Age, Gender, and Status

CHAPTER 8 GLOBAL ETIQUETTE Objectives Upon completion of this chapter, you will ¦ understand cultural differences in making introductions as well as customs related to business card exchange. ¦ understand how position and status affect cultural interaction. ¦ be familiar with rules of etiquette that apply to communicating by telephone and electronically with persons of other cultures. ¦ understand how cultural differences in dining practices may affect intercultural communication. ¦ be familiar with the cultural nuances of tipping. ¦ understand how practices of giving gifts vary from culture to culture and the role of gift giving in establishing favorable intercultural relations. ¦ learn the importance of travel etiquette in conveying a positive image of a person’s firm and country. W W hen conducting business abroad or in the United States with someone of another culture, a knowledge of certain rules of business and social etiquette is important. Etiquette refers to manners and behavior considered acceptable in social and business situations. Protocol refers to customs and regulations dealing with diplomatic etiquette and courtesies expected in official dealings (such as negotiations) with persons in various cultures. Protocol during negotiations is discussed in greater detail in chapters 10 and 11. President Clinton, during his first state dinner abroad on a visit to Korea, confused his translator and embarrassed South Korean officials when he stepped to the microphone to give his dinner speech and invited a translator to stand between himself and President Kim Young Sam. Because in South Korea it is an insult for anyone to stand between two heads of state, President Clinton had committed a serious faux pas. (Kim, 1993, p. A5) � 162 Intercultural Business Communication Proper social behavior includes learning cultural variations in making introductions, exchanging business cards, recognizing position and status, communicating interculturally, dining practices, tipping etiquette, giving gifts, and traveling. INTRODUCTIONS Being sensitive to cultural variations when making introductions will ensure that your first encounter with a person from another country leaves a positive impression. First impressions are made only once but are remembered for a long time. The procedure for making introductions varies from culture to culture. First names are used almost immediately by people from the United States and England, however, introductions are more formal in some other cultures. Titles are used when introducing people in Germany and Italy; they often indicate the person’s profession or educational level. Germans always address each other as “Herr Guenther” or “Frau Kurr” in and out of the office, reserving first names for close friends and family. Remember that in some cultures, such as the Chinese, the surname comes first and the given name last. Ching Lo Chang would be addressed as Mr. Ching. President Clinton, in a meeting in Korea, addressed South Korean President Kim Young Sam’s wife, Mrs. Sohn Myong-suk, as Mrs. Kim. He should have addressed her as Mrs. Sohn because in Korea, it is the custom for women to maintain their maiden name when they marry. (Kim, 1993, p. A5) Men and women from the Latin American countries often add their mother’s maiden name to their surname, so you should use the next-to-last name when addressing them. Thus, Evelyn Rodrigues Castillo would be addressed as Señorita Rodrigues. When women marry, they drop their mother’s surname and add their husband’s father’s surname. When in doubt, ask what name is to be used. Egyptians use the title plus the first name when making introductions. In some cases, the French form of address is used for women, for example, Madame Susan. In Iraq and in India, titles such as Professor and Doctor, used with the last name, are used as part of the introduction. In African countries, such as Nigeria and Kenya, titles are used with last names until you get to know them well and they ask you to call them by their first name (Devine & Braganti, 1991, 1995, 2000). Because of such widely diverse customs in the use of titles, it is wise to research the customs of the particular culture involved. Introductions are accompanied by a handshake, an embrace, or a bow, depending on the culture. Handshakes may vary from the soft handshake of the British to the firm handshake of U.S. persons. Hugging or embracing when being introduced is considered inappropriate in business situations in the United States but is common in many South American countries. The bow, common in China and Japan, is uncommon in many other cultures. Additional information on greeting customs, including handshakes, is included in chapter 9. � CHAPTER 8 Global Etiquette 163 BUSINESS CARD EXCHANGE An important aspect of business protocol is knowing the proper procedure for exchanging business cards. Because all business contacts require a business card, the admonition of a well-known credit card company, “Don’t leave home without it,” applies. Although most U.S. businesspeople carry business cards, they do not always exchange them when meeting unless there is a reason to contact the person later. Rank, title, and profession are taken seriously in some cultures, so it is important to include your position and titles or degrees in addition to your company name on your card. Include foreign headquarters as appropriate as well as your fax number and perhaps e-mail address. Avoid colored type and paper. Be conservative by choosing white paper with black ink. Presentation of the card varies with the culture. The practice in the United States of glancing at the business card and promptly putting it in the pocket is considered rude in countries like Japan. The Japanese examine the business card carefully and make some comment while accepting it. During meetings, place the business cards of others attending in front of you on the conference table to properly refer to names, ranks, and titles. Use both hands when presenting your card in Japan or South Korea; position the card so that the person can read it (Axtell, 1993; Baldrige, 1993) (see Figure 8-1). FIGURE 8-1 Business card presentation in Japan is completed by presenting your card with both hands, positioned so that the person can read it, and bowing An exchange of business cards is an expected part of all business introductions and most personal ones in Europe, including the Scandinavian countries. Because Scandinavians are respectful of age, include your company’s date of establishment on your business cards when the company’s history is a long one (Turkington, 1999). Other parts of the world in which an exchange of business cards is the norm include the Middle East, the Pacific, Asia, and the Caribbean. Australian businesspersons do not usually carry business cards; thus, when you offer them your card, you may not receive one in return. In Latin American countries, business titles are important, so be sure to include them on your business cards (Harris, Moran, & Moran, 2004). In most of the Southeast Asia, Africa, and the Middle East (with the exception of Israel), avoid presenting the card with your left hand, as the left hand is reserved for taking care of bodily functions (Axtell, 1993). In non-English speaking countries, have the information on your card printed in English on one side and in the local language on the other. � 164 Intercultural Business Communication POSITION AND STATUS Position and status may have an impact on the success of intercultural communication encounters. No standard definition of social class exists that applies to all countries because people in different cultures have their own way of identifying the classes. Some cultures believe that people should occupy their proper places and that some are entitled to more respect than others. Most people of the United States show limited respect for rank and authority, although many other cultures are very conscious of position and power. Although the United States is not considered a nation of classes, distinctions in position and status do exist. Because class distinctions in the United States are subtle, visitors from other cultures may not be able to spot the existence of a class structure and may believe the official propaganda of social equality. Visitors to New York, Washington, DC, and other cities, however, may see both the homeless and more affluent persons in public places. Although a system of inherited titles and ranks does not exist in the United States, certain factors distinguish between the top class, the upper-middle class, the mid-middle class, and the lower-middle class. As was discussed in chapter 3, money is one factor associated with class. Further distinctions are made between those who have inherited money but are not currently employed and those who have inherited money and are employed. Style, taste, and awareness are equally important. Social class is also associated with educational opportunities and a person’s occupation or profession (Fussell, 1983). Status is associated with education in a number of cultures. Educational titles are used in introductions as a sign of respect and acknowledgment of the person’s educational achievement. In Germany and Italy, executives and other professionals are proud of titles preceding their names, as they often reflect their education or profession. People with a college degree are entitled to be called Doctor (Dottore in Italian); the same rule applies to architects and lawyers. In Germany, the U.S. equivalent of president or managing director of a company is called Herr Direktor; a medical doctor, if a woman, is called Frau Doktor; and a female engineer is addressed as Frau Ingenieur. In Mexico, a lawyer is addressed as Licenciado, a title that is considered very important. In England, special protocol exists for addressing royalty, peers, clergy, and others. The managing director in a British firm is usually the top official and equivalent to a U.S. corporate president (U.S. corporate vice presidents do not carry much clout abroad) (Axtell, 1990). In some cultures, such as India, a very rigid class system exists with a society divided into castes. The particular caste a person belongs to is determined at birth; each caste system has its status, rights, and duties. Although discrimination based on caste has been outlawed, in many areas, particularly rural ones, it is still a major influence on life in India. In India’s rigid caste system, interaction between members of different castes is often limited, as in the case of India’s untouchables (Samovar & Porter, 2002). Cultural differences also exist concerning the status of women in a society. Women in some cultures play a less prominent role in business than do men. In South Korea, women are considered inferior to men and thus have lower social status. Women, even those with college degrees, are rarely employed as executives; they usually hold jobs as teachers or secretaries. Social and economic inequality between men and women is also apparent in China, Malaysia, and Singapore; men are clearly the � CHAPTER 8 Global Etiquette 165 ones in positions of authority (Turkington, 1999). The Arabs are becoming more accustomed to women executives, and they are beginning to accept women executives from other countries. U.S. women doing business with the Arabs should understand this difference in cultural attitude and should make a special effort to conduct themselves appropriately, including dressing very modestly. In some Middle Eastern countries, men may refuse to work with women; women executives in Latin America may not receive the same respect given to men executives. Women in the United States are being given increased opportunities for business travel, management positions in overseas operations, and transfers to overseas assignments. The progress U.S. women have made in the workplace is viewed by many as setting a precedent for other countries because the United States is often a catalyst for international change. In some cultures, such as the Chinese, people are very aware of age and hierarchy. Age is viewed as an indication of seniority. In addition to the Asian culture, the Arabian world has a great respect for age. Advanced years represent wisdom and respect. Age takes precedence over rank, but rank is still important. In the Japanese society, knowing the rank of the people with whom you come in contact is important. The middle-level manager in a large company outranks a department head from a smaller company. The higher the rank of the person you are introduced to, the lower you bow. The person of lower rank bows first and lowest. Status is also shown by who goes first when entering a room or an elevator. Those of lower rank wait for those of higher rank to precede them. If you are the foreign guest, you may be expected to enter a room ahead of others, so if you are motioned to enter the room, do so quickly. When the Chinese or Japanese enter a room, they generally enter in protocol order with the highest-ranking person entering first. They will also assume that the first member of your negotiating team to enter the room is the head of your group and has the higher rank. Sitting in rank order from highest to lowest during a meeting is helpful (Axtell, 1998; Turkington, 1999). ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION ETIQUETTE Aspects of protocol related to successful intercultural communication include telephone manners and cyberspace etiquette, sometimes referred to as netiquette (network etiquette). Many intercultural encounters are via the telephone. When talking on the telephone, the initial impression is formed mainly by vocal quality (70%) rather than on the words spoken (30%). Thus, opinions are formed more on how something is said and the voice tone rather than on what the person actually says (Mitchell, 2000). Good telephone manners include answering the phone promptly (first or second ring), identifying yourself properly by giving your department and your name, and being courteous at all times, including the frequent use of “please” and “thank you.” Successful telephone communication involves recognizing and avoiding behaviors that typically irritate others. Being put on hold has been identified as the single most irritating behavior. When the telephone call is to another country, being put on hold can go beyond irritation. Other negative behaviors that should be avoided include making mouth noises, not paying attention, and having a negative or rude attitude. A positive behavior appreciated by callers is “the voice with a smile.” Callers also appreciate a cheerful attitude. � 166 Intercultural Business Communication When voice mail is used, be brief but complete when leaving a message. Include your name, company, the date, and the time of the message. Give your phone number slowly and include a brief summary of what the call concerns. Because more companies are communicating by e-mail, certain rules of etiquette should be observed. E-mail is more informal than a letter or memorandum and is inappropriate for conveying certain types of messages. Negative information, such as a person’s failure to get a promotion, and personal information, such as announcing the birth of a baby, are not appropriate uses of e-mail. Proper “netiquette” avoids the following: • shouting—typing the message in all capital letters. • dissing—speaking ill of someone. • flaming—sending vicious, insulting messages. • spamming—mass mailings of commercial advertisements or material cross posted to numerous news groups. (Segaloff, 1998) In addition to these suggestions, avoid the use of humor and sarcasm. Remember that cultural variations exist in what is perceived as humorous. Also avoid a tone that is even slightly critical (Miller, 2001). Additional suggestions were included in chapter 7. Because a firm may be liable for information leaked into cyberspace, employees should be very careful about the messages they send. A good rule to follow: If you would not want your message posted on the company bulletin board, do not send it via e-mail. Pressing the Delete key after sending a message does not mean that it cannot be tracked back to you (Miller, 2001). Care should be taken in deciding how a message should be sent. The advantages of using e-mail include low preparation, fast delivery time, personal, and convenient for the receiver. The disadvantages are lack of confidentiality and, of course, the lack of nonverbal interaction (Kenton & Valentine, 1997). Of course, not all countries use e- mail as frequently as people in the United States. In the United States, 68.8% of the population have Internet access (third highest of top 20 countries, according to Internet Penetration Statistics updated on September 30, 2004). Almost three-fourths of residents in Sweden have Internet access, followed closely by Hong Kong with 72.5%. Iceland, the Netherlands, Australia, and Canada each have about two-thirds of residents with Internet access; the United Kingdom has 58.5% and Japan has 52.2%. When corresponding with international persons via e-mail, avoid addressing people by their first names. Be sure to write out the name of the month when specifying a date, include country codes for telephone numbers, and indicate which time zone is being referred to when making such statements as “I will telephone you at 2 p.m. Friday.” The use of fax messages is increasing as a quick method of communication between countries. The basic guidelines for writing a fax are included in chapter 7; points of etiquette regarding their transmission follow: • Call ahead to confirm the fax number and to alert the person that you are sending a message (in case the fax machine shares a line with a person’s telephone). The message should follow within 15 minutes. • Certain documents should not be faxed—documents of more than 10 to 15 pages, personal or confidential information, and negative news. • Avoid using the fax when impressions are important. Résumés and proposals submitted on fax paper will not get the same attention as those submitted on good-quality, linen finish paper (Ford, 2003; Glassman, 1998). � CHAPTER 8 Global Etiquette 167 DINING PRACTICES Cultural dining practices vary widely. In many parts of the world, the main meal is at noon, although in the United States, the main meal is in the evening. In Mexico, lunchtime is from 2 p.m. to 4 p.m. and is the main meal of the day. However, in places near the U.S.–Mexican border, local businesses conform more to the U.S. lunchtime of noon to 2 p.m. The dinner hour also varies. In the United States, the dinner hour varies from 5 p.m. to 7 p.m., but in such countries as Spain, it may be as late as 10 p.m. In some cultures, business meals are eaten in private homes, although in other cultures, they are usually eaten at restaurants. When entertaining visitors from other countries, be considerate and ask them whether they prefer the main meal at noon or in the evening and take them to restaurants where they have a choice of a light or heavy meal (Devine & Braganti, 2000). Cultural variations exist in the number of courses typically served as well as when the salad is served. A formal luncheon usually consists of two to three courses, and a formal dinner consists of three to seven courses. In some countries, including those in Latin America, even informal meals typically have numerous courses. In Italy and France, salads are often served after the main course rather than before. Dining practices are viewed differently in various cultures. A U.S. dining practice that seems unusual to people of other cultures is the serving of a glass of iced water at most restaurants. Other countries that serve water do so without ice or serve bottled mineral water. Another dining practice that is viewed with astonishment is the habit of offering coffee at the beginning of a meal; serving coffee at the end of the meal is common in most cultures. The popularity of decaffeinated coffee in the United States has not yet spread to other countries, so visitors are often surprised by a waiter’s question of “Will you have regular coffee or decaf?” Another U.S. custom that sometimes amazes people from other cultures is designating certain sections in restaurants as smoking and nonsmoking. A practice that makes little sense in other cultures is the U.S. custom of conducting business at breakfast. The French especially do not like breakfast meetings; they prefer a leisurely breakfast with time to read the paper in the morning. The French do conduct business over lunch; however, the meal may last two hours or more. Another U.S. business custom questioned by people in other cultures is the lengthy cocktail “hour” before dinner. Italians have commented that the endless rounds of cocktails before ordering a meal is exhausting and may result in discussions that make little sense (Baldrige, 1993). The manner of eating is also diverse. The U.S. eating style uses the “zigzag” technique: cutting the meat with the knife held in the right hand and the fork in the left, then placing the knife on the plate, shifting the fork to the right hand, and eating. Diners using the Continental eating style place the fork in the left hand and knife in the right; they use the knife to push food onto the back of the fork, then move the food into the mouth with the tines of the fork down. Asians use chopsticks especially for eating rice but may use a spoon for soup. They appreciate foreigners’ attempting to use chopsticks and are often willing to demonstrate correct usage. Chopsticks are placed on the chopstick rest at the conclusion of the meal (or when pausing during the meal); they should not be placed in an upright position in the rice bowl (Sabath, 2002) (see Figure 8-2). Other cultural variations in dining also exist. Tahitian food is eaten with the fingers. In the Middle East, be prepared to eat with your fingers if your host does but � 168 Intercultural Business Communication FIGURE 8-2 Cultural Variations in Eating Style use the right hand only. In Bolivia, you are expected to clean your plate; Egyptians and Filipinos, however, consider it impolite to eat everything on your plate (Axtell, 1993; Turkington, 1999). In China, avoid taking the last item of food from the serving platter unless you want to convey to the host that you are still hungry (Turkington, 1999). A dining practice in France that seems unusual to those in other cultures is the custom of bringing pet dogs into restaurants where the waiter takes the dog into the kitchen to be fed a treat. Dogs in most cultures are not allowed in public eating establishments. They may, however, be on the menu in such Asian countries as South Korea. A wealthy American couple toured Asia accompanied by their pet poodle. They decided to dine one evening at a nice looking restaurant where, as it turned out, restaurant employees could speak no English. Because the tourists could not speak the local language, they ordered from the menu by pointing to certain items. They also tried to order food for their poodle. After several attempts using a type of sign language, the waiter seemed to understand. He pointed to the dog, then pointed to the kitchen. The couple, thinking this meant that the dog could eat in the kitchen but not the dining room, nodded their agreement. After a lengthy wait, the waiter proudly entered and lifted the lid of one of the serving platters to display a well-cooked poodle. (Ricks, 1999, p. 11) Dining in Japan, especially in Japanese homes, requires sitting in a kneeling position on a tatami mat. Men keep their knees three or four inches apart; women keep their knees together. Being able to lower yourself to this position and rise from it gracefully requires practice. If you have frequent contact with the Japanese, practicing this art is warranted (Axtell, 1993). � CHAPTER 8 Global Etiquette 169 TIPPING People communicate nonverbally by their tipping practices; those who are basically miserly and those who are generous reveal these traits by their tipping behavior. Although it is difficult to establish definite rules for tipping, generally when service has been good or when service people go out of their way to do a favor, a tip is merited. If the service is very bad, you are not expected to leave a tip but should report the situation to the manager. “Insult tipping” (leaving a few coins) shows a lack of respect and is inappropriate regardless of how poor the service. Trends in tipping appear to have changed in the past few years. Although a tip of 15% of the bill was considered to be a generous tip in fine restaurants, 20% is now closer to the norm when the service is excellent. Traveling in the United States involves numerous situations in which tipping is expected. When traveling, have a supply of $1 and $5 bills in your pocket for tipping the cab driver, the bellhop, and other service personnel who may carry your luggage, summon a cab, or perform other services, such as delivering food or small appliances to your hotel room. Travel tipping needs to be included in anticipated travel expenses; tipping service personnel at a resort or luxury hotel may add an additional 25% to your bill. Tipping in a nontipping culture can offend or insult the people of that culture. However, letters of thanks to people who have been especially helpful, including hotel managers, are very much appreciated. Tipping in Japan is frowned on. People in this culture consider helping you with your luggage a gesture of hospitality and would be offended if you tipped them. If a hotel employee has performed an extra service that you want to reward, place the yen in an envelope because the Japanese would consider openly receiving money as embarrassing or as “losing face.” Likewise in Singapore and South Korea, tipping is not expected, although this practice seems to be changing in hotels where international businesspersons stay. In many places, such as Europe, a service charge is added to your restaurant and hotel bill. Although you are usually not expected to leave an additional tip, the trend is to leave an extra amount, especially if the service was good. In the absence of a service charge, leave the usual 15% to 20% that you would leave in the United States. Observing cultural differences in tipping can communicate nonverbally that you have researched the country and that you consider local customs to be important (Axtell, 1993; Sabath, 1999, 2000, 2002). GIFT GIVING Each country has its seasons and occasions for giving gifts. Gift giving in some cultures is an art and is considered an integral part of building intercultural professional and social relationships. The careful selection and wrapping of a gift and presenting it at the proper time with panache (style) conveys to others your social sensitivity and good manners. Business gifts in the United States are very modest in price; the rule to follow (because of tax regulations) is to limit the price to $25 or less. Business gifts are � 170 Intercultural Business Communication sometimes given to members of your staff on such occasions as birthdays and Christmas. In addition, secretaries are generally treated to flowers and/or lunch on Secretaries’ Day. Remember that business gifts to staff members should be personal; an electric pencil sharpener is inappropriate. However, they should not be too personal—cologne or lingerie to a member of the opposite gender could be misinterpreted. A gift certificate to the person’s favorite restaurant or specialty shop is in good taste. Subordinates wait for their supervisors to set the tone on gift giving. If you are new in an office, ask what tradition is usually followed in exchanging gifts. Several years ago when the office Christmas party was popular, colleagues often exchanged gifts as part of the occasion. The practice of exchanging gifts among colleagues, even token gifts (the office grab bag), seems to have been discontinued in many firms in favor of contributing the amount of money you would spend on such gifts to a local food bank or pooling the amount to give gifts of food or money to members of the custodial staff. In the United States, gifts are opened in front of the giver. The gift is admired, and appreciation is expressed verbally. The oral expression of thanks is followed by a written note of appreciation unless the gift is small and is used as an advertisement (e.g., a paperweight with the company logo). Business gifts to the office or department, such as a basket of fruit or box of candy, are opened immediately and shared by all. (The manager’s taking the gift home to share with his or her family is considered to be in poor taste.) The manager writes a note of thanks to the company that sent the gift and conveys expressions of appreciation from staff members (Samovar & Porter, 2004). Gifts are also opened in the presence of the giver in Brazil and in Belgium. In the Arabian countries, you must present a gift when others are present so it will not be interpreted as a bribe. In some countries, however, gifts are not opened in the presence of the giver. In Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Korea, you should not open a gift in front of the giver, and you should accept the gift with both hands (Bosrock, 1995, 1997a, 1997b). Although flowers make appropriate gifts, learn cultural taboos related to color, variety, and number. Red roses are associated with romance in some cultures. In some countries, such as China, white is the color of mourning, and gladioli are often used in funeral sprays; thus, a gift of white gladioli is inappropriate in China. Although a gift of flowers in any color is considered appropriate by middle- and upper-class Brazilians, purple flowers are associated with death by the lower class. In most European countries, avoid a gift of carnations, which are for cemeteries only. Chrysanthemums are inappropriate in Belgium, Japan, and Italy; they are associated with funerals and mourning. Although flowers are not expected by a Mexican host, they are appreciated; however, avoid sending yellow, red, or white flowers as these colors have negative connotations for some Mexican people. In some cultures, the number of flowers given has a special significance (Barnum & Wolniansky, 1989). Armenians give an uneven number of flowers on happy occasions; even numbers of flowers are associated with death. For the Chinese, four is the most negative number (it sounds like their word for death), so gifts of four flowers—or four of anything else—should be avoided (Dresser, 2005). Because in Thailand and Hong Kong three is a lucky number, give gifts in threes in these countries (Bosrock, 1997a). A flower shop in the host country is the best place to get information concerning local customs about giving flowers (Sabath, 2002). � CHAPTER 8 Global Etiquette 171 Exhibitors at a trade show could not understand why Chinese visitors were not stopping by their booth. Workers were wearing green hats and were using them as giveaways as well. They later learned that for many Chinese, green hats are associated with infidelity; the Chinese expression “He wears a green hat” indicates that a man’s wife has been cheating on him. When they discarded the green hats and gave out T-shirts and coffee mugs instead, they had a number of Chinese visitors. (Dresser, 2005) Gift giving is very much a part of conducting business in such countries as Japan. Japan’s major gift giving times are Ochugen (July 15) and Oseibo (December). Companies give gifts to their customers as an expression of appreciation for past and future business. They also reward their employees at these times with large bonuses. U.S. companies that have ongoing business relationships with the Japanese should remember their associates with a gift at both of these times. Because Japan is one of the United States’ largest trading partners, knowing the nuances associated with Japanese gift giving is considered an important aspect of protocol with people in that culture (Samovar & Porter, 2004). The Japanese are a gracious people for whom gift giving seems to be an art. The wrapping of the gift and the manner of presenting it are just as important as the gift itself. Gifts are beautifully wrapped but without the ornate bows and other decorations typically used on gifts in the United States. The color of the wrapping should be consistent with the occasion: red, gold, and white for happy events; black and purple or black and white for other occasions. The Japanese do not open a gift in front of the giver, so you should avoid opening your gift in their presence. Also avoid giving a gift when someone else is present. Do not surprise your Japanese host with a gift, as it might cause the person to lose face. Let your host know ahead of time by mentioning, for example, that you have found a special commemorative coin to add to his collection. Favorite gifts with the Japanese are imported liquor, consumables of high quality, and designer-made products with such names as Gucci, Tiffany & Co., or Mark Cross. Musical tapes and CDs are also good choices. Avoid giving gifts manufactured elsewhere in Asia, as this is an insult (Baldrige, 1993; Sabath, 2002). A Japanese-American whose firm conducted business in Japan told how he once averted a near disaster in United States–Japanese relations. His company selected and addressed 500 Christmas cards to its Japanese joint-venture partner. The cards were red (in Japan, funeral notices are red). The Japanese-American manager stopped the mail just in time. He said, “We almost sent 500 funeral cards to our Japanese partner!” (Engholm, 1991, p. 228) These additional guidelines for gift giving in Asian countries should be observed because of the importance placed on this aspect of developing and maintaining harmonious business relationships: • Take time to research the perfect gift; it could be related to the Asian counterpart’s profession or hobby. Adding an item to a person’s collection is much � 172 Intercultural Business Communication appreciated. Remember to buy gifts in the United States; avoid anything made in an Asian country. • Always wrap gifts (no bows) and include an appropriate card. Although wrapping the gift in red paper (the color of luck) is appropriate, using red ink when addressing the card or writing the accompanying note is not; in China, using red ink indicates a desire to sever a relationship forever. • Be aware of superstitions and taboos related to gifts. Avoid any gift depicting white wolves because the wolf is symbolic of cruelty and greed. Also avoid a gift of straw sandals in China. • Recognize the significance of numbers in gift giving: Three is a lucky number in Thailand; eight and nine are lucky in Hong Kong (the word for eight sounds like “prosperity”; the word for nine is a homonym for “eternity”). • Expect a gift to be declined out of politeness at least once in some Asian countries; they will then accept. You are expected to decline once and then accept with thanks (Engholm, 1991). Because gift giving is very important in the Japanese culture, asking advice from a Japanese colleague or from someone who has lived in Japan is recommended (Axtell, 1993; Yager, 2001). Knowing when to present the business gift is also important. In Korea, business gifts are usually given at the beginning of formal negotiations. In Germany, however, business gifts are seldom exchanged at the beginning of negotiations but may be given at their conclusion. In Latin American countries, present gifts only at the conclusion of negotiations. Other gift-giving practices and guidelines in various cultures include the following: • When dining in a person’s home in Western Europe, present your gift when you arrive so that it does not appear to be intended as payment for the meal. • Avoid giving gifts to the French until a personal relationship has been developed. Avoid gifts of perfume or wine; those are their specialties. • Gifts to Germans should not be wrapped in black, brown, or white. • Avoid gifts of a clock in the People’s Republic of China, as the clock is considered a symbol of bad luck. (In Korea, however, the clock is considered good luck and is an appropriate gift.) •A striped tie is not an appropriate gift to a British man; it may represent a British regiment other than his own. • Avoid gifts of a knife or handkerchief to persons in Latin America. The knife is interpreted as a desire to cut off the relationship; the handkerchief is associated with tears. • Avoid gifts of liquor or wine for an Arab. Because alcohol is illegal in Islamic cultures, the gift would be confiscated by customs. • Because the cow is sacred in India, do not give any gifts made of cowhide. • In Islamic countries, exercise restraint in admiring personal possessions; you will probably find yourself the recipient of the object you have admired (Axtell, 1993; Stewart, 1997). When people of the United States select business gifts for people in other countries, they should remember that the gifts should be made in the United States, be � CHAPTER 8 Global Etiquette 173 utilitarian, and have conversational value. Good choices include things that are representative of the United States, such as Native American art or jewelry, DVDs of U.S. movies, U.S.-made sports equipment, or food that is unique to the United States, such as candy, nuts, and California wines. Avoid gag gifts; people of some other cultures do not appreciate them (Stewart, 1997). TRAVEL ETIQUETTE Travel etiquette begins with a pleasant, positive attitude and a sense of adventure, especially when it comes to international travel. People who approach international travel with eager anticipation—who look forward to meeting new people, seeing new places, and experiencing a new culture—seem to have more favorable experiences than those who approach travel with a sense of foreboding. In other words, people seem to get what they expect. Because most international travel is by airplane, etiquette in this section concentrates on air travel and covers such topics as dressing and packing for the trip, behaving properly on the plane, and handling problem situations. Travel dress is important because the people you meet, including ticket agents, will be strangers who will judge you first on your appearance. Being well dressed makes a favorable impression on others and in many cultures is associated with competency and respect. You are a representative of your company and your country; dressing professionally sends the message that you care about the impression you make on your compatriots and on persons of other cultures. Another benefit of being well dressed (wearing a suit or executive casual) when traveling is that you often get better service from airline personnel and from hotel employees on your arrival. Women may want to wear their business blouse and jacket with coordinating slacks and then carry a skirt in the carry-on luggage and change in the plane lavatory just before landing. This is especially important when a presentation is scheduled for that same day or when you are being met at the airport by a business colleague from the host country. Christopher Patterson, an MBA graduate student at a Mid-South university, was invited for an interview in St. Louis for a much coveted managerial position with an international air transport firm. Because his usual classroom attire was a T-shirt, torn jeans, and a baseball cap worn backwards, his communication professor gave him this advice: “Dress professionally on the flight; you never know who you’ll meet.” He followed this advice on the flight over, felt very confident after the interview with three of the company’s top-level executives, but relaxed and reverted to his classroom attire on the return trip. To his surprise, one of the three executives who had interviewed him was on the flight. The executive, with a shocked look, said, “Well, I almost didn’t recognize you. You don’t look like the same person we interviewed.” Christopher reported to the professor on his return, “You were right; I blew it.” As it turned out, he did blow it—he didn’t get the job. When packing for a trip, keep in mind that conservative business attire is usually preferred in other countries. This means dark suits for men and women, classic leather shoes, and good-quality accessories. Your luggage should also be of good quality to � 174 Intercultural Business Communication create a positive impression. All belongings should be packed in the luggage; carrying personal belongings in shopping bags does not convey a professional image. Checking large suitcases and limiting carry-on luggage to the size and number specified by the airline is important. Women should remember that they are responsible for their own luggage, including lifting a suitcase to the overhead bin of the airplane. Luggage with wheels is a good investment. With multiple bags, a porter or a cart may be used. Travel etiquette also involves courteous treatment of airline personnel. When flights are late or canceled, travelers should remain calm and be polite to travel clerks who are anxious to get them to their destinations. Passengers who are courteous when they are inconvenienced often receive better treatment, including free food and lodging, than those who are rude and insensitive. Flight attendants should also be treated with respect. Although they are not tipped, flight attendants should be thanked at the end of the trip along with the captain/cocaptain. A passenger standing in line at an airline ticket counter listened to a person yelling and screaming at the ticket agent. After the mad, rude customer left, the passenger complimented the ticket agent on his patience, attitude, and calm demeanor. The clerk replied, “Thank you for your kind words, but don’t worry; it’s all right.” The passenger asked, “How can it be all right?” The clerk answered, “It’s all right because, you see, that man is going to Cleveland, but his luggage is going to Singapore.” (Dosick, 2000, p. 50) Proper behavior during the flight is especially important because of the close quarters. Complete strangers are forced into another person’s intimate space. Therefore, airline passengers should be especially considerate of those around them and careful that their behavior does not offend anyone. Because of the limited space, passengers should refrain from wearing strong fragrances. They should respect the preferences for conversation of those seated next to them. Those who do not want to talk can take out a book or papers to work on to discourage a conversation. Putting the seat back in a reclining position when traveling coach without first asking permission of the person seated behind you is very insensitive. Because of the limited space, it is difficult for the person seated behind you to exit, to eat or drink, or to work with the seat in front of him or her in a reclining position. Passengers should also remember to stay out of the aisles as much as possible and limit their time on the telephone and in the bathroom. If they are traveling with their family, passengers should make sure that their children do not engage in such activities as kicking the seat back of the person in front of them or standing up in the seat and staring at the person behind them. Sometimes problem situations arise because other passengers do not know or practice proper etiquette. When confronted with an incessant talker, you might say, “I would like to talk more, but I must finish this report.” To the person in coach who reclines his seat, you might respond, “Would you please pull your seat forward while I am eating?” (Asking the flight attendant to make this request is also appropriate.) If you are seated next to a crying baby or a loud, obnoxious person, ask the flight attendant for another seat assignment. A summary of rules for business and social etiquette for the 10 countries with which the United States conducts most of its international trade follows. � CHAPTER 8 Global Etiquette 175 Canada Social and business etiquette in Canada is similar to that of the United States, but Canadians are more conservative than people of the United States. As in the United States, shaking hands when meeting and on departure is the usual form of greeting. Most business entertaining is done in restaurants, and tipping is about the same as in the United States. Because of the strong French influence in certain parts of Canada, French cuisine is offered in many restaurants. If invited to someone’s home, take flowers (but not white lilies, as they are associated with funerals) to the hostess (Axtell, 1993). China The Chinese bow or nod when greeting each other; when greeting Westerners, however, they usually offer a handshake. Remember that rank is important in China, so the senior person should be acknowledged first. In establishing business relationships, dining plays an important role. Business entertaining is typically conducted in restaurants at lunch or dinner. Because seating etiquette is important, waiting for your Chinese host to indicate where you are to sit is recommended. Leaving a small amount on your plate is a good idea to indicate your satisfaction with the food. Although the Chinese do not tip, foreigners are expected to tip. A common practice when tipping restaurant servers or taxicab drivers is to give them a handful of change. Giving gifts is a common practice except at a first meeting. Recommended gifts (wrapped in red) are pens of high quality or a paperweight. Gifts to avoid are clocks, white flowers, and handkerchiefs because of their association with death. In addition, knives and other cutlery should be avoided as they suggest a wish to sever ties (Sabath, 2002). England A soft handshake accompanied by “How do you do?” is the common greeting in England. Avoid the typical U.S. greeting of “Hi” (too informal) and avoid saying “Have a nice day” when departing (the British interpret it as a command). As in the United States, first names are often used after knowing the person only a short time. When dining in England, you might want to try some of their specialties: crumpets, steak and kidney pie, or Scotch eggs, which are deep-fried hardboiled eggs with a coating of sausage and breadcrumbs. Pubs and restaurants, rather than private homes, are used for most business entertaining. If invited to dine in a British home, a flower bouquet (except for white lilies) is an appropriate gift for the hostess (Axtell, 1993; Sabath, 1999). France The French customarily shake hands upon greeting and when they say goodbye. In addition, people who work together shake hands when they arrive in the morning and again when they leave in the afternoon. The handshake consists of a single, quick shake. Women typically wait for a man to initiate the handshake. Women are kissed on both cheeks as part of the greeting; however, men only kiss each other on the cheeks when they are good friends or relatives. Business cards are exchanged at initial meetings; they are presented first to the person of higher rank to show respect. In France, it is customary to place wrists on the table and to use the Continental style when dining. When visiting France, be sure to try some of their special foods, which vary according to the region. These specialties range from lamproie a la bordelaise (eels cooked in red wine) in Bordeaux to escargots a la bourguignonne (snails served with garlic butter) in � 176 Intercultural Business Communication Burgundy. Wine is served with both lunch and dinner. Business gifts are given only after a business relationship has been established. Appropriate gifts include flowers (except chrysanthemums, carnations, or red roses), books, CDs, or gourmet food items (Braganti & Devine, 1992; CultureGrams, 2004; Sabath, 1999). Germany When greeting people in Germany, remember to use last names and a firm handshake. Status is recognized; men allow people of higher status or older women to precede them when entering a door or elevator. When dining in a restaurant, a service charge of 10% to 15% is generally added to the check, so you do not need to leave an extra tip. Try some German specialties: beers, sausages, and potato pancakes. Eating everything on your plate is considered polite. Gifts to your German host should be simple and rather inexpensive, as Germans consider expensive gifts to be in bad taste. When invited to a German home, bring the hostess a gift of flowers (an odd number except 13 and no red roses) (Braganti & Devine, 1992; Sabath, 1999). Japan In Japan, the usual form of greeting is a bow rather than a handshake; however, many Japanese who regularly associate with persons of other cultures may use both a bow and a handshake. Follow the lead of your Japanese host. The exchange of business cards is common, so be sure you have a good supply. These should be printed on one side in English and the other side in Japanese. Remember to address your Japanese host by his last name; only family members and close friends use the first name. Most business entertaining is done in Japanese restaurants. Some Japanese specialties include sake (rice wine) and sashimi (sliced raw fish). Do not tip in restaurants; the waiter will return the money if you do. Although being invited to a Japanese home is not the norm, if invited, remember to remove your shoes at the entrance of the home. A box of candy, rather than flowers, is an appropriate gift for the hostess. Because social and business etiquette are very different in Japan, do a thorough study of the culture and its customs before you go (Axtell, 1993; Devine & Braganti, 1998; Sabath, 2002). A world traveler from Switzerland describes how he temporarily lost his fondness for eating fish while dining at a lavish Tokyo restaurant. After he had sampled numerous delicacies, the piéce de résistance was served: A live fish still flopping on the platter was brought to the table; the maitre d’ then delicately sliced the live fish and served it to the guests. (Axtell, 1993) Mexico Shaking hands is the usual greeting in Mexico, and people also shake hands when saying good-bye. When introduced to a woman, a man will bow slightly and will shake hands if the woman initiates it. Address the person by his or her last name, as first names are not used during initial encounters. Business cards are exchanged at a first meeting but remember to include the Spanish translation on your cards. Be sure to indicate your position with your company and your university degrees. Deference is shown to someone whose age, social status, or position warrants it. The altitude of � CHAPTER 8 Global Etiquette 177 Mexico City may affect your digestion, so eat lightly and carefully. Always order bottled water as tap water is not considered safe. Although Mexicans expect you to sample the fare, they will understand if you decline dishes such as tripe (stomach of sheep). Unlike many European cultures, they do not expect you to eat everything on your plate. You might want to sample such national dishes as mole poblano de guajolote (turkey in a sauce of spices, herbs, and chocolate), quesadillas (folded tortillas filled with cheese), and frijoles refritos (mashed and fried cooked beans). If invited to a Mexican home, send flowers ahead of time; avoid marigolds (used to decorate cemeteries) and red flowers (used for casting spells). Appropriate gifts include gadgets such as an electric can opener, U.S. cigarettes, a gold cigarette lighter, a gold pen, art books, or a bottle of scotch (Devine & Braganti, 2000; Sabath, 2000). The Netherlands In the Netherlands, both men and women shake hands when greeting each other. Waving when greeting another person from a distance is acceptable, but shouting is considered impolite. Although men do not kiss each other as part of the greeting, women who are good friends may kiss on both cheeks. Business cards are typically exchanged at initial meetings. Because English is spoken by most Dutch businesspeople, business cards may be in English only. The Dutch expect you to clean your plate and to rest both wrists on the table while dining. Visitors will want to try some Dutch specialties, such as erwtensoep (a thick pea soup) and lamstongen met rozijnensaus (lamb’s tongue with a white wine sauce). Dining in restaurants is expensive, so you might want to try the numerous alternatives that are available: snack bars, cafes, street stalls, and restaurants that sell only pancakes. When invited to your Dutch host’s home, it is appropriate to bring flowers or to send them the following day. Business gifts should be given only after a relationship has been developed with your Dutch associate. Appropriate gifts include desk accessories or books (Bosrock, 1995; Braganti & Devine, 1992; CultureGrams, 2004; Sabath, 1999). South Korea In South Korea, the usual greeting between men is a bow, accompanied by a handshake. To show respect, the left hand is placed below the right forearm while shaking hands. Women do not shake hands as frequently as men. Following the handshake, business cards are exchanged between professionals during initial encounters; the cards are presented and received with both hands. Both age and social standing are taken into consideration when greeting someone. Because Koreans are proud of their cuisine, you will want to sample some of their spicy foods and such delicacies as pulkogi (strips of beef that are marinated and barbecued) as well as the alcoholic drink soju, which is frequently served with meals. Those who conduct business in South Korea should remember that meals are served and eaten, usually with periods of silence, before socializing begins. When invited to a Korean home, it is appropriate to bring a small gift, such as fruit, flowers, or candy. Business gifts, although not a necessity, are appreciated and should be made in the giver’s country. Gifts should be of good quality, yet inexpensive; they are opened in private rather than in the presence of the giver (Bosrock, 1997a; CultureGrams, 2004; Sabath, 2002). � 178 Intercultural Business Communication Taiwan Although bowing is a common form of greeting in many Asian countries, in Taiwan it is more common to shake hands. Rank is important, so be sure to acknowledge and shake hands with the person of higher rank first. Following the handshake, business cards are exchanged. Business cards are exchanged frequently in Taiwan, so carry an ample supply with you. Not presenting your business card to your Taiwanese associates is viewed as unprofessional. Having a translation of the information on your cards printed in Mandarin on the back of the card is recommended. Business card presentation is important to the Taiwanese: The card should be presented with both hands with the card turned so the recipient can read it. Dining in Taiwan involves eating with chopsticks and a spoon. Rice is served at most meals; not finishing your rice is impolite. Numerous restaurants are available, which specialize in various types of cuisine: Cantonese, Hunan, Peking, Shanghai, Szechuan, Taiwanese, and Mongolian. On the rare occasions when you may be invited to your business associate’s home, be punctual and bring a small gift. When food is served at your Taiwanese host’s home, it is important to sample everything and to make positive comments about the various dishes. Business gifts are presented and received with both hands. Visitors should remember that the Taiwanese will refuse a gift initially, it should be offered until it is accepted; gifts are opened in private (Bosrock, 1997a; Devine & Braganti, 1998; CultureGrams, 2004; Sabath, 2002). A helpful rule to remember in most cultures is to follow the lead of the people in the other culture. If they shake hands, so do you. Eat what they eat and when they eat. If the other person gives you a gift, be prepared to reciprocate. Researching the country before you travel is always good advice. Terms • Caste system • Flaming • Spamming • Continental eating style • Netiquette • U.S. eating style • Dissing • Protocol • Etiquette • Shouting Exercise 8.1 Instructions: Encircle T for true or F for false. 1. T F In Japan, a business card should be presented with both hands. 2. T F Throughout Latin America, the main meal of the day is in the evening. 3. T F Flaming and dissing are terms associated with “netiquette.” 4. T F Introductions are more formal in Germany than in the United States. 5. T F Bolivians expect visitors to eat everything on their plate. 6. T F Tipping is more common in the United States than in China and Japan. 7. T F The practice of serving a glass of water with meals is universal. 8. T F In China, the gift of a clock is considered a symbol of good luck. 9. T F In Germany, business gifts are usually exchanged at the beginning of formal negotiations. 10. T F When selecting travel attire, the main consideration is comfort. � CHAPTER 8 Global Etiquette 179 Questions and Cases for Discussion 1. How do introductions vary between the United States and other cultures? 2. Describe cultural variations in business card exchange. 3. Explain class distinctions in the United States and India. 4. How are gender and age related to position and status in the United States? 5. Identify some guidelines for proper telephone etiquette. 6. Explain the difference between the terms “flaming” and “shouting” in relation to netiquette. 7. What are some advantages and disadvantages of using e-mail? 8. Identify some cultural differences in dining practices. 9. Explain the difference between the U.S. and Continental eating styles. 10. What are some guidelines for tipping appropriately? How do tipping customs vary with various cultures? 11. What are some guidelines for effective business gift giving in the United States? 12. What are some cultural differences in gift-giving practices? What gifts are considered appropriate for a person from the United States to give to someone in another culture? 13. Identify some cultural taboos concerning giving flowers as gifts. 14. What are some guidelines for airline travel attire? 15. List some suggestions for proper behavior during air travel. Cases The following procedure is recommended for facts, underlying assumptions, and critical issues analyzing the cases: (a) read the case carefully of the case; (e) list possible answers to the quespaying attention to details; (b) read the questions tions; and (f) select the most logical response to at the end of the case; (c) reread the case, taking the question. Your professor may ask that you notes on or highlighting the details needed for submit answers to the case questions in writing. answering the questions; (d) identify relevant Case 1 Mark was in charge of a negotiating team sent to pencil set marked “Made in Japan.” His secre- Japan. On learning the importance of gift giving tary wrapped the gifts attractively in bright red to a successful business relationship in this cul-paper and with matching bows and mailed them ture, prior to departure he asked his secretary to to his Japanese hosts. What rules for appropriate wrap these gifts: a clock with the company logo, a gift giving in this culture have been followed? leather briefcase, a country ham, and a pen and Which have been violated? Case 2 A U.S. executive was invited to dine in the home unwrapped bottle of Scotch for his host and a of a Latin American businessman. The dinner dozen yellow and white chrysanthemums for the invitation was for 9 p.m. The U.S. executive businessman’s wife. Discuss the appropriateness arrived promptly at 9 p.m. bearing a gift of an of the U.S. executive’s behavior. � 180 Intercultural Business Communication Case 3 Joe Anthony, a U.S. graduate student, was beginning a semester-long internship in Mexico City with an international health care products firm. After he had been there about a week, some male employees invited him out to a bar to sample the local specialty, bull’s testicles. Joe had heard about Case 4 When Sara Canton boarded her flight to Barcelona in New York City, she was seated in the middle with an unkempt person who apparently had not bathed recently on one side and a crying baby on the other. The person in front of Activities this practice considered a sign of young Mexican machismo (male power). The idea did not appeal to him because something he had eaten recently had made him queasy. What are Joe’s options? What are the possible implications or consequences of each option? What would you do? her immediately reclined his seat. Sara knew she would not be pleased making a seven-hour trip under these circumstances. What can Sara do to make the trip more bearable? 1. Practice introducing your U.S. manager to each of the following: a. An Italian manager, John Giovanni, with a college degree b. Chung Lo Wang, a manager from China c. Marco Comerlato Velasquez, a business associate from Brazil d. Thomas Edward Peacock, a British associate who has been knighted 2. Role play to show how a business card is presented to someone from Japan. 3. Review back issues of the Wall Street Journal or a news magazine such as Time and make a copy of an article related to a cultural faux pas committed by either a person from the United States when traveling abroad or someone from another culture when visiting the United States. Share your information with the class. 4. Research the dining practices of such countries as Zimbabwe, Samoa, and Tanzania; write a one-page summary identifying major differences between dining practices in the United States and these countries. 5. Research the tipping practices of a European and an Asian country of your choice and make a comparison with tipping practices in the United States. Report your findings to the class. 6. 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