General psychology

GPmodule5lecture.docx

Module 5: Lecture Content - States of Consciousness and Memory

Topic 1: States of Consciousness

Consciousness is the notion of the sensations, thoughts, and feelings that we experience at a given moment (Feldman, 2017). In general, the states of consciousness of the human being vary when we sleep, when we dream, with the consumption of drugs, moments of hypnosis and when practicing meditation. Some mental disorders can alter how you perceive the world and the people around you, which is an area of particular importance and constant study in the field. Our subjective understanding of the environment around us and our private internal world is also our subjective understanding, some of the early philosophical considerations discussed how the brain and the mind were related.

The ancient philosopher Plato, believed that the true substances are not physical bodies, which are ephemeral, but the eternal Forms of which bodies are imperfect copies. These Forms not only make the world possible, but they also make it intelligible, because they perform the role of universals. Aristotle believed the soul is the form of the body. This means that a particular person's soul is no more than his nature as a human being (Robinson, 2020).

René Descartes, a 17th-century French philosopher, and mathematician gave the idea of dualism its classical formulation. Building on his famous saying dictum cogito, ergo sum (Latin for "I think, therefore I am"), Descartes developed a theory of the mind as an immaterial substance that engages in various activities or experiences various states such as rational thought, imagination, feeling (sensation) and will. Matter, or extended substance, conforms to the laws of physics in a mechanistic way, with the important exception of the human body, which Descartes believed is causally affected by the human mind and causally produces certain mental events. For example, wishing for the arm to rise makes it rise while being hit by a hammer on the finger causes the mind to feel pain.

Robinson (2020) explains how the mind-body problem discussed by ancient and more recent philosophers considers the following questions:

1. What is the relationship between mind and body?

2. What is the relationship between mental properties and physical properties?

3. What are mental states, what are physical states and how are they distinct?

4. What is consciousness? How is it related to the brain and the body?

5. What is the self? How is it related to the brain and the body?

Since this is an introductory course, we will consider some of the foundations related to the study of consciousness in psychology so that you can be prepared to discuss this topic in future courses.

Definitions

Consider this current definition of consciousness in psychology (APA, 2020):

· "An organism's awareness of something either internal or external to itself.

· There are intricate philosophical and research controversies over the concept of consciousness and multiple perspectives about its meaning. Broadly, these interpretations divide along two (although not always mutually exclusive) major lines: (a) those proposed by scholars based on function or behavior (i.e., consciousness viewed "from the outside"—the observable organism); and (b) those proposed by scholars based on experience or subjectivity (i.e., consciousness viewed "from the inside"—the mind)."

· functional or behavioral interpretations tend to define consciousness in terms of physical, neurobiological, and cognitive processes, such as the ability to discriminate stimuli, monitor internal states, control behavior, and respond to the environment.

· Experiential or subjective interpretations, however, tend to define consciousness in terms of mental imagery; intuition; subjective experience as related to sensations, perceptions, emotions, moods, and dreams; self-awareness; awareness of awareness itself and of the unity between the self and others and the physical world; a stream of consciousness; and other aspects of private experience.

Now let's look at some related definitions in Figure 1 (APA, 2020).

Figure 1: Consciousness

I. Levels of consciousness: Wakefulness and Sleep

Let's start with the basics. Sleep is probably one of the first experiences you may think of when you consider a state of consciousness that is different from your current state of wakefulness. When we fall asleep, our brain and other organs in our body don't stop working, yet we can rest. Sleep is a state of consciousness in which your sensory awareness and physical activity are very low. When you are awake, you are in a consciousness characterized by high levels of awareness, thoughts, and actions. Being unconscious (usually induced by anesthesia) is entirely different because it is a state of lack of awareness (Jenkins et al., 2016).

Sometimes we sleep and wake up rested. Sometimes we don't since many different stimuli can affect the process. Some people sleep a lot, others sleep a lot less, even though we all need to sleep to survive. Our bodies will eventually shut down if we try to avoid sleeping. Which brings us to the question, why do we need to sleep?

Consider some popular theories that try to answer that question:

Theory

Explanation

Evolutionary Perspective

Sleep allowed our ancestors to conserve energy at night, a time when it was relatively difficult to find food. At sunrise, their ability to search for food was greater. According to this theory, sleep is necessary for evolution.

Resets and replenishes

According to this theory, sleep resets and replenishes our brain and body.

Physical growth and brain development in children

Sleeping is associated with the release of growth hormones, especially in a deep sleep. The theory proposes that we can grow our bodies and develop our brains due to sleep. This is why babies and children sleep more than adults, due to the early stages of human development.

Although there isn't a specific amount of sleep that everyone should adhere to, most researchers agree getting at least 6-8 hours of sleep daily is ideal for adults. But it depends on personal differences and age as well.

Some of the effects of not sleeping are irritability, difficulty concentrating, loss of creativity, decreased logical reasoning ability. It also reduces reaction time, and performance in academic and physical tasks.

II. Altered states of consciousness

a. Hypnosis

Hypnosis is a trance-like state of heightened susceptibility to the suggestions of others (Feldman et al., 2017). It is a state of self-focus.

Some popular hypnosis myths can be reviewed in figure 2.

Figure 2: Myths related to hypnosis

Hypnosis has been used effectively for:

· Pain control

· Smoking (For people who want to quit smoking

· Introspection and treatment of psychological disorders

· Law enforcement (Improving memory of eyewitnesses, for example)

· Improving sports performance

b. Meditation

Meditation is a technique that is learned to refocus attention, it generates an altered state of consciousness (Feldman et al., 2017). It involves focusing on a single target or action (such as breathing or repeating a mantra) to achieve a higher sense (peace, tranquility, etc.).

Meditation has been found to have long-term benefits. During meditation, oxygen consumption, heart rate, and blood pressure decrease. Additionally, it has been found to cause changes in brain wave patterns.

c. Psychoactive drugs

Psychoactive drugs are chemical substances that influence the central nervous system and can cause altered states of consciousness. They can produce changes in perception, mood, and behavior (Jenkins et al., 2016).

Topic 2: Memory

In psychology, memory is defined as the process by which we encode, store, and retrieve information (Feldman, 2017). This process influences our daily lives since we use our memory to obtain the information required for decisions.

Memory is carried out through these three processes (See figure 3):

Figure 3: Memory process

In this three-stage model, information initially recorded by the person's sensory system enters sensory memory that retains it momentarily. Then it goes into short-term memory, which stores it for 15 to 25 seconds. Finally, the information moves into long-term memory, which is relatively permanent. The effectiveness of this process depends on the person, the number of reviews of the material, and other physical and emotional factors.

1. Sensory Memory: Initial storage of the memory can be easily discarded.

2. Short-term memory: Keeps the memory for 15 to 25 seconds approximately.

3. Long-term memory: Memory that stores permanently (relative, may vary), but can be difficult to retrieve in some cases.

*Usually, the transfer from short-term memory to long-term memory depends on the review and repetition of information.

Elaborative Review: When information is considered and organized in some way. By relating it to another memory, it fits into a logical framework. Example: You go to the supermarket and remember what you had to buy.

Mnemonic: Organizational strategies, help improve our retention of information. They are formal techniques used to organize information in a way that helps us remember it.

Working memory: In short-term memory, it is a set of temporary memory stores that actively handle and review information.

The Central executive: It is a processor that participates in reasoning and decision making and coordinates three storage and retrieval systems:

1. Visual storage: Specializes in visual and spatial information.

2. Verbal storage: words and numbers (conversations).

3. Episodic memory: Information that represents episodes or events.

Stress reduces the efficiency of the working memory. This may sound familiar when you consider times in your life that have been stressful. For example, has stress related to taking difficult stress affected your memory?

Also, consider other types of memory discussed in Psychology:

Declarative memory: Memory of objective information: names, faces, dates, and facts.

Procedural or non-declarative memory: It is the memory of skills and habits (such as running a bike or swimming).

Semantics: Memory of general knowledge and facts about the world, the memory of logic that helps you deduce other facts.

Example: Language spoken in a country (Spanish is spoken in Spain, your brain makes the connection quickly if this is a fact that you have previously learned).

Episodic memory: Memory of events that occur in a certain time, place, or context.

Example: How we learned to swim or ride a bike.

Semantic networks: The semantic network is the mental representation of interconnected sets of information.

Do the following exercise to understand how the semantic network in your brain works. Before you start, make sure you are relaxed and in a place with no distractions.

Learning activity: Semantic networks

References

American Psychological Association [APA]. (2020). Altered states of consciousness. APA dictionary of psychology. https://dictionary.apa.org/altered-state-of-consciousnessLinks to an external site.

American Psychological Association [APA]. (2020). Consciousness. APA dictionary of psychology. https://dictionary.apa.org/consciousnessLinks to an external site.

American Psychological Association [APA]. (2020). Introspection. APA dictionary of psychology. https://dictionary.apa.org/introspectionLinks to an external site.

American Psychological Association [APA]. (2020). Wakefulness. APA dictionary of psychology. https://dictionary.apa.org/wakefulnessLinks to an external site.

Jenkins, W.J., Gavura, K., & Swope, J. (2016). Consciousness: A four-day unit lesson plan for high school psychology teachers. Teachers of Psychology in Secondary Schools. American Psychological Association.

Robinson, H. (2020). Dualism. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2020/entries/dualism/Links to an external site.

GPmodule5assignment.docx

Module 5: Critical Thinking Activity

Perform literature review and use analytical skills to write an essay.

Instructions

a. Choose one of the following talks to watch and analyze:

1.

1. The neuroscience of psychedelic drugs, music, and nostalgia. [Video]: https://www.ted.com/talks/frederick_streeter_barrett_the_neuroscience_of_psychedelic_drugs_music_and_nostalgiaLinks to an external site.

2. How reliable is your memory? [Video]: https://www.ted.com/talks/elizabeth_loftus_the_fiction_of_memory

b. As you watch the video, you are encouraged to make notes on what was discussed.

c. Perform a database search for scientific psychology studies related to the main topics discussed in the video you selected. Choose at least three articles that interest you, which will focus on your work. Please make sure they are peer-reviewed scientific articles.

d. Write a critical analysis essay in which you discuss the topics and material in this module. Your essay should include an introduction, development of the topic, and conclusion. It must consist of information related to the chosen articles and the talk (video) you selected.

e. Your essay must be in APA style and include references.

Be sure to review the academic expectations for your submission.

GPmodule5lecture.docx

Module 5: Lecture Content - States of Consciousness and Memory

Topic 1: States of Consciousness

Consciousness is the notion of the sensations, thoughts, and feelings that we experience at a given moment (Feldman, 2017). In general, the states of consciousness of the human being vary when we sleep, when we dream, with the consumption of drugs, moments of hypnosis and when practicing meditation. Some mental disorders can alter how you perceive the world and the people around you, which is an area of particular importance and constant study in the field. Our subjective understanding of the environment around us and our private internal world is also our subjective understanding, some of the early philosophical considerations discussed how the brain and the mind were related.

The ancient philosopher Plato, believed that the true substances are not physical bodies, which are ephemeral, but the eternal Forms of which bodies are imperfect copies. These Forms not only make the world possible, but they also make it intelligible, because they perform the role of universals. Aristotle believed the soul is the form of the body. This means that a particular person's soul is no more than his nature as a human being (Robinson, 2020).

René Descartes, a 17th-century French philosopher, and mathematician gave the idea of dualism its classical formulation. Building on his famous saying dictum cogito, ergo sum (Latin for "I think, therefore I am"), Descartes developed a theory of the mind as an immaterial substance that engages in various activities or experiences various states such as rational thought, imagination, feeling (sensation) and will. Matter, or extended substance, conforms to the laws of physics in a mechanistic way, with the important exception of the human body, which Descartes believed is causally affected by the human mind and causally produces certain mental events. For example, wishing for the arm to rise makes it rise while being hit by a hammer on the finger causes the mind to feel pain.

Robinson (2020) explains how the mind-body problem discussed by ancient and more recent philosophers considers the following questions:

1. What is the relationship between mind and body?

2. What is the relationship between mental properties and physical properties?

3. What are mental states, what are physical states and how are they distinct?

4. What is consciousness? How is it related to the brain and the body?

5. What is the self? How is it related to the brain and the body?

Since this is an introductory course, we will consider some of the foundations related to the study of consciousness in psychology so that you can be prepared to discuss this topic in future courses.

Definitions

Consider this current definition of consciousness in psychology (APA, 2020):

· "An organism's awareness of something either internal or external to itself.

· There are intricate philosophical and research controversies over the concept of consciousness and multiple perspectives about its meaning. Broadly, these interpretations divide along two (although not always mutually exclusive) major lines: (a) those proposed by scholars based on function or behavior (i.e., consciousness viewed "from the outside"—the observable organism); and (b) those proposed by scholars based on experience or subjectivity (i.e., consciousness viewed "from the inside"—the mind)."

· functional or behavioral interpretations tend to define consciousness in terms of physical, neurobiological, and cognitive processes, such as the ability to discriminate stimuli, monitor internal states, control behavior, and respond to the environment.

· Experiential or subjective interpretations, however, tend to define consciousness in terms of mental imagery; intuition; subjective experience as related to sensations, perceptions, emotions, moods, and dreams; self-awareness; awareness of awareness itself and of the unity between the self and others and the physical world; a stream of consciousness; and other aspects of private experience.

Now let's look at some related definitions in Figure 1 (APA, 2020).

Figure 1: Consciousness

I. Levels of consciousness: Wakefulness and Sleep

Let's start with the basics. Sleep is probably one of the first experiences you may think of when you consider a state of consciousness that is different from your current state of wakefulness. When we fall asleep, our brain and other organs in our body don't stop working, yet we can rest. Sleep is a state of consciousness in which your sensory awareness and physical activity are very low. When you are awake, you are in a consciousness characterized by high levels of awareness, thoughts, and actions. Being unconscious (usually induced by anesthesia) is entirely different because it is a state of lack of awareness (Jenkins et al., 2016).

Sometimes we sleep and wake up rested. Sometimes we don't since many different stimuli can affect the process. Some people sleep a lot, others sleep a lot less, even though we all need to sleep to survive. Our bodies will eventually shut down if we try to avoid sleeping. Which brings us to the question, why do we need to sleep?

Consider some popular theories that try to answer that question:

Theory

Explanation

Evolutionary Perspective

Sleep allowed our ancestors to conserve energy at night, a time when it was relatively difficult to find food. At sunrise, their ability to search for food was greater. According to this theory, sleep is necessary for evolution.

Resets and replenishes

According to this theory, sleep resets and replenishes our brain and body.

Physical growth and brain development in children

Sleeping is associated with the release of growth hormones, especially in a deep sleep. The theory proposes that we can grow our bodies and develop our brains due to sleep. This is why babies and children sleep more than adults, due to the early stages of human development.

Although there isn't a specific amount of sleep that everyone should adhere to, most researchers agree getting at least 6-8 hours of sleep daily is ideal for adults. But it depends on personal differences and age as well.

Some of the effects of not sleeping are irritability, difficulty concentrating, loss of creativity, decreased logical reasoning ability. It also reduces reaction time, and performance in academic and physical tasks.

II. Altered states of consciousness

a. Hypnosis

Hypnosis is a trance-like state of heightened susceptibility to the suggestions of others (Feldman et al., 2017). It is a state of self-focus.

Some popular hypnosis myths can be reviewed in figure 2.

Figure 2: Myths related to hypnosis

Hypnosis has been used effectively for:

· Pain control

· Smoking (For people who want to quit smoking

· Introspection and treatment of psychological disorders

· Law enforcement (Improving memory of eyewitnesses, for example)

· Improving sports performance

b. Meditation

Meditation is a technique that is learned to refocus attention, it generates an altered state of consciousness (Feldman et al., 2017). It involves focusing on a single target or action (such as breathing or repeating a mantra) to achieve a higher sense (peace, tranquility, etc.).

Meditation has been found to have long-term benefits. During meditation, oxygen consumption, heart rate, and blood pressure decrease. Additionally, it has been found to cause changes in brain wave patterns.

c. Psychoactive drugs

Psychoactive drugs are chemical substances that influence the central nervous system and can cause altered states of consciousness. They can produce changes in perception, mood, and behavior (Jenkins et al., 2016).

Topic 2: Memory

In psychology, memory is defined as the process by which we encode, store, and retrieve information (Feldman, 2017). This process influences our daily lives since we use our memory to obtain the information required for decisions.

Memory is carried out through these three processes (See figure 3):

Figure 3: Memory process

In this three-stage model, information initially recorded by the person's sensory system enters sensory memory that retains it momentarily. Then it goes into short-term memory, which stores it for 15 to 25 seconds. Finally, the information moves into long-term memory, which is relatively permanent. The effectiveness of this process depends on the person, the number of reviews of the material, and other physical and emotional factors.

1. Sensory Memory: Initial storage of the memory can be easily discarded.

2. Short-term memory: Keeps the memory for 15 to 25 seconds approximately.

3. Long-term memory: Memory that stores permanently (relative, may vary), but can be difficult to retrieve in some cases.

*Usually, the transfer from short-term memory to long-term memory depends on the review and repetition of information.

Elaborative Review: When information is considered and organized in some way. By relating it to another memory, it fits into a logical framework. Example: You go to the supermarket and remember what you had to buy.

Mnemonic: Organizational strategies, help improve our retention of information. They are formal techniques used to organize information in a way that helps us remember it.

Working memory: In short-term memory, it is a set of temporary memory stores that actively handle and review information.

The Central executive: It is a processor that participates in reasoning and decision making and coordinates three storage and retrieval systems:

1. Visual storage: Specializes in visual and spatial information.

2. Verbal storage: words and numbers (conversations).

3. Episodic memory: Information that represents episodes or events.

Stress reduces the efficiency of the working memory. This may sound familiar when you consider times in your life that have been stressful. For example, has stress related to taking difficult stress affected your memory?

Also, consider other types of memory discussed in Psychology:

Declarative memory: Memory of objective information: names, faces, dates, and facts.

Procedural or non-declarative memory: It is the memory of skills and habits (such as running a bike or swimming).

Semantics: Memory of general knowledge and facts about the world, the memory of logic that helps you deduce other facts.

Example: Language spoken in a country (Spanish is spoken in Spain, your brain makes the connection quickly if this is a fact that you have previously learned).

Episodic memory: Memory of events that occur in a certain time, place, or context.

Example: How we learned to swim or ride a bike.

Semantic networks: The semantic network is the mental representation of interconnected sets of information.

Do the following exercise to understand how the semantic network in your brain works. Before you start, make sure you are relaxed and in a place with no distractions.

Learning activity: Semantic networks

References

American Psychological Association [APA]. (2020). Altered states of consciousness. APA dictionary of psychology. https://dictionary.apa.org/altered-state-of-consciousnessLinks to an external site.

American Psychological Association [APA]. (2020). Consciousness. APA dictionary of psychology. https://dictionary.apa.org/consciousnessLinks to an external site.

American Psychological Association [APA]. (2020). Introspection. APA dictionary of psychology. https://dictionary.apa.org/introspectionLinks to an external site.

American Psychological Association [APA]. (2020). Wakefulness. APA dictionary of psychology. https://dictionary.apa.org/wakefulnessLinks to an external site.

Jenkins, W.J., Gavura, K., & Swope, J. (2016). Consciousness: A four-day unit lesson plan for high school psychology teachers. Teachers of Psychology in Secondary Schools. American Psychological Association.

Robinson, H. (2020). Dualism. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2020/entries/dualism/Links to an external site.

GPmodule5assignment.docx

Module 5: Critical Thinking Activity

Perform literature review and use analytical skills to write an essay.

Instructions

a. Choose one of the following talks to watch and analyze:

1.

1. The neuroscience of psychedelic drugs, music, and nostalgia. [Video]: https://www.ted.com/talks/frederick_streeter_barrett_the_neuroscience_of_psychedelic_drugs_music_and_nostalgiaLinks to an external site.

2. How reliable is your memory? [Video]: https://www.ted.com/talks/elizabeth_loftus_the_fiction_of_memory

b. As you watch the video, you are encouraged to make notes on what was discussed.

c. Perform a database search for scientific psychology studies related to the main topics discussed in the video you selected. Choose at least three articles that interest you, which will focus on your work. Please make sure they are peer-reviewed scientific articles.

d. Write a critical analysis essay in which you discuss the topics and material in this module. Your essay should include an introduction, development of the topic, and conclusion. It must consist of information related to the chosen articles and the talk (video) you selected.

e. Your essay must be in APA style and include references.

Be sure to review the academic expectations for your submission.

GPmodule5lecture.docx

Module 5: Lecture Content - States of Consciousness and Memory

Topic 1: States of Consciousness

Consciousness is the notion of the sensations, thoughts, and feelings that we experience at a given moment (Feldman, 2017). In general, the states of consciousness of the human being vary when we sleep, when we dream, with the consumption of drugs, moments of hypnosis and when practicing meditation. Some mental disorders can alter how you perceive the world and the people around you, which is an area of particular importance and constant study in the field. Our subjective understanding of the environment around us and our private internal world is also our subjective understanding, some of the early philosophical considerations discussed how the brain and the mind were related.

The ancient philosopher Plato, believed that the true substances are not physical bodies, which are ephemeral, but the eternal Forms of which bodies are imperfect copies. These Forms not only make the world possible, but they also make it intelligible, because they perform the role of universals. Aristotle believed the soul is the form of the body. This means that a particular person's soul is no more than his nature as a human being (Robinson, 2020).

René Descartes, a 17th-century French philosopher, and mathematician gave the idea of dualism its classical formulation. Building on his famous saying dictum cogito, ergo sum (Latin for "I think, therefore I am"), Descartes developed a theory of the mind as an immaterial substance that engages in various activities or experiences various states such as rational thought, imagination, feeling (sensation) and will. Matter, or extended substance, conforms to the laws of physics in a mechanistic way, with the important exception of the human body, which Descartes believed is causally affected by the human mind and causally produces certain mental events. For example, wishing for the arm to rise makes it rise while being hit by a hammer on the finger causes the mind to feel pain.

Robinson (2020) explains how the mind-body problem discussed by ancient and more recent philosophers considers the following questions:

1. What is the relationship between mind and body?

2. What is the relationship between mental properties and physical properties?

3. What are mental states, what are physical states and how are they distinct?

4. What is consciousness? How is it related to the brain and the body?

5. What is the self? How is it related to the brain and the body?

Since this is an introductory course, we will consider some of the foundations related to the study of consciousness in psychology so that you can be prepared to discuss this topic in future courses.

Definitions

Consider this current definition of consciousness in psychology (APA, 2020):

· "An organism's awareness of something either internal or external to itself.

· There are intricate philosophical and research controversies over the concept of consciousness and multiple perspectives about its meaning. Broadly, these interpretations divide along two (although not always mutually exclusive) major lines: (a) those proposed by scholars based on function or behavior (i.e., consciousness viewed "from the outside"—the observable organism); and (b) those proposed by scholars based on experience or subjectivity (i.e., consciousness viewed "from the inside"—the mind)."

· functional or behavioral interpretations tend to define consciousness in terms of physical, neurobiological, and cognitive processes, such as the ability to discriminate stimuli, monitor internal states, control behavior, and respond to the environment.

· Experiential or subjective interpretations, however, tend to define consciousness in terms of mental imagery; intuition; subjective experience as related to sensations, perceptions, emotions, moods, and dreams; self-awareness; awareness of awareness itself and of the unity between the self and others and the physical world; a stream of consciousness; and other aspects of private experience.

Now let's look at some related definitions in Figure 1 (APA, 2020).

Figure 1: Consciousness

I. Levels of consciousness: Wakefulness and Sleep

Let's start with the basics. Sleep is probably one of the first experiences you may think of when you consider a state of consciousness that is different from your current state of wakefulness. When we fall asleep, our brain and other organs in our body don't stop working, yet we can rest. Sleep is a state of consciousness in which your sensory awareness and physical activity are very low. When you are awake, you are in a consciousness characterized by high levels of awareness, thoughts, and actions. Being unconscious (usually induced by anesthesia) is entirely different because it is a state of lack of awareness (Jenkins et al., 2016).

Sometimes we sleep and wake up rested. Sometimes we don't since many different stimuli can affect the process. Some people sleep a lot, others sleep a lot less, even though we all need to sleep to survive. Our bodies will eventually shut down if we try to avoid sleeping. Which brings us to the question, why do we need to sleep?

Consider some popular theories that try to answer that question:

Theory

Explanation

Evolutionary Perspective

Sleep allowed our ancestors to conserve energy at night, a time when it was relatively difficult to find food. At sunrise, their ability to search for food was greater. According to this theory, sleep is necessary for evolution.

Resets and replenishes

According to this theory, sleep resets and replenishes our brain and body.

Physical growth and brain development in children

Sleeping is associated with the release of growth hormones, especially in a deep sleep. The theory proposes that we can grow our bodies and develop our brains due to sleep. This is why babies and children sleep more than adults, due to the early stages of human development.

Although there isn't a specific amount of sleep that everyone should adhere to, most researchers agree getting at least 6-8 hours of sleep daily is ideal for adults. But it depends on personal differences and age as well.

Some of the effects of not sleeping are irritability, difficulty concentrating, loss of creativity, decreased logical reasoning ability. It also reduces reaction time, and performance in academic and physical tasks.

II. Altered states of consciousness

a. Hypnosis

Hypnosis is a trance-like state of heightened susceptibility to the suggestions of others (Feldman et al., 2017). It is a state of self-focus.

Some popular hypnosis myths can be reviewed in figure 2.

Figure 2: Myths related to hypnosis

Hypnosis has been used effectively for:

· Pain control

· Smoking (For people who want to quit smoking

· Introspection and treatment of psychological disorders

· Law enforcement (Improving memory of eyewitnesses, for example)

· Improving sports performance

b. Meditation

Meditation is a technique that is learned to refocus attention, it generates an altered state of consciousness (Feldman et al., 2017). It involves focusing on a single target or action (such as breathing or repeating a mantra) to achieve a higher sense (peace, tranquility, etc.).

Meditation has been found to have long-term benefits. During meditation, oxygen consumption, heart rate, and blood pressure decrease. Additionally, it has been found to cause changes in brain wave patterns.

c. Psychoactive drugs

Psychoactive drugs are chemical substances that influence the central nervous system and can cause altered states of consciousness. They can produce changes in perception, mood, and behavior (Jenkins et al., 2016).

Topic 2: Memory

In psychology, memory is defined as the process by which we encode, store, and retrieve information (Feldman, 2017). This process influences our daily lives since we use our memory to obtain the information required for decisions.

Memory is carried out through these three processes (See figure 3):

Figure 3: Memory process

In this three-stage model, information initially recorded by the person's sensory system enters sensory memory that retains it momentarily. Then it goes into short-term memory, which stores it for 15 to 25 seconds. Finally, the information moves into long-term memory, which is relatively permanent. The effectiveness of this process depends on the person, the number of reviews of the material, and other physical and emotional factors.

1. Sensory Memory: Initial storage of the memory can be easily discarded.

2. Short-term memory: Keeps the memory for 15 to 25 seconds approximately.

3. Long-term memory: Memory that stores permanently (relative, may vary), but can be difficult to retrieve in some cases.

*Usually, the transfer from short-term memory to long-term memory depends on the review and repetition of information.

Elaborative Review: When information is considered and organized in some way. By relating it to another memory, it fits into a logical framework. Example: You go to the supermarket and remember what you had to buy.

Mnemonic: Organizational strategies, help improve our retention of information. They are formal techniques used to organize information in a way that helps us remember it.

Working memory: In short-term memory, it is a set of temporary memory stores that actively handle and review information.

The Central executive: It is a processor that participates in reasoning and decision making and coordinates three storage and retrieval systems:

1. Visual storage: Specializes in visual and spatial information.

2. Verbal storage: words and numbers (conversations).

3. Episodic memory: Information that represents episodes or events.

Stress reduces the efficiency of the working memory. This may sound familiar when you consider times in your life that have been stressful. For example, has stress related to taking difficult stress affected your memory?

Also, consider other types of memory discussed in Psychology:

Declarative memory: Memory of objective information: names, faces, dates, and facts.

Procedural or non-declarative memory: It is the memory of skills and habits (such as running a bike or swimming).

Semantics: Memory of general knowledge and facts about the world, the memory of logic that helps you deduce other facts.

Example: Language spoken in a country (Spanish is spoken in Spain, your brain makes the connection quickly if this is a fact that you have previously learned).

Episodic memory: Memory of events that occur in a certain time, place, or context.

Example: How we learned to swim or ride a bike.

Semantic networks: The semantic network is the mental representation of interconnected sets of information.

Do the following exercise to understand how the semantic network in your brain works. Before you start, make sure you are relaxed and in a place with no distractions.

Learning activity: Semantic networks

References

American Psychological Association [APA]. (2020). Altered states of consciousness. APA dictionary of psychology. https://dictionary.apa.org/altered-state-of-consciousnessLinks to an external site.

American Psychological Association [APA]. (2020). Consciousness. APA dictionary of psychology. https://dictionary.apa.org/consciousnessLinks to an external site.

American Psychological Association [APA]. (2020). Introspection. APA dictionary of psychology. https://dictionary.apa.org/introspectionLinks to an external site.

American Psychological Association [APA]. (2020). Wakefulness. APA dictionary of psychology. https://dictionary.apa.org/wakefulnessLinks to an external site.

Jenkins, W.J., Gavura, K., & Swope, J. (2016). Consciousness: A four-day unit lesson plan for high school psychology teachers. Teachers of Psychology in Secondary Schools. American Psychological Association.

Robinson, H. (2020). Dualism. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2020/entries/dualism/Links to an external site.

GPmodule5assignment.docx

GPmodule5lecture.docx

GPmodule5assignment.docx

GPmodule5lecture.docx

GPmodule5lecture.docx

GPmodule5assignment.docx

GPmodule5lecture.docx

GPmodule5assignment.docx

GPmodule5lecture.docx

general psychology

Theory	Explanation
*Evolutionary Perspective*	Sleep allowed our ancestors to conserve energy at night, a time when it was relatively difficult to find food. At sunrise, their ability to search for food was greater. According to this theory, sleep is necessary for evolution.
*Resets and replenishes*	According to this theory, sleep resets and replenishes our brain and body.
*Physical growth and brain development in children*	Sleeping is associated with the release of growth hormones, especially in a deep sleep. The theory proposes that we can grow our bodies and develop our brains due to sleep. This is why babies and children sleep more than adults, due to the early stages of human development.