Ethics Paper

Abstract #4 Chapter 16: Kierkegaard to Nietzsche 215-226

Thesis: Kierkegaard argues that moral objectivity obscures the fact that moral standards are individual choices and nothing more.

Major Metaphor:

Symposium: A dialogue that was created by Plato, that involves a

drinking party to celebrate Agathon’s victory.

The Laws: The nature of a society in which virtue is universally

inculcated.

Synopsis: The central character in the Symposium is Socrates, but by

introduction of the “Laws” Socrates is no longer involved. In the symposium,

Aristophanes explains a joke about human origins. He states that, men originally

had four arms, four legs, and so on. This was explained because, they in turn

threatened the hegemony of the gods by being far stronger then they are now.

The gods overcame this threat by an act of separation. Men, being only half

beings have been always searching for the being that will complete them. In turn,

heterosexual and homosexual love is explained in reference to one being which

was originally divided in two. This leads to each individual having the need to

complete their nature. The Laws is a work that details Plato’s interest in political

philosophy. The discussion of the Laws concerns the nature of a society in which

virtue is ultimately universally instilled on its people. In the first parts of this very

long work the emphasis is upon the nature of inculcation; in the later parts

practical proposals for legislation to be enacted in the (imaginary) about-to-be-

founded Cretan city of Magnesia are discussed (MacIntyre, 54). The Laws, detail

how common people are encouraged to live in accordance with virtue. Laws and

education provide the nurture in this way of life. In conclusion, the connection

between the symposium and the laws is the vision and the need to live a virtuous

life.

Abstract #2 Chapter Seven: Aristotle’s Ethics (pages 57-83)

Thesis: The Ethics shows us what form and style of life are necessary to

happiness, the Politics what particular form of constitution, what set of institutions,

are necessary to make this form of life possible and to safeguard it (MacIntyre,

57).

Major Metaphors:

What is happiness: Human flourishing or thriving, living and doing well.

Thriving of the soul instead of the body.

What is Virtue: Virtues follow in correspondence to happiness. There are

two main categories of virtues: intellectual virtues and moral virtues. Intellectual

virtues only concern the rational part of the soul. Moral virtues involve both

rational and the desiring part of the soul.

Synopsis: Every rational activity aims at something that would be considered

“good”, this is the basic proposition that Aristotle is proposing. There must be an

“end” that we seek, so that we can seek other things. Ethics, which is a branch of

politics, can be aimed at which is good for man. The community will always be

higher than the individual and what is good for the individual will always be better

for the community. Happiness will always be the end goal in obtaining a supreme

good. Happiness is the virtuous activity of the soul and controls how we think and

feel. The function of man lies within possessing and exercising the power of

reason and the soul in accordance with a rational principle. The good in a person

performs these activities well and rightly. Man has a function, and when this

function is performed in the proper excellence the man will always feel happiness.

This excellence would be considered virtue. Virtuous activities will always be

considered happiness for man. Happiness is more than just temporary pleasure;

it is the end of life. In conclusion, we will always need happiness in our lives but

more importantly we need virtue to complete it.

Abstract #2 Chapter Eight: Postscript to Greek Ethics (pages 84-109)

Thesis: The concepts of duty and responsibility in the modern sense appear only

in germ or marginally; those of goodness, virtue, and prudence are central

(MacIntyre, 84).

Major Metaphors:

Synopsis: According to the text, Ethics is concerned with human actions and

human actions are simply not just bodily movements. Modern ethics brings out

humans actions and the goodness in these actions. The differences between

modern ethics and Greek ethics is that modern ethics asks what should I do right

and Greek ethics asks what I should do to fare well. The “Good” in a person

indicates more than just a personal action or preference to be good. “Good” is

something that we choose to do. This good was in relation to societal function in

a Greek polis. The good was referred to a circumstance that man was embedded

into, rather than a man embedded in a Greek city-state portrait. In conclusion, the

good in any society is very similar, but it is up to man to learn these types of

“good” to fulfill their duty in life.

Abstract #2 Chapter Nine: Christianity (pages 110-121)

Thesis: “Myths, as anthropologists tell us, exhibit social patterns and structure.

Myth and ritual together provide a means whereby men can exhibit to themselves

the forms of their collective life” (MacIntye, 110).

Major Metaphors:

Platonic Dichotomy: idea that God and things spiritual are holy and the

earth and what’s on it is not.

Synopsis: There is a higher power that we obey, because we think that it knows

best for us. When we fail to obey it, we lose what faith we had in ourselves.

Christianity argues that we should obey God because he is holy, good, and

Powerful. The power of God suggests that justice shall prevail in time. The

biggest problem with Christianity is that its morality has taken on multiple forms.

These different forms have grown into different meanings of how this God is

supposed to protect us. This religion has looked to different thinkers to develop

ideas for separate Christian morals. We will always look for salvation by faith

alone, but no matter what we will always follow a God to preserve it.

Abstract #2 Chapter Ten: Plato: Luther, Machiavelli, Hobbes, and Spinoza (pages 121-146)

Thesis: To obey such moral rules cannot be to satisfy our desires; for our desires are part of the total corruption of our nature, and thus there is a natural antagonism between what we want and what God commands us to perform (MacIntyre, 121).

Major Metaphors:

Synopsis: Luther’s theology focused on the individual’s relationship with God,

emphasizing a position by Occam that we are saved solely by grace. For Luther

the community is merely the setting of an eternal drama of salvation; secular

affairs are under the rule of the prince and the magistrate whom we ought to

obey (MacIntyre, 120). Luther essentially leaves the government up to the

authorities. Calvin (who is similar to Luther), emphasized the individual, but did

not leave the government to the authorities. Luther and Calvin’s similarities were

way more important than their differences. They both present a God whose

goodness we cannot judge. Luther and Calvin also did agree that religious

authority should be left up to the church and not just the Pope. The differences in

them are that Calvin rejected St. Augustine’s idea of predestination. He also felt

that the church should not be ruled by the state. Machiavelli discusses various

routes to power and ways to take over a state. The goals of political and social

life lie within obtaining power and authority. He believed that an action of a

person should be judged only by the consequences. Hobbes ideal

commonwealth is ruled through a sovereign power that was to protect the

commonwealth and give full authority to ensure it was protected. Hobbes King is

one that will never die. His ethics shows that a moral theory is dependent on the

theory of human nature that informs it. The state exists to protect its people.

Spinoza expresses that the state exists to maximize human goods, not to

emphasize savagery. He does see the human emotion and desires as

remediable. In some aspect Spinoza agrees with Hobbes in the fact all men

pursue their own interests and seek to extend their power. Spinoza attempts to

geometrize ethics with the goal of helping the confused individual to see their

circumstance. Spinoza promotes freedom and reason, which would make him

the first modern thinker.