for smartwriter only
TOM SMegan Smith
Driscoll
After reading the first chapter of Learning for Instruction I feel that I have a much stronger grasp of the wide range of learning theories. It is extremely interesting to delve into various theories and what individual types of thinking belong with each. Before reading this chapter when the word learning was used I immediately thought about what knowledge is obtained in the classroom, in job training, or from word of mouth. Learning through experience plays such a crucial role in what knowledge each individual knows. Humans learn so much just by experimenting and through repetition. Every day we observe thousands of activities and investigate the strategy behind it and what the outcome is. Once I started thinking about learning as a daily activity I began to recognize and acknowledge it.
The process of theory building is a subject that has been discussed in other classes I have taken. This concept is relatable to people working in any field. In order to be successful you must be able to assess a situation and theorize what the feedback will be. People of all ages make assumptions every day and then ask questions and observe the situation in order to explain the events they are seeing. Once they form their opinion or hypothesis they experiment to see if their theory produces the desired results. Even though theory building is used in every field, what separates each discipline is how they form their questions and what principles of knowledge they believe in. I found it very interesting to read the examples of how different disciplines view the same scenario. It is easy to see why there are disputes within organizations or groups when there are so many ways different ways to try and understand a situation. By using consilience, people from all fields can better understand each other and use a common framework to come to conclusions. If more people would do this and be open minded to others opinions I believe everyone would have more success.
There are several definitions for learning, but there is really only one conclusive way to find out if learning has occurred, which is demonstration. By asking the learner to demonstrate their newly acquired knowledge the teacher can make sure that they grasp the subject. Teachers can then use learning theories to discover how the learning took place. Learning theories have three parts: inputs, means, and results. I will be able to utilize learning theories when working in the Human Resources field. When training employees I will have to speak to them on an individual basis to understand how they learn. Once I know the input, I can create a process and training strategy, the means, to ensure that learning will take place. After the training program is over, I will be able to analyze my results by watching job performance and with the overall company success.
For hundreds of years researchers have investigated what causes learning to happen and how humans retain that knowledge once it is learned. Until reading about epistemology, I didn’t realize that there was an entire branch of philosophy that studied all aspects of human knowledge. After I acquainted myself with the three concepts of epistemology, I concluded that empiricism, rationalism, and nativism are all valid. Some information we are born with such as the ability to breathe and swallow which agrees with the concept of nativism. Empiricism is the most important source of knowledge because most information that we know is learned through experience. Rationalism is also very important because another key way to obtain knowledge is by asking questions and using reasoning skills. I believe that all three sources contribute to the knowledge individuals possess. I don’t see how others could think only one source I correct when you think back about what you have learned over the course of your life. Once you reflect back, it is easy to see that you have gained knowledge all three ways. However, when it comes to the content of knowledge I do not agree with all of the concepts. Pragmatism describes my view on knowledge because I believe that most knowledge is provisional and that empirical and rational processes are the best ways to obtain knowledge. When we combine experience and reason then we are able to process and understand what is happening and what the outcome will be.
Ebbinghaus, Thorndike, and Pavlov all believed that learning happens because of association. Classical conditioning demonstrates this theory. An example would be a dog salivating when it eats a treat, if you ring a bell every time you give the dog a treat, it will soon become conditioned to salivate when it hears a bell ringing even if the treat is not present. The Gestalt theory doesn’t agree with association but uses perception. This theory states that knowledge doesn’t just come from experience, but that the learner must actively organize their sensory data. An example of this theory is trial and error. If you continue to fail at a task and then step away from it and organize what you already know, you will gain insight which allows you to, in most cases, go back and successfully complete the task.
After reading this chapter, I have a much more thorough understanding of epistemology and sources of knowledge. Once you grasp that there are various ways to view learning and that not all people share the same views, it makes it easier to see why different learning strategies must be used in teaching.
Mayer
Educational psychology is very important when discussing instructional environment and learning strategy. Understanding that everyone learns things differently is what sets apart great instructors from average ones. By changing the formatting of their instruction, educators can ensure that their students will actually learn the material.
In the text there were three approaches to research on learning and instruction: behaviorist, cognitive, and contextual. The behavior approach has only two main variables instruction manipulations and outcome performance. In this approach, researchers focus on whether one method of instruction is better than the other. Many researchers believe that the problem with this approach is that is does not explain why one happens to be better than the other. I find this to be a big issue because part of what helps you grow as an instructor is learning why certain tactics yield better results than others. You wouldn’t buy one model of car over another just because someone told you it was better. You would want to do the research necessary to determine why it was the better car. The cognitive approach adds several more steps to the process. It combines instructional manipulation and learner characteristics to discover the learning process and then the learning outcome. Finally, it determines the outcome performance. The cognitive approach focuses more on what was learned instead of how much was learned. The third approach, contextual, has all of the same components as the cognitive approach except it adds instruction manipulation as intended and instructional manipulation as implemented.
When reading about the three roads for psychology in education I chose the third option, two way street between psychology and education. This phase makes the most sense because both parties are contributing and reviewing each other’s findings in order to get the most accurate results. As an educator, you wouldn’t want to follow the lesson plans of someone who has never taught in a classroom even if they are knowledgeable on the subject. There is a big difference in knowing a subject and having the ability to teach it. As a psychologist you may know your findings and believe that they are correct, but the results from a lab will most likely not be the same results you would get in a classroom. Educators can use the discoveries of psychologist and incorporate them into their instruction, while psychologist can benefit from listening to teachers and testing their theories back in the lab.
All three metaphors of learning have valid points and are successful for different types of learners. Some people learn by writing things down and reading by themselves, while others must hear the information out loud and ask questions to understand. I don’t think anyone could say one of these metaphors is better than the other because it all depends on the situation. For example, drill and practice is very useful on basic skills such as addition and subtraction but probably not very useful on memorizing dates and events in history. By utilizing all three metaphors, instructors should be able to adapt their lessons to teach all types of learners.
This text discusses three different principles of learning, dual channels, limited capacity, and active processing. Within these principles of learning there are three memory stores in meaningful learning, sensory, working, and long-term. Experts believe that all incoming information is accepted by the sense receptors and held there briefly. If the learner pays attention the information and uses it in a timely fashion, then that information can be transferred to the working memory. If you repeatedly use that information then it can be stored in you long-term memory, which has an unlimited capacity. Once you understand the different forms of memory it is easy to see why repetition is a contributing factor to learning. By instructing your students to demonstrate their newly acquired knowledge frequently they have a better chance of remembering it.
Since learning means a permanent change in a person’s knowledge it is important that during instruction they select the most relevant pieces of information and organize it in their working memory. Once the information is stored, they can integrate it into their long-term memory by recalling the information and using it in their daily lives. Over the course of my education I have used all five types of knowledge: facts, concepts, procedures, strategies, and beliefs. I enjoy uses concepts, procedures, and strategies to better understand the facts I already know to be true. As an instructor it is very important to help your students understand what information is factual and what information is your own personal belief. It is easy to let your beliefs shape how you teach information to others. The worst instructors are the ones who take points away from you for voicing your own beliefs. Grading should be done based on overall understanding of the subject and students should be praised for having their own opinions on the topic.
In summary, this chapter greatly increased my knowledge on different types of learning. I think the most important thing we can do as trainers and instructors is to allow our students and trainees the opportunity to learn in multiple ways. By incorporating several different learning techniques there is no reason why all students cannot find success.
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References
Driscoll, M. P. (2005). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.
Mayer, R. E. (2008). Learning and Instruction (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Driscoll
B.F Skinner believed that environmental cues and results explained behavior and that learning could be seen by observing an organism over a period of time. There are two types of behavior respondent and operant. I have seen examples of respondent behavior my whole life. It starts when you’re a child and are rewarded for good grades and cleaning your room. Then it continues when you are a teenager and punished for coming home late. I believe it is a very effective way of teaching because the positive and negative results are relatively black and white. People are less likely to do something if they know there will be a negative consequence and more likely to do something if they know they will be rewarded. A child would be more likely to clean their room if they knew they would get five dollars instead of their parents just telling them good job. The only problem I find with reinforcement is that it allows people to think they need to be rewarded for all of their work. Everyone needs to understand that you won’t be rewarded for everything you do; some things are bound to go unnoticed. This is extremely true within organizations that are short staffed. Employees from other departments may be required to pick up other tasks with very little benefit or gratitude.
The Premack Principle is another tactic I have seen used multiple times. If you pass your multiplication tables the first time you can go to recess before the kids who haven’t passed. You can even see this principle being used on adults. My boss has stated several time, since you came in early today you can leave early tonight. Once I realized I would get to leave early if I offered to come in earlier I didn’t mind doing it.
Weakening a response by punishment seems to be effective as well to an extent. Punishments should never physically or mentally abuse the person whose response you are trying to change. I believe response cost and time out can be the most successful with younger children.
When looking at the three ways of teaching new behaviors, shaping, chaining, and fading I believe there are scenarios where they could each be successful. Shaping would probably be the best strategy to use when teaching a young child to play T-ball. Since T-ball players have usually never played a sport before, coaches and parents have to teach them step by step how to swing a bat, catch and throw a ball, and run from base to base. The process of chaining would be beneficial to a person coaching an older, more experienced team, such as a varsity volleyball team. The players already know the movements required to hit the ball. Therefore the coach can build off of that knowledge to teach them new plays and court rotations. Fading could be used when training a new employee. When a new graphic designer starts at a firm they are required to get their visuals approved before sending them back to the companies for final approval. As the employee gets comfortable with the job and hasn’t had any crucial errors in his graphics, he isn’t required to get them preapproved.
As a professional in the Human Resources field I will use programs of behavior change. I might have to create a plan if I am having problems with employees not following the risk management guidelines. This behavior must be changed to avoid workplace injury and lawsuits. A reasonable goal to change this behavior would be reducing the amount of dangerous activity occurring each day. When determining my appropriate reinforcers I might consider giving a small bonus to employees following proper protocol at the end of each month. I could also use response cost, such as fining employees who are partaking in dangerous activities after the proper training has occurred. When deciding what procedure for changing behavior to use I would think about how great the importance of this change is. In the case of risk management, it is very important. Since all employees are already required to attend yearly risk management training seminars, this is not a new behavior that must be taught. I would just need to create a way to strengthen the behavior with reinforcement or weaken the behavior with a negative consequence. In this scenario let’s say I chose to give an extra two hours of vacation time to any employee that has followed every safety guideline and I take away an hour of paid vacation time from employees who have broken the rules. In the fourth step of my behavioral change program I would make sure to frequently check on my employees to make sure rules are being followed. I would also post updated posters around the business to remind them of these guidelines. After the end of the first month I would pass around a short survey to each employee to get their feedback on the program. Feedback is very important in organizations and people tend to be happier at their jobs if they know their opinions are being asked for and taken into consideration. In three months, I will review my monthly results to ensure that change has taken place and make any adjustments to my plan that I see necessary.
In an extreme case, where on employee might be completely disregarding the changes I am asking for, I could implement a contingency contract. In this contract I could state that the first time the undesired behavior occurs one will receive a verbal warning, followed by a written warning for the second occurrence, and finally extermination for the third occurrence. When I worked at a retail store this type of contract was called the commitment program and proved to be effective. I find that when people know what the direct results of their negative actions will be, they are less likely to take them.
Mayer Chapter 2
When reading this chapter I discovered a lot of interesting facts about reading that I didn’t really think about. I started reading at a very young age, 3-4, so at the age of 23 reading comes just as easy to me as speaking or walking. I use it so frequently that I don’t really think about all of the cognitive processes that go into it. I thought it was very interesting that a reader’s eyes only focus on a point in the text for 200 to 250 milliseconds. Phoneme is a very important aspect of reading. Individuals who recognize the separate sound units that make up words tend to be better overall readers. Some readers must reread the text multiple times in order to speak it out loudly rapidly and without errors. This is called decoding fluency. It also explains why children in classrooms become nervous when called upon to read out loud in front of the class. If they would happen to come across a word they aren’t familiar with they may stutter and become embarrassed.
What makes phonological awareness so hard is the fact that in the English language each letter doesn’t necessarily only make one sounds. There are only twenty-six letters in the alphabet and forty-two major sounds. Once a child can understand this and learn the different sounds letters make, they usually have no problems reading. Research has shown that phonological awareness is directly related to how well a child can read. Phonological awareness increases the most during the elementary school years. Instructors can use segmentation, blending, deletion, and substitution when teaching children about phoneme. I found this information very interesting after looking at the results of experiments on the subject. I hope all elementary educators are using these learning strategies to help students read to the best of their ability since it is such a crucial part to their success throughout life.
In my opinion both the phonics and whole-word approach have valid points. Some children find it easier to break down large words into syllables while others would rather read the whole word. I would try to incorporate both techniques into my teaching plan in order to appeal to each type of learner. I would use the whole-word approach on shorter words such as dog, bird, car, and foot and the phonics approach on words such as centimeter, television, and automobile. This would make my general strategy the analogy approach since I am using both full words and rhyming syllables.
When I was in school I can remember my peers using all of the word identification strategies. It is important to remember that everyone learns differently and to allow them to use the way that makes the most sense to them. After students can read the words correctly it is important that they learn to read them fluently in a sentence and then learn the meaning of the word they have been reading. Once they reach the point of automaticity then they are fully functioning readers.
After students go through the three cognitive processes: phonological awareness, decoding, and decoding fluently, they can engage in meaning access and build their vocabulary. The best way to achieve meaning access is by combining immersion and direct instruction. Direct instruction is mostly used inside the classroom and can be seen in the form of vocabulary tests and flash cards. The only downfall is there is not enough time in a school year to build up a large enough vocabulary. Students and parents must take responsibility to make sure they are reading outside of the classroom in order to reach vocabulary goals. However, reading alone will not help children learn words. They will only learn new words if they ask questions about what they have read and words they don’t understand. By combining all of these techniques instructors can truly increase a child’s ability to understand words and what they are reading.
Here I need first comment about what you read it above
Driscoll, M. P. (2005). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.
Mayer, R. E. (2008). Learning and Instruction (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.