Communication

Module 2: Written Communication: Reading and Comprehension

This module shows what reading comprehension is, with its definition and characteristics. It presents the ways of comprehension, how we process the information inside our minds, and how it results in understanding and knowledge. The module also presents the verbal working memory, its characteristics, and how it works in the reading comprehension task. Moreover, the module presents the three levels of reading: literal, inferential, and critical, and how to apply them when reading any text. Finally, there are four types of reading skills: skimming, scanning, intensive, and extensive, which help read faster and efficiently. 

i.    Reading Comprehension: 

1. Definition: Reading is a process in which we build meaningful representations of a text. According to Wixson, Peters, Weber, and Roeber (1987), this construction involves an existing knowledge from the reader, the text information, and the reading context. Its main goal is to gain the correct message from a text that the writer intended for the reader to receive, an action that is defined as reading comprehension. (Pourhosein, 2016)

2. Ways of Comprehension We think that when we learn to read, it becomes an automatic process in which we grasp the idea and understand it. Nonetheless, it is a very complex process that takes several steps.   When we read, some things occur, and we should keep in mind: 

·

· Mental Representations: (Pourhosein, 2016) According to Kintsch (1998), when a person reads, there are three various levels of mental representation that are created: 

·

·

· the surface component

· the text-base

· the situation model  Kintsch (1998) defined the surface component as when the words and phrases and not the meaning of the words and phrases but encoded in the mental representation. The text-based indicates the meaning of the text. It's composed of those parts and connections from the text itself. Finally, the situation model is a structure that combines the text-base and the related features of the reader's knowledge.  To create a text-based, some previous knowledge is required, but this knowledge is a more general one that is necessary for decoding texts in general. In contrast, the earlier understanding of the formation of a situation model is more specific regarding the content of the text.

· Content Literacy: Content literacy is the ability to read, understand, and learn from texts from a particular matter. There are three types of content literacy: general literacy abilities, content-specific literacy abilities, and previous knowledge of content. The general and the content-specific literacy abilities indicate some more general type of knowledge that does not hinge on the detailed content of a particular text. This knowledge is applied to make a text-based mental representation (McKenna & Robinson, 1990). Previous knowledge of content is the knowledge that is related to the content of a particular text and is applied to make a situation model in the mental representation. (Pourhosein, 2016)

· Cognitive Processes (Pourhosein, 2016): The application of syntactic and semantic rules together with the activation of more particular previous knowledge occurs automatically and unconsciously. Perception is a highly automatic and unconscious process. For instance, when we see a dog and directly know it like a dog, we are conscious of the outcome of the process, but there are no active and conscious thought processes for this identification (Kintsch, 1992). Problem-solving deals with active thinking when we want to remember the name of a person we see and know. Accordingly, when we read a text without having any difficulties in comprehending what we read, the process is related to perception than problem-solving because the process of comprehending is unconscious. This comprehension is located between perception and problem solving (Kintsch, 1992). 

ii. Verbal Working Memory

1.

1. Definition: It's commonly known as "short term memory" and refers to the amount of verbal information that the brain can hold and manipulate to achieve a goal or solve a problem. This type of memory repeats information and involves the capacity to process your memory data and decide which one is needed for a particular task. For this reason, British psychologist Alan Braddeley made up the term "working memory" to replace "short term memory" in scientific literature. (Daw, n.d.)

2. Characteristics: One of the characteristics of verbal memory is the phonological loop. It consists of a few words or phrases continuously repeated in mind for a short period. (Daw, n.d.)

A phonological loop includes received information or planned original statements called subvocal rehearsal. (Daw, n.d.) Example: A person repeating an address or phone number repeatedly while searching for a piece of paper on which to write it down. (Daw, n.d.) The phonological loop does not contain any original information, only the one in hand. Nevertheless, subvocal rehearsal is formulating new phrases before they are spoken. (Daw, n.d.) Example: A person mentally rehearsing words such as, "I like my job, but I quit," in preparation for saying them out loud. (Daw, n.d.)

3.     Verbal working memory in reading comprehension: Verbal working memory also assists in reading comprehension by holding linguistic information about a sentence in mind long enough to understand that sentence and its relationship to the surrounding ones. The longer and elaborated the written material, the longer individual components must be held in the working memory before assimilating the general understanding of the material. (Daw, n.d.) 

iii. Reading Comprehension: Techniques and Skills

1.

1. The Three Levels of Reading: It is recommended that we read a text three times to understand it. This is when the three levels of reading come in handy. These are the following: (Howland, 2017) -     Literal: What it Says: This is the first level of reading comprehension when we read something for the first time. In this stage, we apply the following:  What the author is saying through the text.  As readers, we recognize the facts, identify de main idea and supporting details, categorize, outline, and summarize.  We locate information from our knowledge and use it in context to support the text's meaning. (Howland, 2017) Some questions to ask yourself in this stage are: (Howland, 2017) •    What words state the main idea?  •    How does the author summarize what they are saying in the text? •    What happened first, second, and last in what we're reading? •    How are these things alike and different?  •    What things belong together? -     Inferential: How it Says it: This is the second level of reading comprehension, in which the reader must read between the lunes and deduce information that is not directly stated. This involves interpreting figurative language, drawing conclusions, predicting outcomes, determining the mood, and judging the author's point of view. (Howland, 2017) As a reader, in this stage, you should ask yourself the following questions: (Howland, 2017) •    What does the author value?  •    What is the theme?  •    What effect does the character/event have on the text?  •    How do you think this will conclude? -     Critical: What it Means? This is the third and highest stage of reading comprehension. We figure out why the author says what they say in this part. It requires the reader to use external criteria from their own experience to evaluate the quality, writing values, author's reasoning, simplifications, and generalizations. Also, in this stage, we react emotionally and intellectually to the material as a reader. Here are some questions to ask yourself at this level: (Howland, 2017) •    Could this possibly happen? •    Is this a logical argument? •    What alternatives are there? •    Is this fact or an opinion? •    Do you agree or disagree with the author? •    What is the best solution to this problem? As a reader, you might ask yourself why these levels are essential. First, they are what form a skilled, strong reader. However, dominating them takes time and effort. Also, the three levels are important because when you're a strong reader, your writing evolves. Sustained exposure to English expands your vocabulary and grammar skills. (Howland, 2017)

2. Types of Reading Skills:  Training students to learn reading skills is very important since it helps them read and comprehend when the time is constrained. There are four of them: (MacDonald, 2012) -     Skimming: It means when you read to get a general idea. You read the first and last paragraph and check for any dark headings to do this. In that way, you can grasp the material and understand what it is about. This technique helps to know what the text is about at its most basic level. Skimming will save you as you grasp the text's main idea, but your comprehension won't be too high during the process. Nonetheless, it is helpful to get a preview and prepare you for deeper learning. Below are some tips you can use: (MacDonald, 2012) •    Look at the table of contents first. •    Review the subheadings in each chapter. •    Quicky read the first paragraph in that section. •    Check out anything in your text that is in bold or italics. •    If there is a chapter summary, now is a good time to read it. -    Scanning involves getting your eyes to scuttle across a sentence quickly and is used to get just a simple piece of information. You'll search for words or phrases that will give you more information and answer a specific question. (MacDonald, 2012)  Interestingly, research shows that reading from a computer screen limits the pathways to effective scanning. On the other hand, reading from paper is far more conducive to a quicker comprehension of texts. Illustrations must also be included in your scanning and the introduction and conclusion of the text. (MacDonald, 2012) -     Intensive: Intensive reading will be more time-consuming than skimming or scanning. To list the chronology of events or get many details from a text, you need to apply this technique. (MacDonald, 2012) This is great for language learners because they will need to deduce the meaning of words through context, which will help them improve their vocabulary. (MacDonald, 2012) The technique will also help with retention for long periods, and the knowledge you get from intensive reading will stay in your long-term memory. (MacDonald, 2012) -     Extensive: This involves reading for pleasure. It requires good decoding and assimilation of the text. (MacDonald, 2012)

References:

Daw, Emily (n.d.).  What is Verbal Working Memory.  https://www.thehealthboard.com/what-is-verbal-working-memory.htmLinks to an external site.

Howland, Jennifer (2017) . Literal, Inferential, and Critical Reading: Three Ways of Thinking. YouTube. https://youtu.be/0ZoD1mV1aZo 

MacDonald, Karl (2012) . Different Reading Techniques and When to Use Them.   https://www.howtolearn.com/2012/08/different-reading-techniques-and-when-to-use-them/Links to an external site.

Pourhosein, Abbas (2016). How Can Students Improve Their Reading Comprehension Skill?  https://www.researchgate.net/publication/303742915_How_Can_Students_Improve_Their_Reading_Comprehension_SkillLinks to an external site.

Module 2: Written Communication: Reading and Comprehension

This module shows what reading comprehension is, with its definition and characteristics. It presents the ways of comprehension, how we process the information inside our minds, and how it results in understanding and knowledge. The module also presents the verbal working memory, its characteristics, and how it works in the reading comprehension task. Moreover, the module presents the three levels of reading: literal, inferential, and critical, and how to apply them when reading any text. Finally, there are four types of reading skills: skimming, scanning, intensive, and extensive, which help read faster and efficiently. 

i.    Reading Comprehension: 

1. Definition: Reading is a process in which we build meaningful representations of a text. According to Wixson, Peters, Weber, and Roeber (1987), this construction involves an existing knowledge from the reader, the text information, and the reading context. Its main goal is to gain the correct message from a text that the writer intended for the reader to receive, an action that is defined as reading comprehension. (Pourhosein, 2016)

2. Ways of Comprehension We think that when we learn to read, it becomes an automatic process in which we grasp the idea and understand it. Nonetheless, it is a very complex process that takes several steps.   When we read, some things occur, and we should keep in mind: 

·

· Mental Representations: (Pourhosein, 2016) According to Kintsch (1998), when a person reads, there are three various levels of mental representation that are created: 

·

·

· the surface component

· the text-base

· the situation model  Kintsch (1998) defined the surface component as when the words and phrases and not the meaning of the words and phrases but encoded in the mental representation. The text-based indicates the meaning of the text. It's composed of those parts and connections from the text itself. Finally, the situation model is a structure that combines the text-base and the related features of the reader's knowledge.  To create a text-based, some previous knowledge is required, but this knowledge is a more general one that is necessary for decoding texts in general. In contrast, the earlier understanding of the formation of a situation model is more specific regarding the content of the text.

· Content Literacy: Content literacy is the ability to read, understand, and learn from texts from a particular matter. There are three types of content literacy: general literacy abilities, content-specific literacy abilities, and previous knowledge of content. The general and the content-specific literacy abilities indicate some more general type of knowledge that does not hinge on the detailed content of a particular text. This knowledge is applied to make a text-based mental representation (McKenna & Robinson, 1990). Previous knowledge of content is the knowledge that is related to the content of a particular text and is applied to make a situation model in the mental representation. (Pourhosein, 2016)

· Cognitive Processes (Pourhosein, 2016): The application of syntactic and semantic rules together with the activation of more particular previous knowledge occurs automatically and unconsciously. Perception is a highly automatic and unconscious process. For instance, when we see a dog and directly know it like a dog, we are conscious of the outcome of the process, but there are no active and conscious thought processes for this identification (Kintsch, 1992). Problem-solving deals with active thinking when we want to remember the name of a person we see and know. Accordingly, when we read a text without having any difficulties in comprehending what we read, the process is related to perception than problem-solving because the process of comprehending is unconscious. This comprehension is located between perception and problem solving (Kintsch, 1992). 

ii. Verbal Working Memory

1.

1. Definition: It's commonly known as "short term memory" and refers to the amount of verbal information that the brain can hold and manipulate to achieve a goal or solve a problem. This type of memory repeats information and involves the capacity to process your memory data and decide which one is needed for a particular task. For this reason, British psychologist Alan Braddeley made up the term "working memory" to replace "short term memory" in scientific literature. (Daw, n.d.)

2. Characteristics: One of the characteristics of verbal memory is the phonological loop. It consists of a few words or phrases continuously repeated in mind for a short period. (Daw, n.d.)

A phonological loop includes received information or planned original statements called subvocal rehearsal. (Daw, n.d.) Example: A person repeating an address or phone number repeatedly while searching for a piece of paper on which to write it down. (Daw, n.d.) The phonological loop does not contain any original information, only the one in hand. Nevertheless, subvocal rehearsal is formulating new phrases before they are spoken. (Daw, n.d.) Example: A person mentally rehearsing words such as, "I like my job, but I quit," in preparation for saying them out loud. (Daw, n.d.)

3.     Verbal working memory in reading comprehension: Verbal working memory also assists in reading comprehension by holding linguistic information about a sentence in mind long enough to understand that sentence and its relationship to the surrounding ones. The longer and elaborated the written material, the longer individual components must be held in the working memory before assimilating the general understanding of the material. (Daw, n.d.) 

iii. Reading Comprehension: Techniques and Skills

1.

1. The Three Levels of Reading: It is recommended that we read a text three times to understand it. This is when the three levels of reading come in handy. These are the following: (Howland, 2017) -     Literal: What it Says: This is the first level of reading comprehension when we read something for the first time. In this stage, we apply the following:  What the author is saying through the text.  As readers, we recognize the facts, identify de main idea and supporting details, categorize, outline, and summarize.  We locate information from our knowledge and use it in context to support the text's meaning. (Howland, 2017) Some questions to ask yourself in this stage are: (Howland, 2017) •    What words state the main idea?  •    How does the author summarize what they are saying in the text? •    What happened first, second, and last in what we're reading? •    How are these things alike and different?  •    What things belong together? -     Inferential: How it Says it: This is the second level of reading comprehension, in which the reader must read between the lunes and deduce information that is not directly stated. This involves interpreting figurative language, drawing conclusions, predicting outcomes, determining the mood, and judging the author's point of view. (Howland, 2017) As a reader, in this stage, you should ask yourself the following questions: (Howland, 2017) •    What does the author value?  •    What is the theme?  •    What effect does the character/event have on the text?  •    How do you think this will conclude? -     Critical: What it Means? This is the third and highest stage of reading comprehension. We figure out why the author says what they say in this part. It requires the reader to use external criteria from their own experience to evaluate the quality, writing values, author's reasoning, simplifications, and generalizations. Also, in this stage, we react emotionally and intellectually to the material as a reader. Here are some questions to ask yourself at this level: (Howland, 2017) •    Could this possibly happen? •    Is this a logical argument? •    What alternatives are there? •    Is this fact or an opinion? •    Do you agree or disagree with the author? •    What is the best solution to this problem? As a reader, you might ask yourself why these levels are essential. First, they are what form a skilled, strong reader. However, dominating them takes time and effort. Also, the three levels are important because when you're a strong reader, your writing evolves. Sustained exposure to English expands your vocabulary and grammar skills. (Howland, 2017)

2. Types of Reading Skills:  Training students to learn reading skills is very important since it helps them read and comprehend when the time is constrained. There are four of them: (MacDonald, 2012) -     Skimming: It means when you read to get a general idea. You read the first and last paragraph and check for any dark headings to do this. In that way, you can grasp the material and understand what it is about. This technique helps to know what the text is about at its most basic level. Skimming will save you as you grasp the text's main idea, but your comprehension won't be too high during the process. Nonetheless, it is helpful to get a preview and prepare you for deeper learning. Below are some tips you can use: (MacDonald, 2012) •    Look at the table of contents first. •    Review the subheadings in each chapter. •    Quicky read the first paragraph in that section. •    Check out anything in your text that is in bold or italics. •    If there is a chapter summary, now is a good time to read it. -    Scanning involves getting your eyes to scuttle across a sentence quickly and is used to get just a simple piece of information. You'll search for words or phrases that will give you more information and answer a specific question. (MacDonald, 2012)  Interestingly, research shows that reading from a computer screen limits the pathways to effective scanning. On the other hand, reading from paper is far more conducive to a quicker comprehension of texts. Illustrations must also be included in your scanning and the introduction and conclusion of the text. (MacDonald, 2012) -     Intensive: Intensive reading will be more time-consuming than skimming or scanning. To list the chronology of events or get many details from a text, you need to apply this technique. (MacDonald, 2012) This is great for language learners because they will need to deduce the meaning of words through context, which will help them improve their vocabulary. (MacDonald, 2012) The technique will also help with retention for long periods, and the knowledge you get from intensive reading will stay in your long-term memory. (MacDonald, 2012) -     Extensive: This involves reading for pleasure. It requires good decoding and assimilation of the text. (MacDonald, 2012)

References:

Daw, Emily (n.d.).  What is Verbal Working Memory.  https://www.thehealthboard.com/what-is-verbal-working-memory.htmLinks to an external site.

Howland, Jennifer (2017) . Literal, Inferential, and Critical Reading: Three Ways of Thinking. YouTube. https://youtu.be/0ZoD1mV1aZo 

MacDonald, Karl (2012) . Different Reading Techniques and When to Use Them.   https://www.howtolearn.com/2012/08/different-reading-techniques-and-when-to-use-them/Links to an external site.

Pourhosein, Abbas (2016). How Can Students Improve Their Reading Comprehension Skill?  https://www.researchgate.net/publication/303742915_How_Can_Students_Improve_Their_Reading_Comprehension_SkillLinks to an external site.