critical thinking

Module 12 Evaluating Arguments: Analogical Induction – Spring 2026

Critical Thinking Online Fayetteville State University

Dr. Jon Young, Instructor

1

In this module, you will learn:

2

Explain the pattern/form of analogical induction: Thing A has properties P1, P2, P3, and P4. Thing B has properties P1, P2, and P3. Therefore, Thing B probably also has P4.

Explain the difference between an analogy and analogical induction. An analogy asserts that two things are similar in one or more ways; analogical induction makes an inference (draws a conclusion) based on that analogy. (Stated differently, the premises assert the analogy which supports the conclusion.)

Identify in specific examples the components of the pattern/form of analogical induction.

Explain how arguments by analogy can easily be misused; recall the fallacy of “faulty analogy.”

Evaluate specific examples of analogical induction by applying four criteria: relevant similarities, relevant dissimilarities, The number of instances compared, diversity among cases.

In this module, you will do the following:

Complete the Required Readings

PowerPoint Introduction

Chapter 10.2 in your electronic textbook .

Earn at least 6 of 10 points on the Quiz.

Submit a writing assignment.

Contribute to the Discussion.

3

Analogical Reasoning

This week’s lesson focuses on analogical induction (or analogical reasoning). Don’t let this possibly strange name confuse you: you have used and will use analogical induction very often.

Consider the very common examples of reasoning from everyday experience. (Please note the word “like” in the explanation of each example.)

4

Analogical Induction - Examples

I let Gerard borrow my class notes but he never returned them. I will never let Gerard borrow anything again. (The next time he borrows my notes will be like the last: he won’t return my notes.)

Marisa didn’t attend class for the past two weeks. I doubt that she will be here today. (Marisa’s attendance today will be like the last two weeks; she won’t be here.)

People who drive red sports cars have a high rates of accidents. If you buy a red sports car, you can expect to have high insurance rates. (Your insurance for a red sports car will be like others who drive a red sports car.)

An incumbent governor with an approval rating of less than 50% has never been reelected. Governor Smithson’s approval rating is 43%. She’s not likely to be reelected. (The next election outcomes will be like those of the past.)

The last shirt I bought from Express was comfortable and looked nice. The next shirt I buy will be from Express. (The next shirt I buy from Express will be like the previous ones I bought there.)

5

Analogical induction

Anytime we conclude that a thing in the future will be similar to the past, we rely on analogical induction:

“An apple a day keeps the doctor away.” If apples have been good for me in the past, I conclude that the next one will be like the previous ones; it will be good for me.

Reputations are built on analogical reasoning: if a person has consistently been honest or dishonest in the past, we conclude that he or she will probably behave similarly in the future.

An employer has hired 4 FSU graduates and all have worked well, so the employer is more likely to hire another FSU graduate based on conclusion that the next graduate will be like the previous ones.

Can we ever be certain that the future will look like the past? No, in each of these cases we accept the conclusion within some range of probability. I am probably less confident about reputations or hiring graduates than I am about the apple (but don’t forget Adam and Eve and poor Snow White – maybe an apple is not always good for you.)

6

Analogies

So, analogical induction (or analogical reasoning) is based on (guess what?) analogies, an assertion that two things are like, similar to each other.

When we state an analogy we establish a likeness or similarity between two things. A is like B. It is common in everyday life as well as in poetry and literature. No doubt, You learned about similes (“my love is like a red, red rose”) in literature classes. A simile is an analogy: it asserts that two things are similar.

7

Arguments by Analogy

An analogy, by itself, however is NOT an argument. Consider: “Your body is like a car: both need regular maintenance.” This is NOT an argument. It simply establishes an analogy – our bodies are like cars in needing regular maintenance.

An argument by analogy points to a similarity between two things and on the basis of these similarities, draws a conclusion.

The formal pattern (and this is what we interested in, recognizing the pattern):

Thing A has Properties P1, P2, P3, and P4.

Thing B also has Properties P1, P2, and P3.

Therefore, Thing B also probably has P4.

Your textbook will offer several examples of arguments that use this pattern.

8

Arguments by Analogy

An analogy, by itself, however is NOT an argument. Consider: “Your body is like a car: both need regular maintenance.” This is NOT an argument. It simply establishes an analogy – our bodies are like cars in needing regular maintenance.

An argument by analogy points to a similarity between two things and on the basis of their similarities, draws a conclusion.

The formal pattern (and this is what we interested in, recognizing the pattern):

Thing A has Properties P1, P2, P3, and P4.

Thing B also has Properties P1, P2, and P3.

Therefore, Thing B also probably has P4.

Your textbook will offer several examples of arguments that use this pattern.

9

Analogical Reasoning – and Marketing

If you order many books on Amazon (I do), then you will frequently get an email from Amazon which recommends other books you will probably like. No doubt you have received such marketing recommendations)

How does Amazon (or other similar companies) arrive at these recommendations?

Amazon has millions of records of books purchased; If I purchased books, X, Y, and Z, they check records for all others who have bought books X, Y, and Z

They discover that many of those who have purchased X, Y, and Z have also purchased books M and Q.

Since I am similar to these others in liking X, Y, and Z, I probably also like M and Q.

10

Example

Module 12 Evaluating Arguments: Analogical Induction – Spring 2026

Critical Thinking Online Fayetteville State University

Dr. Jon Young, Instructor

1

In this module, you will learn:

2

Explain the pattern/form of analogical induction: Thing A has properties P1, P2, P3, and P4. Thing B has properties P1, P2, and P3. Therefore, Thing B probably also has P4.

Explain the difference between an analogy and analogical induction. An analogy asserts that two things are similar in one or more ways; analogical induction makes an inference (draws a conclusion) based on that analogy. (Stated differently, the premises assert the analogy which supports the conclusion.)

Identify in specific examples the components of the pattern/form of analogical induction.

Explain how arguments by analogy can easily be misused; recall the fallacy of “faulty analogy.”

Evaluate specific examples of analogical induction by applying four criteria: relevant similarities, relevant dissimilarities, The number of instances compared, diversity among cases.

In this module, you will do the following:

Complete the Required Readings

PowerPoint Introduction

Chapter 10.2 in your electronic textbook .

Earn at least 6 of 10 points on the Quiz.

Submit a writing assignment.

Contribute to the Discussion.

3

Analogical Reasoning

This week’s lesson focuses on analogical induction (or analogical reasoning). Don’t let this possibly strange name confuse you: you have used and will use analogical induction very often.

Consider the very common examples of reasoning from everyday experience. (Please note the word “like” in the explanation of each example.)

4

Analogical Induction - Examples

I let Gerard borrow my class notes but he never returned them. I will never let Gerard borrow anything again. (The next time he borrows my notes will be like the last: he won’t return my notes.)

Marisa didn’t attend class for the past two weeks. I doubt that she will be here today. (Marisa’s attendance today will be like the last two weeks; she won’t be here.)

People who drive red sports cars have a high rates of accidents. If you buy a red sports car, you can expect to have high insurance rates. (Your insurance for a red sports car will be like others who drive a red sports car.)

An incumbent governor with an approval rating of less than 50% has never been reelected. Governor Smithson’s approval rating is 43%. She’s not likely to be reelected. (The next election outcomes will be like those of the past.)

The last shirt I bought from Express was comfortable and looked nice. The next shirt I buy will be from Express. (The next shirt I buy from Express will be like the previous ones I bought there.)

5

Analogical induction

Anytime we conclude that a thing in the future will be similar to the past, we rely on analogical induction:

“An apple a day keeps the doctor away.” If apples have been good for me in the past, I conclude that the next one will be like the previous ones; it will be good for me.

Reputations are built on analogical reasoning: if a person has consistently been honest or dishonest in the past, we conclude that he or she will probably behave similarly in the future.

An employer has hired 4 FSU graduates and all have worked well, so the employer is more likely to hire another FSU graduate based on conclusion that the next graduate will be like the previous ones.

Can we ever be certain that the future will look like the past? No, in each of these cases we accept the conclusion within some range of probability. I am probably less confident about reputations or hiring graduates than I am about the apple (but don’t forget Adam and Eve and poor Snow White – maybe an apple is not always good for you.)

6

Analogies

So, analogical induction (or analogical reasoning) is based on (guess what?) analogies, an assertion that two things are like, similar to each other.

When we state an analogy we establish a likeness or similarity between two things. A is like B. It is common in everyday life as well as in poetry and literature. No doubt, You learned about similes (“my love is like a red, red rose”) in literature classes. A simile is an analogy: it asserts that two things are similar.

7

Arguments by Analogy

An analogy, by itself, however is NOT an argument. Consider: “Your body is like a car: both need regular maintenance.” This is NOT an argument. It simply establishes an analogy – our bodies are like cars in needing regular maintenance.

An argument by analogy points to a similarity between two things and on the basis of these similarities, draws a conclusion.

The formal pattern (and this is what we interested in, recognizing the pattern):

Thing A has Properties P1, P2, P3, and P4.

Thing B also has Properties P1, P2, and P3.

Therefore, Thing B also probably has P4.

Your textbook will offer several examples of arguments that use this pattern.

8

Arguments by Analogy

An analogy, by itself, however is NOT an argument. Consider: “Your body is like a car: both need regular maintenance.” This is NOT an argument. It simply establishes an analogy – our bodies are like cars in needing regular maintenance.

An argument by analogy points to a similarity between two things and on the basis of their similarities, draws a conclusion.

The formal pattern (and this is what we interested in, recognizing the pattern):

Thing A has Properties P1, P2, P3, and P4.

Thing B also has Properties P1, P2, and P3.

Therefore, Thing B also probably has P4.

Your textbook will offer several examples of arguments that use this pattern.

9

Analogical Reasoning – and Marketing

If you order many books on Amazon (I do), then you will frequently get an email from Amazon which recommends other books you will probably like. No doubt you have received such marketing recommendations)

How does Amazon (or other similar companies) arrive at these recommendations?

Amazon has millions of records of books purchased; If I purchased books, X, Y, and Z, they check records for all others who have bought books X, Y, and Z

They discover that many of those who have purchased X, Y, and Z have also purchased books M and Q.

Since I am similar to these others in liking X, Y, and Z, I probably also like M and Q.

10

Example