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ISTJs have sevetal \veaknesses. They rnay have difficLrlty responding to unexpected opporttulities, appear to their colleagues to be too talk-oriented or irnpersonal, and nrake decisior)s too fast. I

Applying ihis kind of lnformation aboLrt employees' preferences or tendencies helps organizatiol)s understanrl tlre comrntrnrcation, rnotivation, rearrrwork, work styles, and leadersl-rip of the people in their groups. For exarnple, salespeople or execu- tives u'ho lvant to communicate better can apply u,hat they learn about their ou'n personality styles and the rvay other people perceive thern. For team clevelopment, the MBTI can help teans natch team members rvith assignments based on their pref- erences and thus improve problem solving.l2 The team could assign brainstorming (idea-generating) tasks to employees rvith an Intuitive preference and evaluation of the ideas to employees with a Sensing preference.

Reseatch on dre valiclity, reliability, and effectiveness of the MBTI is inconclu- sive.ll People rvho take the MBTI fincl it a positive experierice and say it helps thern change their behavior. However, MBTI scores are not necessarily suble over tiirre. Studies in rvhich the MBTI r,r'as administered at two different tiines found that as ferv as one-fourth of those who took the assessment were classified as exactiy the same rype the second tin-re. Still, the MBTI is a vah-rable tool for understanding communi- cation styles and the ways people prefer to interact ri'ith others. It is not appropriatc for rneasuring job perforrnance, hon'ever, or as the only means of evaluating promo- tion potential.

Assessment Centers At an assessment center, multiple raters or evaluarors (assessors) evaluate employ- ees' perforrnance on a nunber of exercises.14 An assessrnent cer^rter is usually an off- site location such as a conference center. Usually 6 to 12 empioyees participaie at one time. The priinary use of assessrnent centers is to identify r.r'hether employees have the personality characteristics, arlministrative skills, and interpersonal skills needed for managerial jobs. Organizations also use them to determine r,r'hether employees have the skiiis needed for rvorking in teams.

The types of exercises used in assessment centers include leaderiess group discr-rs- sions, interviervs, in-baskets, and role-plays.15 In a leaderless group discussion, a team of five to seven employees is assigned a problem and must r.vork together to solve it rvithin a certain tirne period. The problem may involve buying aird sellir-rg supplies, nominating a subordinate for an arvard, or assembling a product. Interview questions typically cover eaci-r employssi lvork and personal experiences, skili strengths and lveaknesses, and career plans. in-basket exercises, discussed as a selection method in Chapter 6, simulate the adrninistrative tasks of a manager's job, using a pile of docu- ments for the employee to har-rdle. in role-plays, the participant takes the part of a manager or ernployee in a situation involving the skills to be assessed. For example, a participant might be given the role of a manager who must discuss performarrce prob- lerns rvith an employee, piayed by someone who r,vorks for the assessment center. Other exercises in assessment centers might inch-rde interest aird aptitude tests to evaluate an ernployee's vocabulary, general nental ability, and reasoning skills. Personality tests may be used to determine employees' ability to get along u'ith others, tolerance for uncertaintl,, and otirer traits reiated to success as a manager or tean mernber.

The assessors are usually rnanagers who have beer-r trained to look for ernployee behaviors rhat are related to tire skills being assessed. Typically, each assessor observes and records one or tlvo en-iployees' behaviors in each exercise. The assessors revien'

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CHAPTER 9 Developing Employees for Future Success 765

their notes and rate each empioyee's level of skills (for exarnple, 5 = high ievel of leadership skills, 1 : low ievel of leadership skills). After all the employees have com' pleted the exercises, the assessors discuss their observations of each employee. They .orrrpur. their ratings and try to agree on each enployee's rating for each of the skills.

As we mentioned in Chapter 6, research suggests that assessment celltgr ratings are

valid for predicting p..forrou*.., salary level, ar-rd career advancement.l6 Assessrnent centers may also be useful for development because of the feedback that participants

receive about their attitudes, sklll strengths, and weaknerrer.lT

Benchmarks A developmenr method that focuses on mea$uring lnanagement skills is an instru- ment called Benchmarks. This measurement tool gathers ratings of a manager's use of skills associated with success in managing. The items measured by Benchmarks are based on research into the lessons that executives leam in critical events of their ."r...r.18 ltems measure the 16 skills and perspectives listed in Thble 9.2, including how well managers deal with subordinates, acquire resources, and create a produc- tive work climate. Research has found that managers rvho have these skills are nore likely to receive positive performance evaluations, be considered promotable, and be promoted.l9

To provide a compiete picture of managers' skills, the rnanagers' supervisors, their peers, and the managers themselves all complete the instrument. The results include

Benchmarks A measurement tool that gathers ratings of a manager's use of

skills associated with success in managing

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Skills Related ro Success as a Manager

Resourcefulness

Doing whatever it takes

Being a quick study

Buildinq and mending relationships

Leading subordinates

Compassion and sensitivity

Straightforwardness and composure

Setting a developmental climate

Confronting problem subordinates

Team orientation

Balance between personal li{e and work Decisiveness

Self-awareness

Hiring talented staff

Putting people at ease

Actin g with flexibility

Can think strategically, engage in flexible problem solving, and work effectively with higher management.

Has perseverance and focus in the face.o{ obstacles.

0uickly masters new technical and business knowledge.

Knows how to build and maintain working relationships with co-workers and external parties.

O*trg.tes to subordinates effectively, broadens their opportunities, and acts with iairness toward them.

Shows genuine interest in others and sensitivity to subordinates' needs.

ls fronoralte and steadfast. :

Provides a challenging climate to enc0urage subordinates' development.

Acts decisively and fairly when dealing with problem subordinates'

Accomplishes tasks through managing others.

Balances work priorities with personal life so that neither is neglected.

Pre{ers quick and approximate actions to slow and precise ones in many mana gement situations.

Has an accurate picture of strengths and weaknesses and is willing to

improve.

Hires.tale.nted pedpie for the team. ,l Displiys warmitr anO a good sense of humor.

Can behave in witys that are bften'seen:as opposites' '.i:

s $OURCE: Adapted with permission from C' D. McCaul.ey. M. M. Lombardo; and C. J. Usher, "Diagnosing Management Devel-

oprnent Needs: An lnsirument Based on How Managers Devefop, " Journa! of Managomenf 1 5 (1 989), pp. 389-403.

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266 PART 3 Assessing Performance and Developing Employees

a summary report, which the organization provides to the manager so he or she can see the self-ratings in comparison to the ratings by orhers. Also available with rhis method is a development guide containing examples of experiences that enhance each skill and ways successful managers use rhe skill.

Performance Appraisals and 360-Degree Feedback As we srated in Chapter B, performance appraisal is the process of measuring employ- ees' performance. This information can be useful for employee development .,nd"r certain conditions.z0 The appraisal system must tell .*ploy".i specificaliy abour their performance problems and ways to improve their performance. Employees must gain a clear understanding of the differences between currenr pe#ormance and expected performance. The appraisal process musr identifii causes of the performance discrep- ancy and develop plans for improving performance. Managers must be trained to deliver frequent performance feedback and must monitor empioyees' progress in car- rying out their action plans.

A recent trend in performance appraisals, also discussed in Chapter 8, rs 360-degree feedback-performance measurement by the employee's supervisor, peers, employ- ees, and customers. Often the feedback involves rating the individual in terms of work'related behaviors. For development purposes, the rarer would identify an area of behavior as a strength of that employee or an area requiring further developmenr. The results presented to the employee show how he or she was rated on each item and how sefiievaluatrons d'ift'er t?om other raters" evaluations. Ihe individuaf reviews the results, seeks clarification from the raters, and sets specific development goals based on the sffengths and weaknesses identified.Zl

In an interesting twist on commonly held beliefs about personal developmenr, Torn Rath and Barrie Conchie of the Gallup Organization studied business lead- ers and concluded that correcting weaknesses does not make an individual a great leader. Rather, they advocate using assessment information to identify personal strengths, then further developing and building those strengths to become a more effective leader. They note that Brad Anderson of Best Buy, !7endy Kopp of Teach for America, Simon Cooper of the Ritz-Carkon Hotel Company, and Mervyn Davies of Standard Chartered Bank are ali excellent leaders who rely on different ralents to lead. Extending that idea, Rath and Couchie recommend that managers leam to identify and focus on their employees' strengths as a way ro heip thern become more effective. Rather than building well-rounded leaders, rhis application of assessmenr information aims to build well-rounded teams of individuals who rogether possess strengths related to executing plans, influencing others, building relationships, and rhinking srraregically.l2

There are several benefits of 360-degree feedback. Organizations collect rnultiple perspectives of managers'performance, allowing employees to compare their own per- sonal evaluations with the views of others. This method also establishes formal com- munications about behaviors and skill ratings between employees and their internal and extemal cllstomers. Several studies have shown that performance improves and behavior changes as a result of participating in upward feedback and 360-degree feed- back systems.2l Th" change is greatesi in peopie who received lower ratings from oth- ers than what they gave themselves. The 360-degree feedback system is most likely to be effective if the rating insftument enables reliable or consistent rarings, assesses behaviors or skills that are job related, and is easy ro use. And in an analysis of the impact of 360-degree feedback on leadership, the assessments were most beneficial if the leaders were coached on horv to build on the strengths that were identified.z4

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The Rainforest Alliance is an international nonprofit organiza- tion based in New York City and active in more than 70 countries. It works with business, local non- profit groups, and international development agencies to estab- lish standards for sustainable use of natural resources. Companies that agree to abide by the stan- dards can obtain permission to display the Rainforest Alliance cer- tification on their packaging and adveftisements, thereby attract- ing customers who are concerned about the planet's long-term well-being.

At an organization with such an idealistic mission, one would expect that employees are highly motivated to make a difference. ln the words of Helena Albuquer- que, the organization's director of human resources/ people at the Rainforest Alliance "share a common sense of purpose, a col- laborative spirit, and the determi- nation to truly rnake the world a better placel'As an employer, the

Rainforest Alliance builds on this advantage by giving employees opportunities to develoP their careers by tackling big challenges.

Career development through experiences is an opportunity that many organizations reserve for a few management employees on the fast track. But at Rainforest Alliance, even new hires are trusted with these assignments. Junior employees are invited to conferences and to executive-level meetings. They also can launch and eventually lead research proj- ects in topics they care about. An example is Julie Baroody, who was originally hired as executive assistant to Tensie Whelan, the organization's executive director. Baroody was interested in the topic of climate change, so her quickly growing responsibilities included conducting research. Two promotions later, BaroodY was the coordinator of the Rain- forest Alliance's climate initiative, representing the organization at conferences around the world.

The Rainforest Alliance's global presence also presents impressive opportunities for career develop- ment. More than half of the orga- nization's people work outside the United States, and through an internship program U.S. emploY- ees can sign up to work in foreign offices. Those assignments offer chances to get firsthand exPeri- ence with the organization's core activities and issues.

Thanks to this develoPmen- tal approach to management, it's not just the environment that's thriving because of the Rainforest Alliance. So are the careers of the group's more than 250 emPloyees.

Sources: Kelly K. Spors, "Top Small Workplaces 2008," Wall Street Journal, February 22, 2OA9, http://onli ne.wsj.com; Ra inforest Alliance, "Rainforest Alliance a 'Top Small Work Place,"' Rainforest Matters, November 2008, www. rainforest-alliance.org; and Rainforest Alliance, "What We Do," corPorate Web site, www.rainforest-alliance.org, accessed April7,2010.

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There are potential limitations of 360-degree feedback. This method demands a significant amount of time for raters to complete the evaiuations. If raters, especialiy subordinates or peers, provide negative feedback, some managers might try to iden- tifi' and punish them. A facilitator is needed to help interpret results. Finally, sirn- plir dglivsling ratings to a manager does not provide ways for the manager to act on the feedback (for example, development planning, meeting with raters, or nking courses). As noted eariier, any form of assessment should be accompanied by sugges' tions for improvement and development of an action plan.

Job Experiences Most employee development occurs through job experiencesz5-th. combination of relationships, problems, demands, tasks, and other features of an ernployee's jobs.

Using job experiences for employee development assumes that development is most

104 Explain how job experiences can be used for developing skills.

Job Experiences The combination of relationships, problems, demands,

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likely to occur rvl^Len the employee's skills and experiences do not entirely match the skills required for the emplol,es'5 current job. To succeed, ernployees rnust stretch tl-reir skills. In otl-rer rvords, they must learn new skills, apply their skills and knowl- edge in new ways, and master neiv experiences.Z6 For example, companies that rvant to prepare employees to expand overseas markets are assigning them to a variety of international jobs. To learn hou' a srnall company sr-rccessfi-rlly uses job experieuces to develop ernployees, see the "Best Practices" box.

Most of rvhat n'e knolv abor-rt developinent through job expetiences comes fi-om a series of stridies condr-rcted by the Center for Creative Leadership.l? Th.r" studies asked executir.es to identify key career events that rnade a difference ir-r theil man- agerial sryles and the lessons they learned from these experiences. The key events inch.rded job assignments (such as fixing a failed operation), interpersonal relatior-i- ships (gettir-rg along rvith supervisors), ar-rd rypes of transitions (situations ir-r u,hich the rnanager at first lackecl the necessary backgrour-rd). Through job experiences iike these, managers learn hou' to handle c{frnmon challenges, prove themselves, iead change, hanclle pressure, ancl influence others.

The usefulness of job experiences for ernployee der.elopment varies depending on u'hether the employee viervs the experier-rces as positive or llegative sources of stress. When ernp.,loyees vierv job experiences as positive stressors, the experiences challenge thern and stirnulate iearning. \il/hen tl-rey viell' job experiences as negative stressorsl employees may suffer from high levels of harrnfr-rl stress. Of the job demands studied, managers lvere rnosf liftell' ro experience negarrve stress {rom creating cAange anot overcorning obstacles (adverse business conditions, lack of management sttpport, lack of personai slrpport, or a clifficult boss). Research suggests that all of the job clemands except obstacles are related to learning.2s Organizations should offer job experiences that are n-iost likely to increase Learning, ancl they should consider the consequences of sittrations that involve tregative stress.

Aithough the research or-r development throLigh job experiences has focused on managers, line ernployees also can learn thror"rgh job experiences. Organizations may, for exarnple, use job experiences to develop skiils r-reeded for tearnu'ork, including conflict resolution, data analysis, and customer service. These experiences may occur u4ren forming a team and rvhen ernployees s.,'u'itch roles u'ithin a teain.

Various job assignmeltts can provide for ernployee clerteiopment. The organization may er-rlarge the ernployee's current job or rnove tl-re employee to different jobs. Lat- eral moves irrclude job rotation, transfer, or telnporary assignment lo another organi- zation. The organizatior-r may also use clou'nrvard mo\/es or promotioits as a sottrce of job experience. Figure 9.2 summarizes these alternatives.

Job Enlargement As Clraptet 4 srarcd in lhe context of 1ob design, job enla' gement involves adding cl-ral- lelges or new responsibilities to ernployees' current jobs. Exarnples include complet- ing a special project, sn'itching roles rvithin a work tearn, or researching ne$I $rays to serve cusrorllers. An engineering employee might join a task force developing new career paths for rechnical ernployees. The u,ork on the project could give the engi- neer a leadership role rhrough which the engir-ieer learns about the company's career development system ii,hile also practicing leadership skills to help dre task force reach its goals. In this rvay, job enlargement not only makes a job more interesting but also creates an opportllnity for employees to deveiop new skills.

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