect on your instructors’ teaching styles this term. Consider which instructors’ styles mesh well with how you learn and which are not in sync. Make notes here about the situation that you think is the most challenging.

Course: _______________________________ Instructor style: _______________________________

Your view of the problem: ________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________

Next, brainstorm three ideas about actions you can take to improve the situation. Note the intelligence (or intelligences) on which each action is based (refer to Keys 2.5 and 2.6 for ideas):

1. __________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

2. __________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

3. __________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

Finally, choose one and put it to work. Briefly note what happened: Were there improvements as a result?

_____________________________________________________________________________________

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Team Building collaborative solutions

Ideas About Personality Types

Divide into groups according to the four types of the Personality Spectrum—Thinker-dominant students in one group, Organizer-dominant students in another, Giver-dominant students in a third, and Adventurer- dominant students in the fourth. If you have scored the same in more than one of these types, join what- ever group is smaller. With your group, brainstorm the following lists for your type:

1. The strengths of this type

2. The struggles, or things that cause stress, for this type

3. Career areas that tend to suit this type

4. Career areas that are a challenge for this type

5. Challenges for this type in relating to the other three Personality Spectrum types

If there is time, each group can present this information to the entire class; this will boost under- standing and acceptance of diverse ways of relating to information and people.

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Test Prep: Start It Now

56 Chapter 2

keep learning

Learn More About Your Test-Taking Self Using a Self-Portrait

Complete the following on separate sheets of paper or electronically (if you can use a graphics program).

Getting ready for tests means more than just learning your material—it also requires the kind of self- knowledge that helps you make the best study choices. You can build that self-knowledge by combin- ing everything you have learned about yourself as a student into one comprehensive “self-portrait.”

Design your portrait in “think-link” or mind-map style. A think link is a visual construction of re- lated ideas, similar to a map or web, which represents your thought process. Ideas are written inside geometric shapes, often boxes or circles, and related ideas and facts are attached to those ideas by lines that connect the shapes (see the note-taking section in Chapter 7 for more about think links). Use the style shown in Key 2.9, or try something different like a treelike think link, a line of boxes with connecting thoughts, or another design that makes sense to you.

In your self-portrait, describe your dominant Multiple Intelligences, Personality Spectrum dimen- sions, preferred teaching styles and classroom settings, preferred study situations (times, locations, company), abilities and interests, and anything else relevant to who you are as a test-taker.

After creating and thinking about your self-portrait, make two NEW choices regarding how you will prepare for tests this term. Will you change your study location or time? Will you adjust your strategies to take advantage of a strength in a particular intelligence or Personality Spectrum dimen- sion? Note the changes here.

1. _______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

2. _______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

You will change as you continue to learn. Revisit your self-portrait in the future—next term or even next year. Revise it to reflect what you’ve learned and how you’ve changed.

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Key 2.9 One example of a self-portrait

Organizer Giver Visual-Spatial Bodily–Kinesthetic

Verbal–Linguistic

PERSONALIT Y SPECT RUM INTELLIGENCES

Musical Lower Intrapersonal Lower Naturalistic

lacitamehtaM–lacigoLrerutnevdAreknihT

Writing Group work

DiscussionTEACHING STYLES I LIKE

gnimmiwS STSERETNI

Reading books Photography Hands-on

At night HOW I STUDY BEST With others

Flash cards and podcasts

Higher Interpersonal Higher

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