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PSY 3301, History and Systems of Psychology 1

Course Learning Outcomes for Unit II Upon completion of this unit, students should be able to:

3. Examine the early history of psychology as a domain of philosophy. 3.1 Describe the major pre-scientific approaches, such as philosophy, to the study of psychological

issues.

4. Discuss the transition of psychology from primarily a philosophical discipline into a scientific discipline. 4.1 Describe how psychology was explained at specific historical times.

Required Unit Resources Chapter 4: Philosophical Foundations of Psychology Chapter 5: Biological Foundations of Psychology Chapter 6: Phrenology, Mesmerism, and Hypnosis Unit Lesson

Introduction Buckle up! You have a lot of reading to complete in this unit! It is suggested that you break your reading down into small, achievable pieces. Try reading one chapter per night over the next several days. Your writing assignment is relatively short and will be both informative and creative, so have fun with the material in this unit, and consider the four broad camps we will be examining. Remember that we are not looking to be the worldwide expert on any one historical paradigm, but it will be useful to have a description in mind for each major psychological movement over time.

Philosophy How do we know what we know? When humans in different locations began developing agriculture, it is largely believed that this gave rise to specialization and to the time to pursue activities outside of the hunting and gathering of food. With growing societies and civilizations beginning approximately 7,000 years ago, modern humans sought out knowledge through the systems of faith, rationality, and systematic observation. Consider the sophistication that was emerging as homo sapiens created a stable food supply, began writing and reading, and could organize growing populations into societies (Lawson et al., 2018).

UNIT II STUDY GUIDE Philosophy, Biology, Pseudo- Science, and Beyond

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Figure 4.2 on page 44 in your textbook provides a visual representation of the four river valley civilizations that grew several thousand years ago and left us enough records to consider their ways of living with agriculture, urbanization, writing, and organized societies (Lawson et al., 2018). Remember that waterways have been essential throughout history for food/crops and transportation, so it makes sense that we find our first four examples in these lush natural areas. China Confucian philosophy in China developed around virtues and morality akin to an evolved demeanor (Lawson et al., 2018). Relationships were addressed as were the harmony of both the individual and the society. Education and morality were emphasized as a part of social harmony. At the same time, the Taoist philosophy was developing in China that emphasized the broad cyclical nature of the universe as symbolized by the yin and yang, which is shown below.

India In India, the Hindu religion was founded with its emphasis on karma, polytheism, and the life-death-life cycle of reincarnation (Lawson et al., 2018). Leaving his Hindu background behind, Buddha achieved full enlightenment and began a new religion based upon his Four Noble Truths. Many branches of this religion are practiced today—often with an emphasis on deep meditation as a means toward enlightenment. Mesopotamia/Egypt The history of Judaism may be somewhat familiar to those in the West who live in Judeo-Christian societies (Lawson et al., 2018). Growing up through the Mesopotamian and Egyptian regions, Judaism flipped the

(Jonina, n.d.)

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script from a polytheistic patchwork toward the worship of one omniscient creator. Learning, worship, and good works were hallmarks of this faith—the history of which is set down in the Torah. Greece Greek religion and philosophy occurred around the same broad swaths of time, and it is known that different civilizations were certainly aware of each other. In the Bible, Hebrews were taught not to live their lives like the Greeks, for example. Greek philosophers were prolific, so for our purposes, we need to limit our focus to a few central contributions (Lawson et al., 2018).

• Rationalism was the idea that systematic observation could yield knowledge. Remember that in many areas, priests and kings were seen as the authority; rationalism sounds like a precursor to the scientific method. Logos is a related term associated with reason and logic.

• Naturalism focused on principles and laws to dictate events. Today, we might look to weather patterns to predict a storm rather than assume it is due to a pantheon of angry gods.

• In regard to evolution, your textbook notes at least one philosopher proposing that humans arose from other species over 2,500 years ago.

• The term philosophy comes from the Greek words meaning the love of wisdom. • In regard to molecular physics, the Greeks were not manipulating atoms, but a materialist named

Democritus came to feel that the natural world was made up of microscopically small elements. • Many students will be familiar with the names Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, whom are famous

philosophers who championed ideals such as reason, introspection, and observation. Politics, ethics, and probably some approaches to psychology are influenced today by their work.

• The physician Galen proposed physiological explanations for ill health, which was, again, fairly new to civilizations used to attributing problems to angry deities. Blood, phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile became unbalanced in the body and were considered the cause of much suffering. According to Goodman (2016), this concept survived into Tudor England, where it would be somewhat mediated by diet.

The Roman Empire eventually eclipsed Greece, and it is fair to say that certain principles to living a good life were modified over the ensuing centuries. When the Roman Empire gave way to Roman Catholic Christianity, philosophy again blended with religion in the Western world (Lawson et al., 2018). Christianity would continue navigating the balance between faith and reason for at least the next millennium, as would Islam, which developed in the Middle East in the 6th century. Islamic science under Avicenna would preserve medical knowledge and support the claim that physical and mental illness could have a biological cause. Over the centuries to follow, each of the predominant faith systems of these regions would continue to seek a balance between spirituality and newer concepts resembling scientific study. As the Western world moved into the Renaissance period around 1450, society would experience a true tug of war between entrenched religious systems, such as the Roman Catholic hierarchy, and strides in science from familiar names like Copernicus, Galilei, and Newton.

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Toward Modernity and Biology As time moved on, there was a gradual curiosity again in Europe toward what we might consider as scientific inquiry today. Francis Bacon of England believed that one should strictly observe scientific inquiry in order to understand without any preconceived notions. Across the channel, Rene Descartes was busy creating multiple concepts about the nature of life, including the well-known phrase: “I think, therefore I am” (Lawson et al., 2018). He explained reflex action as the result of sensory stimulus causing a signaling in the brain, though he felt that in the brain were small animal spirits which would tell you what to do next. Remember that the church had forbidden human dissection for centuries, so a bit of guesswork was required. Descartes also recognized some similarities between animals and humans, though he did not feel that animals had a thinking mind. He recognized the importance of the mind-body connection in human beings; however, he also recognized that these were still discrete structures. Once more we find theorists anxious to answer the question of how humans work, which is a theme we will continue throughout this course.

Biological Foundations Chapter 5 introduces multiple researchers who were fascinated to begin answering questions about humanity and the nature of being. As different anatomical and physiological processes were examined further, we were left with all sorts of ideas on the human condition.

• Thomas Hobbes: He described materialism by suggesting that all that exists is physical. People are pleasure-seeking hedonists and behave like machines responding only to natural laws of motion.

• René Descartes: He introduced comparative psychology, which suggests that animal-human similarities exist. Though the animal spirits were never found inside human anatomy, he had a basic understanding of the structure and function of the human spinal cord.

• Bell and Magendie: The Bell-Magendie law indicated how sensory and neural information related to movement function.

• Johannes Muller: He studied the function and speed of neural impulses. • Ida Hyde: She created the first microelectrode that allowed the observation of individual neurons and

cells. Many brain studies were also performed during this period to determine if specific structures of the brain were responsible for different functions. When damage occurred to different areas of the brain, changes in function were observed, and attempts were made to further understand how the amazing human brain really works. Many psychology students are familiar with Phineas Gage, the 19th century railway worker who suffered a spike straight through his brain in a workplace accident. Yes, he could walk; but, no, his personality was never the same. While much knowledge has been gained over the past 3 centuries, the complete understanding of this amazing command center of the body still eludes us. Today, modern technology allows us multiple ways to see inside the body and brain to further our understanding of function and disease. We have an advanced knowledge of the workings of psychoactive substances and even the ability to stimulate different portions of the brain to alleviate certain conditions (Lawson et al., 2018).

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Pseudo-Science and a Preview of Psychotherapy Before we enter into an academic discussion of the field of psychology in its own right, we should briefly address early attempts at a psychological understanding that did not quite hit the mark. Remember the tiny animal spirits? The following concepts are a part of our historical canon, and some have a lasting application. However, these are concepts we must approach with healthy skepticism in the march toward a 21st century understanding of the psychological sciences. Phrenology was the 19th century attempt to study the brain by feeling the skull (Lawson et al., 2018). While it did help to develop the idea that the brain is the repository of different traits, the specifics did not pan out. Imagine going for a job interview today and rather than being asked to complete a questionnaire to determine agreeable personality traits, you are asked to submit to a phrenology exam wherein someone feels your skull and makes determinations based on any bumps they perceive along the way. If this sounds completely bizarre to you, do some reading on what was being said about the difference between races only a century before. Mesmerism was another pseudo-science that did not progress. According to proponents of this practice, biological processes could be manipulated with magnets that drew on aspects of animal magnetism within the body (Lawson et al., 2018). This theory partially arose from observations about gravity and the activity of the tide in relation to the moon. Again, we are looking back with a greater understanding of human biology, whereas 18th and 19th century practitioners were drawing upon what they could observe as they generated new explanatory theories. Hypnosis has a storied past and has come in and out of practice over the years. Originally used as a form of anesthetic during surgery, drugs like chloroform eliminated some of its usefulness (Lawson et al., 2018). Still, many practitioners have explored the practice of hypnosis; Charcot, for example, used it in Paris when nothing could be found physically wrong with his hysterical female clientele. Empirical laboratory researchers like Münsterberg and Hull practiced hypnosis into the 20th century. More is yet to come on these and other applied methods of psychological intervention in following units.

References Goodman, R. (2016). How to be a Tudor: A dawn-to-dusk guide to Tudor life. Liveright. Jonina. M. (n.d.). ID 28954831 [Photograph]. Dreamstime. https://www.dreamstime.com/stock-image-yin-

yang-symbol-image28954831 Lawson, R. B., Anderson, E. D., & Cepeda-Benito, A. (2018). A history of psychology: Globalization, ideas,

and applications (2nd ed.). Routledge.

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Suggested Unit Resources In order to access the following resources, click the links below. View the Unit II Flash Cards to help you review information about important people and terminology contained in this unit (PDF version of the Unit II Flash Cards).