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Argumentation is a process of reasoning that asserts the soundness of a debatable position, belief, or conclusion. Argumentation takes a stand — supported by evidence — and urges people to share the writer’s perspective and insights.

Although the terms persuasion and argumentation are frequently used interchangeably, they do not mean the same thing. Persuasion is a general term that refers to how a writer influences an audience to adopt a belief or follow a course of action. To persuade an audience, a writer relies on various kinds of appeals — appeals based on emotion (pathos), appeals based on logic (logos), and appeals based on the character reputation of the writer (ethos). Argumentation is the appeal to reason (logos). In an argument, a writer connects a series of statements so that they lead logically to a conclusion. Argumentation is different from persuasion in that it does not try to move an audience to action; its primary purpose is to demonstrate that certain ideas are valid and others are not. Moreover, unlike persuasion, argumentation has a formal structure: an argument makes points, supplies evidence, establishes a logical chain of reasoning, refutes opposing arguments, and accommodates the audience’s views. Most effective arguments combine two or more appeals: even though their primary appeal is to reason, they may also appeal to emotions. For example, you could use a combination of logical and emotional appeals to argue against lowering the drinking age in your state from twenty-one to eighteen. You could appeal to reason by constructing an argument leading to the conclusion that the state should not condone policies that have a high probability of injuring or killing citizens. You could support your conclusion by presenting statistics showing that alcohol-related traffic accidents kill more teenagers than disease does. You could also cite a study showing that when the drinking age was raised from eighteen to twenty-one, fatal accidents declined. In addition, you could include an appeal to the emotions by telling a particularly sad story about an eighteen-year-old alcoholic or by pointing out how an increased number of accidents involving drunk drivers would cost some innocent people their lives. These appeals to your audience’s emotions could strengthen your argument by widening its appeal. Keep in mind, however, that in an effective argument emotion does not take the place of logic; it supports and reinforces it. The appeals you choose and how you balance them depend in part on your purpose and your sense of your audience. As you consider what strategies to use, remember that some extremely effective appeals are unfair. Although most people would agree that lies, threats, misleading statements, and appeals to greed and prejudice are unacceptable ways of reaching an audience, such appeals are used in daily conversation, in political campaigns, and even in international diplomacy. Nevertheless, in your college writing you should use only those appeals that most people would consider fair. To do otherwise will undercut your audience’s belief in your trustworthiness and weaken your argument.

Planning an Argumentative Essay

1. Select a topic-In an argumentative essay, as in all writing, choosing the right topic is important. Ideally, you should have an intellectual or emotional stake in your topic. Still, you should be open-minded and willing to consider all sides of a question. If the evidence goes against your position, you should be willing to change your position. You should also be able, from the outset, to consider your topic from other people’s viewpoints; this will help you determine what their beliefs are and how they are likely to react.

2. Develop a thesis-Keep in mind that in an argumentative essay, your thesis must take a stand — in other words, it must be debatable. A good argumentative thesis states a proposition that at least some people will object to.

· Thesis: Education is the best way to address the problem of increased drug use among teenagers.

· Thesis: Because immigrants have contributed much to the development of the United States, immigration quotas should be relaxed.

3. Analyzing your audience

Before writing any essay, you should analyze the characteristics, values, and interests of your audience. In argumentation, it is especially important to consider what beliefs or opinions your readers are likely to have and whether your audience is likely to be friendly, neutral, or hostile to your thesis.

4. Gather and document evidence-All the points you make in your paper must be supported. If they are not, your audience will dismiss them as unfounded, irrelevant, or unclear. Sometimes you can support a statement with appeals to emotion, but most of the time you support your argument’s points by appealing to reason — by providing evidence of facts and opinions in support of your position. Facts are statements that most people agree are true and that can be verified independently. Facts — including statistics — are the most commonly used type of evidence. It is a fact, for example, that fewer people per year were killed in U.S. automobile accidents in 2012 than in 1975. Facts may be drawn from your own experience as well as from reading and observation. Keep in mind that not all opinions are equally convincing. The opinions of experts are more convincing than are those of individuals who have limited knowledge of an issue. Your personal opinions can be excellent evidence (provided you are knowledgeable about your subject), but they are usually less convincing to your audience than an expert’s opinion. In the final analysis, what is important is not just the quality of the evidence but also the credibility of the person offering it. Your evidence should be relevant. It should support your thesis and be pertinent to your argument. Your evidence should be representative. It should represent the full range of opinions about your subject, not just one side. For example, in an essay arguing against the use of animals in medical experimentation, you would not just use information provided by animal rights activists. You would also use information supplied by medical researchers, pharmaceutical companies, and perhaps medical ethicists. Your evidence should be sufficient. It should include enough facts, opinions, and examples to support your claims. The amount of evidence you need depends on the length of your paper, your audience, and your thesis.

5. Documentation of Evidence. After you decide on a topic, you should begin to gather evidence. Sometimes you can use your own ideas and observations to support your claims. Most of the time, however, you will have to use the print and electronic resources of the library or search the Internet to locate the information you need. Documentation gives readers the ability to evaluate the sources you cite and to consult them if they wish. When you document sources, you establish credibility by showing readers that you are honest and have nothing to hide. Documentation also helps you avoid plagiarism — presenting the ideas or words of others as if they were your own.

6. Refutation- When gathering evidence, keep in mind that you should not ignore arguments against your position. In fact, you should always try to identify the most obvious — and even the not-so-obvious — objections to your position. By directly addressing these objections in your essay, you will help convince readers that your own position is valid. This part of an argument, called refutation, is essential to making the strongest case possible. You can refute opposing arguments by showing that they are unsound, unfair, or weak.