Assigment .Apa seven . All instructions attached.
butterflyl
6 months ago
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files (3)MilestoneOne.docx
Milestone21.docx
- FinalProjectGuidelinesandRubric.docx
MilestoneOne.docx
2
Milestone One: Organ System Assessment
Danitza Fernandez-Andes
SNHU
Intro to Anatomy & Physiology
Professor: Tina Lane
January 15, 2026
Milestone One: Organ System Assessment
Chosen Organ System: Respiratory System
Anatomy (Location, Organs, Structures, Cells/Tissues)
· Anatomical location: The respiratory system is located primarily in the thoracic cavity, with the upper airway beginning in the nasal cavity of the head and extending down into the chest.
· Upper respiratory tract structures: Includes the nose/nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses, pharynx, and larynx, which filter, warm, and humidify inhaled air.
· Lower respiratory tract structures: Includes the trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and lungs, which conduct air to gas-exchange surfaces .
· Primary organs: The lungs are the main organs of respiration and contain the alveoli where gas exchange occurs.
· Alveoli structure: Alveoli are microscopic air sacs surrounded by capillaries, forming the respiratory membrane for oxygen and carbon dioxide diffusion.
· Key tissue type (epithelial tissue): The trachea and bronchi are lined with pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium, which helps trap and move mucus upward.
· Key cell type (Type I pneumocytes): Type I alveolar cells form thin walls that allow rapid diffusion of gases.
· Key cell type (Type II pneumocytes): Type II alveolar cells secrete surfactant, reducing surface tension and preventing alveolar collapse.
· Key defense cells: Alveolar macrophages remove debris and pathogens to support immune defense in the lungs .
· Supporting structures: The diaphragm and intercostal muscles assist ventilation by changing thoracic volume and pressure.
“Labeled respiratory system location relative to other organ systems”
Physiology (Major Functions + One Visual Function)
· Primary function 1 (gas exchange): The respiratory system performs oxygen uptake and carbon dioxide removal through diffusion across the alveolar-capillary membrane.
· Primary function 2 (ventilation mechanics): Breathing occurs through inhalation and exhalation, driven by pressure changes created by the diaphragm and chest wall expansion .
· Primary function 3 (pH regulation): By controlling CO₂ levels, the respiratory system helps regulate acid–base balance in the blood .
· Primary function 4 (air conditioning and protection): The airway filters particles and pathogens using mucus and cilia, reducing respiratory infection risk .
“Labeled diagram illustrating one function (alveolar gas exchange)”
Reference
Moussavi, Z. (2022). Anatomy and Physiology of Respiratory System. In Fundamentals of Respiratory System and Sounds Analysis (pp. 1-8). Cham: Springer International Publishing.
image1.png
image2.jpeg
Milestone21.docx
2
Secondary Organ System: Cardiovascular System
Danitza Fernandez-Andes
SNHU
Intro to Anatomy & Physiology
Professor: Tina Lane
January 25, 2026
Organ System Interrelationship and Disease Assessment
Primary Organ System: Respiratory System
Secondary Organ System: Cardiovascular System
Homeostatic Interrelationship and Physiological Interactions
· The pulmonary and circulatory systems function as integrated, bringing oxygen into the tissues and transporting carbon dioxide out of the body.
· Additional blood is oxygenated at the lungs by gas exchange in the alveoli and then pumped through the heart for systemic circulation.
· The CO2 generated from the metabolism in cells is carried by the cardiovascular system back to the lung for expiration.
· It is the hemoglobin in red blood cells that carries oxygen from the lungs and delivers it to peripheral tissues.
· The pulmonary circulation between the heart and lungs provides a route for gaseous exchange to occur.
· Both mechanisms are for the purpose of maintaining blood pH with respect to equilibrium with carbon dioxide.
· More physical activity causes the body to breathe harder and faster in order to keep up with its heart rate.
· Good lung ventilation is important for optimal CO and tissue perfusion.
· The respiratory system impacts blood pressure via oxygen delivery and vasomotor tone.
· Impairment of the latter by dysfunction in either system leads to disturbances in oxygen supply and cellular metabolism.
Significance of Human Health
· This relationship maintains cellular respiration, energy production, and organ function.
· Proper interaction prevents hypoxia, acidosis, and organ failure.
· Long-term survival depends on efficient coordination between breathing and circulation.
Disease Affecting the Primary System: Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)
Description of the Condition
· Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a progressive lung condition with airways limitation persistency.
· It comprises chronic bronchitis and emphysema.
· COPD, characterized by persistent lungs airflow limitation, usually affects adults aged 40 and over who have been exposed to smoking or long-term pollutants.
· Presenting symptoms are persistent cough, shortness of breath, wheezing and fatigue.
Causes
· The leading cause of COPD is long-term cigarette smoking.
· Environmental pollutants, occupational dust, and chemical exposure contribute to disease development (GOLD, 2024).
· Genetic factors, such as alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency, also increase risk.
· Recurrent respiratory infections may worsen disease progression.
Implications and Consequences
· COPD reduces lung elasticity and airway patency, impairing oxygen exchange.
· Chronic hypoxia increases cardiac workload, leading to pulmonary hypertension and right-sided heart failure.
· Patients’ experience decreased exercise tolerance and quality of life.
· Frequent hospitalizations and long-term oxygen therapy increase healthcare costs.
· COPD contributes significantly to disability and premature mortality in the United States.
Prevalence in the United States
· About 14.2 million U.S. adults have been diagnosed with COPD.
· Another 7–8 million people are believed to be undiagnosed (CDC, 2023).
· Among older, smoking and low socioeconomic population are those with high prevalence levels.
References
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2023). Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) data and statistics. https://www.cdc.gov/copd/data.html
Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease. (2024). Global strategy for the diagnosis, management, and prevention of COPD (2024 report). https://goldcopd.org/2024-gold-report/
MilestoneOne.docx
2
Milestone One: Organ System Assessment
Danitza Fernandez-Andes
SNHU
Intro to Anatomy & Physiology
Professor: Tina Lane
January 15, 2026
Milestone One: Organ System Assessment
Chosen Organ System: Respiratory System
Anatomy (Location, Organs, Structures, Cells/Tissues)
· Anatomical location: The respiratory system is located primarily in the thoracic cavity, with the upper airway beginning in the nasal cavity of the head and extending down into the chest.
· Upper respiratory tract structures: Includes the nose/nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses, pharynx, and larynx, which filter, warm, and humidify inhaled air.
· Lower respiratory tract structures: Includes the trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and lungs, which conduct air to gas-exchange surfaces .
· Primary organs: The lungs are the main organs of respiration and contain the alveoli where gas exchange occurs.
· Alveoli structure: Alveoli are microscopic air sacs surrounded by capillaries, forming the respiratory membrane for oxygen and carbon dioxide diffusion.
· Key tissue type (epithelial tissue): The trachea and bronchi are lined with pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium, which helps trap and move mucus upward.
· Key cell type (Type I pneumocytes): Type I alveolar cells form thin walls that allow rapid diffusion of gases.
· Key cell type (Type II pneumocytes): Type II alveolar cells secrete surfactant, reducing surface tension and preventing alveolar collapse.
· Key defense cells: Alveolar macrophages remove debris and pathogens to support immune defense in the lungs .
· Supporting structures: The diaphragm and intercostal muscles assist ventilation by changing thoracic volume and pressure.
“Labeled respiratory system location relative to other organ systems”
Physiology (Major Functions + One Visual Function)
· Primary function 1 (gas exchange): The respiratory system performs oxygen uptake and carbon dioxide removal through diffusion across the alveolar-capillary membrane.
· Primary function 2 (ventilation mechanics): Breathing occurs through inhalation and exhalation, driven by pressure changes created by the diaphragm and chest wall expansion .
· Primary function 3 (pH regulation): By controlling CO₂ levels, the respiratory system helps regulate acid–base balance in the blood .
· Primary function 4 (air conditioning and protection): The airway filters particles and pathogens using mucus and cilia, reducing respiratory infection risk .
“Labeled diagram illustrating one function (alveolar gas exchange)”
Reference
Moussavi, Z. (2022). Anatomy and Physiology of Respiratory System. In Fundamentals of Respiratory System and Sounds Analysis (pp. 1-8). Cham: Springer International Publishing.
image1.png
image2.jpeg
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