Peer Review

Navigating the Academic Landscape: Challenges Faced by NCAA Student-Athletes

Liam T. Ferris

Arizona State University

Analyzing Organizations OGL 570

School of Applied Professional Studies

November 9, 2025

Abstract

This applied project will examine the academic performance of Division I student-athletes during

in-season versus out-of-season terms at a large public university in the United States. The

introduction of Name, Image, and Likeness (NIL) rights in July 2021 shifted the collegiate

athletics environment toward increased commercialization and financial incentives, raising

questions about academic persistence. This project employed quantitative methods to analyze 10

years of institutional GPA data for student-athletes, examining patterns in seasonality, pre- and

post-NIL trends, and subgroup differences across gender and sport type. The project was

grounded in leadership theory, with a particular focus on transformational and transactional

leadership, organizational change and culture, and student development in the context of higher

education policy. Findings are anticipated to inform the design of academic support strategies,

enhance retention and graduation outcomes, and provide leadership insights into balancing

athletic and academic commitments. Practical implications include strengthening academic

monitoring, aligning institutional leadership with transformational practices, and shaping NIL

policies to reduce conflicts between academic and financial priorities.

Literature Review

Prior research has demonstrated that athletes often record lower GPAs during their competitive

seasons compared to off-season terms, largely due to the combined burdens of practice, travel,

and game commitments (Scott et al., 2008). At the same time, leadership structures and

departmental climates influence outcomes, with transformational leadership, characterized by

vision, inspiration, intellectual stimulation, and individualized support, promoting academic

persistence and holistic development, while transactional leadership, which relies on compliance

and performance-based exchanges, can exacerbate academic struggles (Bass & Avolio, 1994;

Comeaux & Harrison, 2011). External forces, such as NIL opportunities and the transfer portal,

further complicate this balance, diverting time and attention toward financial and athletic

priorities at the expense of academics (Davis, 2024; Meares, 2024). The purpose of this project

was to analyze the academic performance of Division I student-athletes during in-season versus

out-of-season periods in order to strengthen academic support strategies. The scope encompassed

10 years of GPA data from a large public university, where student-athletes represented 6.5% of

the total enrollment. The analysis focused on seasonality, gender, team size, sport type, and

NIL-era differences. This literature review highlights three interconnected knowledge areas

within organizational leadership that are central to this project: student-athlete academic

outcomes, leadership and support models in collegiate athletics, and the influence of

commercialization, NIL, and organizational policy.

Research on student-athlete academic outcomes demonstrates that in-season competition

consistently influences GPA performance. Scott, Paskus, Miranda, Petr, and McArdle (2008)

found that GPAs declined during competitive seasons due to increased travel and scheduling

demands. In contrast, Gayles and Hu (2009) observed that student-athletes who spent significant

time on athletic commitments reported reduced opportunities for engagement in meaningful

academic experiences. Similarly, Huml (2020) validated an instrument revealing that athletes

experienced time demands greater than those officially recognized by NCAA standards. Foster

and Huml (2017) further noted that strong athletic identity often led student-athletes to select less

rigorous majors, prioritizing eligibility over long-term academic development. To counter these

challenges, universities have implemented structured academic interventions such as mandatory

study halls and tutoring programs. These supports have shown measurable effectiveness in

mitigating GPA declines, suggesting that intentional academic scheduling and monitoring can

reduce the negative impact of athletic participation on student performance.

Building on these academic outcomes, scholars have emphasized that leadership and

organizational climate are equally critical to student-athlete success. Transformational

leadership, characterized by individualized consideration and motivational vision, promotes

motivation, self-regulation, and performance across both athletic and academic domains (Mach,

Lvina, & Maslowska, 2022). Similarly, Liu, Zhang, Li, and Jannesari (2023) demonstrated that

transformational leadership fulfills athletes’ psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and

relatedness—conditions that encourage thriving in both classroom and competitive settings.

Conners, Page, and Humphrey (2023) reinforced that transformational leaders foster climates

conducive to learning and engagement, whereas transactional leaders, relying on compliance and

rewards, can suppress academic persistence. Complementing this leadership dimension,

institutional academic support systems play a reinforcing role. Northington, Daprano, and Singer

(2016) found that targeted tutoring and mentoring improved GPA and retention, and Comeaux

and Harrison (2011) linked leadership, engagement, and identity development to measurable

academic gains. Case studies of universities adopting transformational leadership within advising

and athletic programs documented increased graduation rates and retention, demonstrating how

leadership and organizational support intersect to produce sustainable success.

As leadership structures evolve, the growing commercialization of collegiate athletics has

introduced new pressures that reshape academic priorities. Davis (2024) described a decline in

the traditional “student-athlete” identity, as NIL policies and institutional marketing redefined

athletes as commercial assets. Meares (2024) observed that sponsorships, media obligations, and

brand partnerships are increasingly competing with academic responsibilities, thereby altering

time allocation and attention. Corr and Jensen (2023) found that athletes navigating NIL

opportunities often prioritize short-term financial outcomes over academic persistence. In

contrast, Lovell and Stokes (2023) highlighted how compliance and governance challenges

redirected institutional resources away from academic support. Moreover, Vogel and Kress

(2020) noted that increased recruitment of athletes with marginal academic preparation

compounded these effects, especially when commercialization amplified pressure on teams to

perform. In response, some institutions introduced NIL education programs centered on time

management and financial literacy, demonstrating early success in reducing conflicts between

academic and branding responsibilities. Assessing GPA patterns before and after the adoption of

NIL provides a valuable framework for understanding how these commercial and organizational

shifts influence academic persistence.

The literature established that student-athletes experience predictable academic disadvantages

during competitive seasons, often intensified by shifting leadership approaches and strong

athletic identities. The introduction of NIL rights added further complexity, competing with

academic commitments and altering institutional priorities. While prior research has addressed

elements of these challenges, gaps remain in understanding long-term GPA outcomes within a

single large institution and the interaction of NIL with leadership climates and academic

supports. Addressing these gaps justifies this applied project, which will analyze 10 years of

GPA data. For organizational leadership practice, the implications are significant:

transformational leadership, structured support systems, and carefully designed NIL education

programs are essential for student-athletes to thrive academically. Research has shown that

student-athletes often record lower GPAs during competitive seasons due to the time demands of

travel, practice, and games (Scott et al., 2008). Transformational leadership, characterized by

vision and individualized support, promotes persistence, whereas transactional approaches,

emphasizing compliance, can undermine academic engagement (Bass & Avolio, 1994; Comeaux

& Harrison, 2011). External forces, such as NIL and the transfer portal, have shifted the focus

toward financial and athletic priorities, often at the expense of academic focus (Davis, 2024;

Meares, 2024). This review highlights three interconnected themes: academic outcomes,

leadership and support systems, and commercialization.

Purpose Statement and Research Questions

Division I student-athletes face persistent challenges in balancing academic responsibilities with

athletic demands. Increased travel, practice, and competitive schedules create measurable

declines in academic performance during athletic seasons. These challenges have been amplified

by structural shifts in collegiate athletics, particularly the introduction of Name, Image, and

Likeness (NIL) rights and the expansion of the transfer portal, both of which emphasize financial

gain and athlete mobility over academic development (Davis, 2024; Meares, 2024). In parallel,

the leadership environment within athletic departments has evolved. Transformational

leadership, once defined by individualized support and holistic student-athlete development, has

increasingly been replaced by transactional models that prioritize compliance, performance

metrics, and revenue generation (Comeaux & Harrison, 2011; Conners, Page, & Humphrey,

2023). As a result, leadership attention often centers on athletic branding rather than academic

persistence, leading to inconsistent support structures and uneven expectations across programs

(Liu, Zhang, Li, & Jannesari, 2023; Lovell & Stokes, 2023). These shifts underscore the need to

reevaluate how leadership practices, academic support systems, and commercialization pressures

interact to shape student-athlete success. Accordingly, the proposed applied project will address

these concerns through three interconnected knowledge areas: student-athlete academic

outcomes, leadership and support models, and commercialization, NIL, and organizational

policy.

The project is situated within a large public Division I university with an enrollment exceeding

70,000 students, of which approximately 6.5% are student-athletes (Arizona State University,

n.d.). The athletics department sponsors multiple men’s and women’s sports, including both

revenue and non-revenue programs, and competes as a member of a Power Four conference

governed by NCAA regulations. This organizational setting operates within the broader higher

education and collegiate athletics industry, intersecting academic affairs, compliance, and

leadership domains. The NCAA establishes eligibility standards, regulates NIL policy, and

enforces academic benchmarks such as the Graduation Success Rate and Academic Progress

Rate (NCAA, 2024).

Over time, national policy and market trends have reshaped priorities within collegiate athletics.

Historically, academic underperformance among student-athletes was addressed through NCAA

reforms such as Proposition 48 and the Academic Progress Rate (Stansbury, 2003). In recent

years, however, NIL rights and the transfer portal have transformed the collegiate landscape by

emphasizing athlete mobility, personal branding, and financial gain over academic engagement.

These developments have increased commercialization and intensified institutional focus on

compliance and revenue generation, while emerging trends suggest an expanding emphasis on

NIL education programs, compliance oversight, and enhanced academic support services

(Meares, 2024).

Both external and internal factors impact the organizational environment of this project.

Externally, NCAA governance structures, state NIL legislation, and cultural values that

emphasize financial independence for athletes shape institutional decision-making and resource

allocation. A SWOT analysis of these dynamics identified strengths in program visibility and

access to institutional resources, weaknesses in balancing athletics with academics, opportunities

for NIL education and leadership reform, and threats related to over-commercialization and

compliance obligations (Lovell & Stokes, 2023). Internally, leadership style, team culture, and

institutional priorities also significantly impact student-athlete outcomes. Transformational

leadership and proactive advising structures foster academic persistence and personal

development, whereas transactional approaches focused on short-term performance goals often

diminish academic engagement and support effectiveness. In addition, team cultures that

prioritize athletic success over academic achievement, combined with inconsistent academic

resources across programs, tend to exacerbate the declines in GPA observed during competitive

seasons (Comeaux & Harrison, 2011; Conners, Page, & Humphrey, 2023).

These external pressures and internal dynamics define the organizational context for this applied

project. Understanding how leadership practices interact with commercialization, academic

support, and policy constraints is essential for developing strategies that sustain student-athlete

success and align institutional leadership with educational integrity in the NIL era.

Research Questions

1. How has the introduction of NIL served as a catalyst for decreased academic

performance and distraction among Division I student-athletes?

2. How does athletic season participation influence GPA outcomes for Division I

student-athletes compared to out-of-season terms?

3. How do factors such as sport type, gender, and team size contribute to variations in

academic performance within the NIL era?

4. How can transformational leadership practices within athletic departments mitigate the

academic challenges created by NIL-related obligations and support student-athlete

persistence and success?

Research Methodology and Data Collection Strategy

The project will use a quantitative design to analyze institutional GPA data across 10 academic

years, with team GPA records to be obtained from the Office of Student-Athlete Development

within the university. The data will be grouped by in-season and out-of-season periods, gender,

sport type, and team size. Pre- and post-NIL comparisons will be conducted to assess policy

effects (Scott et al., 2008). Statistical analysis will include descriptive statistics and comparisons

of averages to identify patterns and trends. Validity and reliability will be ensured by relying on

standardized institutional records (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Potential bias will be minimized

by anonymizing data and interpreting findings through established leadership frameworks

(Comeaux & Harrison, 2011; Davis, 2024).

Assumptions and Limitations

This project will operate under several assumptions. It is assumed that institutional GPA

reporting accurately reflects student-athlete academic performance (NCAA, 2024). It is also

assumed that comparing in-season and out-of-season GPA data will provide meaningful

measures of academic variation and workload impact (Scott et al., 2008). Additionally, the

project assumes that NIL policies have reshaped leadership climates within athletic departments

and have indirectly influenced academic outcomes through changing priorities and expectations

(Comeaux & Harrison, 2011).

Limitations will also be acknowledged. GPA data alone will not capture contextual variables

such as tutoring participation, course difficulty, or student stress levels that may also affect

academic performance. The analysis will also not account for differences in majors, which can

vary in rigor, credit load, and time demands, potentially influencing GPA outcomes across

academic disciplines. Because this study will rely on secondary data, control over confounding

variables will be limited (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Furthermore, findings from this single

institutional setting may not be generalizable across all Division I programs due to differences in

institutional resources, leadership structures, and team cultures (Arizona State University, n.d.).

Ethical Considerations

Ethical Considerations

The project will ensure no harm to participants by using anonymized GPA records and excluding

personal identifiers. Student privacy was prioritized, and the research followed ASU’s IRB

Wizard and CITI certification processes, which determined that no additional IRB approval was

required. Bias was minimized through standardized definitions, reliance on objective data, and

use of established leadership theory to guide interpretation (ASU, n.d.; Creswell & Creswell,

2018).

References

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Bass, B. M., & Avolio, B. J. (1994). Improving organizational effectiveness through

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Comeaux, E., & Harrison, C. K. (2011). A conceptual model of academic success for

student–athletes. Educational Researcher, 40(5), 235–245.

Conners, B. L., Page, T. E., & Humphrey, N. (2023). Transformational leadership in sport: A

systematic review. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 67, 102412.

Davis, A. R. (2024). Sporting revolutions: The 1970s and the making of modern college

athletics. Cambridge University Press.

Huml, M. R. (2020). A factor structure examination of the student-athlete time demands scale.

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NCAA. (2024). Division I graduation rates database.

https://www.ncaa.org/sports/2017/12/12/division-i-graduation-rates-database.aspx

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