2 assgn due in 48 hours

PSY 3301, History and Systems of Psychology 1

Course Learning Outcomes for Unit VII Upon completion of this unit, students should be able to:

1. Explain the diversity of contributions to the contemporary fields of psychology. 1.1 Outline non-Western influences and contributions to contemporary psychology.

Required Unit Resources Chapter 16: Psychology in Russia Chapter 17: Psychology in China Chapter 18: Indigenous Psychologies: Latin American, South Africa, and India-Asia Unit Lesson

Introduction If you recall, we began this course with a broad approach to philosophies that led into the field of psychology before focusing in on a few key areas, such as Western Europe and the United States. In the last unit, we explained the contributions of historically underrepresented voices. It is important to continue our journey through history by shifting the focus to other geographic locations once again.

Psychology in History Russia has always been a bit of an anomaly in that it seems to be a part of Europe in some regard, but it is also its own very distinct entity. In fact, even its location on a map mirrors this “part Europe, part ‘other’” quality. One component of this “otherness” is due to the Russian Orthodox system of Christianity as opposed to the Latin West of Europe, and Russia’s participation in the affairs of the rest of Europe would ebb and flow over several centuries (Lawson et al., 2018). The period following the French Revolution is noted in your textbook as a turning point where Western Europe began moving toward more liberal democracies with middle classes and intellectualism, while Russia held to its Czarist monarchy and a peasantry under the rule of the nobility class. This began to change in the 1860s when revolutionary liberalism moved through academia and the rest of the country, along with a strong desire for freedom and free scientific pursuit. Change came to Russia with the founding of the United Soviet Socialist Republic (USSR) under Marxist principles, which were designed to obtain a classless, utopian society. Unfortunately for science, the end result was a system of strict government rule wherein academics were not free to pursue their work, and travel to noncommunist countries was mostly forbidden to the population. Russian Psychology Psychology was one of the sciences caught up in these times of rapid change; at one point, Russian scientists studied with their Western counterparts and even in the laboratory of Wilhelm Wundt in Germany. As far back as 1885, there was a society of philosophers and physicians working together on this new concept called psychology, just as we have seen happen in other countries thus far in our studies. There was less of a back-and-forth between philosophy and psychology than experienced in other geographic areas, though Russian psychology did tend to stick with empirical research as opposed to applied practice outside the lab (Lawson et al., 2018).

UNIT VII STUDY GUIDE Russian, Chinese, and Indigenous Perspectives

PSY 3301, History and Systems of Psychology 2

UNIT x STUDY GUIDE Title

Dr. Ivan Sechenov expanded the discussion of the reflex arc by positing that the brain was more involved in this phenomenon and that emotion and thought were also tied to these muscular responses. While we may not see thought today as a step in the reflex action, we can trace his line of thinking by putting further emphasis on the brain. In 19th century Russia, however, this was seen as an opposition on moral and religious dogma and could have landed Dr. Sechenov in jail had his work not become so popular. Perhaps as a result of his treatment by the government, he devoted the rest of his career to fighting for the rights of women and the working class in Russia (Lawson et al., 2018). You are already familiar with the work of another 19th century Russian scientist and his canine research associates. Ivan Pavlov and his dogs were certainly a big part of the history of Russian psychology (Lawson et al., 2018). Remember that there were times in Russian history when information and collaboration flowed relatively freely; Pavlov was a student during one of those times and was influenced by the works of Sechenov and Charles Darwin. His classical conditioning is certainly recognized throughout Western psychology today and could be one of the first concepts taught in undergraduate psychology or education curriculum. The concept does seem to remove the discussion of consciousness from at least some human behavior; remember how an unconditioned stimulus becomes programmed to elicit a conditioned response over time. Pavlov did not approve of the workings of the Soviet regime change circa 1917, but his work was not censured by the communist government. Others in Russia were not so lucky. Academics who experienced the heyday of science and intellectualism prerevolution could be branded enemies of the state if they were not useful enough to the USSR or did not conform to its ideals (Lawson et al., 2018). Vladimir Bekhterev was a promising researcher who had studied in Western Europe and published a well-respected encyclopedia of neuroscience. In fact, he proposed work that bridged physiological understanding with individual and social factors. Today, we would call this a biopsychosocial model of psychology. Though he did not get along with Pavlov (call it a professional rivalry), he disapproved of Czarist rule and the way that Jewish people in particular were regarded. He had hopes that the incoming Soviet regime would deliver on promised reform, but it was not to be. Though Bekhterev’s institution led to some varied methodologies and he worked on a behavioral therapy for alcoholism, he fell out of favor with the new communist government and died mysteriously. The accounts of his death are conflicting. Many academics around this time, particularly if they did not adhere to strict Marxism, were forcibly deported from Russia. One researcher, Konstantin Kornilov, worked to bridge the gap between behaviorism and proponents of human consciousness using Marxist terminology to curry government favor (Lawson et al., 2018). It worked for a time, but he was eventually fired, and his work was purged from scientific annals. Early work in developmental psychology by Russian thinkers like Lev Vygotsky was also lost for a time. Vygotsky proposed a dual process to developmental functions with elementary perception and attention representing the lower functions and human thought based on higher functions as a result of interaction with rich culture. Due to the cross-cultural nature of some of this work, it was also put to an end during the communist rule of Russia. Academics in Russia have enjoyed more interaction with their Western counterparts since the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. The future of such relationships has yet to be written. Chinese Psychology Take a step back now and reframe from the ways of thinking passed down from Ancient Greece and millennia of Judeo-Christian society; we are about to examine philosophies and social organizations that originally formed without the influence of any Western thought. As is often referenced, the West celebrates individualism whereas the East has tended toward a collectivist mentality (Lawson et al., 2018). It is also true that the philosophical roots that have been the underpinning of Chinese society are not easily separated from its approach to psychology, and that the nature-nurture conversation is nuanced. One of the pillars of Confucianism, a dominant Chinese philosophy, is a stable social order (Lawson et al., 2018). In this order, everyday citizens can achieve excellence using ethical decision-making and a strong focus on education. An afterlife is not the overarching focus; instead, a peaceful existence on earth is based on ideals of humanity and righteousness. Adherence to social norms is a key to this peaceful utopia, so much

PSY 3301, History and Systems of Psychology 3

UNIT x STUDY GUIDE Title

so that Confucianism cannot be subsumed under any governmental or psychological design; it is an underlying component of Chinese culture.

Taoism is another piece of the Chinese story; your textbook describes this philosophy as more mystical than Confucianism, though not necessarily in direct conflict. Tao involves “a state of unity with the universe” and focuses on inaction and a transcendent approach to living (Lawson et al., 2018, p. 348). Both Taoism and Confucianism take inspiration from an ancient philosophical text called the I Ching, which translates to Book of Changes (Lawson et al., 2018). Think of an all-encompassing comprehension of interrelationships and changes—what a way to experience the world! Nature and nurture are interrelated by default, and education is always a means toward growth. Civil service examinations were a function of Chinese society centuries before psychological testing came into being in the West, so the developing system of psychological assessment fit well with the Chinese approach. Unfortunately, as we saw with Russia, political affiliations and suspicions made academic sharing difficult at times. European colonization outside of its natural boarders might certainly have been seen as off-putting, and China went through its own episodes with Communism, censorship, and the expulsion of certain academicians (Lawson et al., 2018). All in all, however, some collaboration has been possible over the years, and particular aspects of psychology “speak” to the Chinese way of life. In an earlier unit, we examined yin and yang; here is another phenomenon that runs parallel to a biopsychosocial approach where mind and body are seen as interconnected units of the whole. Developmental, educational, and industrial/organizational psychology fit well into the Chinese vocabulary, and many psychology programs exist across China today (Lawson et al., 2018). A firm system of delivering clinical psychological services is not currently in place, so other professionals are working to fill in where they are able. China does have high rates of depression and suicide, so perhaps this will be an area of emphasis in the future. Then again, think of some Buddhist perspectives, such as the concept that desire leads to the pain and dissatisfaction in our lives. Would accepting what you have and who you are eliminate some of the frustration born from expectations? Check out the following: The Life of the Buddha - Video - Films On Demand.

Indigenous Psychologies In Unit VI, we studied groups who were historically marginalized by psychology and Western society as a whole; now, we will add individuals in places where Western psychology just has not been studied for that long. As we saw in China, the underlying culture is important to understanding the basis for any indigenous psychology, and your textbook notes “political, economic, religious, and social” considerations at work (Lawson et al., 2018, p. 359). In Latin America, psychology, out of necessity, has taken the shape of an applied profession more than a scientific paradigm due to acute social problems brought on by political and economic instability (Lawson et al., 2018). While Latin American scholars may have desired to study empirically, economic hardships and social problems necessitated their focus elsewhere. Latin America has also seen its share of dictatorships

PSY 3301, History and Systems of Psychology 4

UNIT x STUDY GUIDE Title

over the years, where again, academics who fall out of favor may disappear, be censored, or even be killed. One intriguing concept that comes from Latin American psychology is the idea of liberation psychology, which is the idea that theory does not address problems but, rather, existing problems necessitate a theory to help address them. South Africa has had a long and troubled history with colonization and segregation; coming out of apartheid there were certainly social issues to be addressed (Lawson et al., 2018). Violence, poverty, racism, and the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) crisis all hit parts of Africa. However, South African scholars were quick to take advantage of renewed international exchange. Once again, we see an applied emphasis for a time, with a focus on addressing these serious problems as immediately as possible. Indian-Asian psychology is addressed together, though there are multiple countries and cultures to examine in this part of the world. Any number of socioeconomic conditions have left an impact, though India does boast a large number of psychology study programs today (Lawson et al., 2018). Licensing and accreditation are not universally coordinated at this time. Indian psychology tends to emphasize the area’s unique cultural thought—a generally behaviorist perspective and a recognition of existing social problems. Take a look at how social forces can have a negative impact on indigenous children in the following "Challenges for Indigenous Children" video segment. The transcript for this video can be found by clicking on “Transcript” in the gray bar to the right of the video in the Films on Demand database. On the other side, take a look at the experience of a highly accomplished Japanese-American woman with role conflict in the "Human Identities" video segment. The transcript for this video can be found by clicking on “Transcript” in the gray bar to the right of the video in the Films on Demand database.

Conclusion As we have moved through time and geography in our examination of non-Westernized psychology, we have seen how the cultural framework behind a society shapes the direction of their psychological investigation. Is one way more “right” than another, or shall we be like the pragmatic William James and do what works in a given situation?

Reference Lawson, R. B., Anderson, E. D., & Cepeda-Benito, A. (2018). A history of psychology: Globalization, ideas,

and applications (2nd ed.). Routledge.

PSY 3301, History and Systems of Psychology 1

Course Learning Outcomes for Unit VII Upon completion of this unit, students should be able to:

1. Explain the diversity of contributions to the contemporary fields of psychology. 1.1 Outline non-Western influences and contributions to contemporary psychology.

Required Unit Resources Chapter 16: Psychology in Russia Chapter 17: Psychology in China Chapter 18: Indigenous Psychologies: Latin American, South Africa, and India-Asia Unit Lesson

Introduction If you recall, we began this course with a broad approach to philosophies that led into the field of psychology before focusing in on a few key areas, such as Western Europe and the United States. In the last unit, we explained the contributions of historically underrepresented voices. It is important to continue our journey through history by shifting the focus to other geographic locations once again.

Psychology in History Russia has always been a bit of an anomaly in that it seems to be a part of Europe in some regard, but it is also its own very distinct entity. In fact, even its location on a map mirrors this “part Europe, part ‘other’” quality. One component of this “otherness” is due to the Russian Orthodox system of Christianity as opposed to the Latin West of Europe, and Russia’s participation in the affairs of the rest of Europe would ebb and flow over several centuries (Lawson et al., 2018). The period following the French Revolution is noted in your textbook as a turning point where Western Europe began moving toward more liberal democracies with middle classes and intellectualism, while Russia held to its Czarist monarchy and a peasantry under the rule of the nobility class. This began to change in the 1860s when revolutionary liberalism moved through academia and the rest of the country, along with a strong desire for freedom and free scientific pursuit. Change came to Russia with the founding of the United Soviet Socialist Republic (USSR) under Marxist principles, which were designed to obtain a classless, utopian society. Unfortunately for science, the end result was a system of strict government rule wherein academics were not free to pursue their work, and travel to noncommunist countries was mostly forbidden to the population. Russian Psychology Psychology was one of the sciences caught up in these times of rapid change; at one point, Russian scientists studied with their Western counterparts and even in the laboratory of Wilhelm Wundt in Germany. As far back as 1885, there was a society of philosophers and physicians working together on this new concept called psychology, just as we have seen happen in other countries thus far in our studies. There was less of a back-and-forth between philosophy and psychology than experienced in other geographic areas, though Russian psychology did tend to stick with empirical research as opposed to applied practice outside the lab (Lawson et al., 2018).

UNIT VII STUDY GUIDE Russian, Chinese, and Indigenous Perspectives

PSY 3301, History and Systems of Psychology 2

UNIT x STUDY GUIDE Title

Dr. Ivan Sechenov expanded the discussion of the reflex arc by positing that the brain was more involved in this phenomenon and that emotion and thought were also tied to these muscular responses. While we may not see thought today as a step in the reflex action, we can trace his line of thinking by putting further emphasis on the brain. In 19th century Russia, however, this was seen as an opposition on moral and religious dogma and could have landed Dr. Sechenov in jail had his work not become so popular. Perhaps as a result of his treatment by the government, he devoted the rest of his career to fighting for the rights of women and the working class in Russia (Lawson et al., 2018). You are already familiar with the work of another 19th century Russian scientist and his canine research associates. Ivan Pavlov and his dogs were certainly a big part of the history of Russian psychology (Lawson et al., 2018). Remember that there were times in Russian history when information and collaboration flowed relatively freely; Pavlov was a student during one of those times and was influenced by the works of Sechenov and Charles Darwin. His classical conditioning is certainly recognized throughout Western psychology today and could be one of the first concepts taught in undergraduate psychology or education curriculum. The concept does seem to remove the discussion of consciousness from at least some human behavior; remember how an unconditioned stimulus becomes programmed to elicit a conditioned response over time. Pavlov did not approve of the workings of the Soviet regime change circa 1917, but his work was not censured by the communist government. Others in Russia were not so lucky. Academics who experienced the heyday of science and intellectualism prerevolution could be branded enemies of the state if they were not useful enough to the USSR or did not conform to its ideals (Lawson et al., 2018). Vladimir Bekhterev was a promising researcher who had studied in Western Europe and published a well-respected encyclopedia of neuroscience. In fact, he proposed work that bridged physiological understanding with individual and social factors. Today, we would call this a biopsychosocial model of psychology. Though he did not get along with Pavlov (call it a professional rivalry), he disapproved of Czarist rule and the way that Jewish people in particular were regarded. He had hopes that the incoming Soviet regime would deliver on promised reform, but it was not to be. Though Bekhterev’s institution led to some varied methodologies and he worked on a behavioral therapy for alcoholism, he fell out of favor with the new communist government and died mysteriously. The accounts of his death are conflicting. Many academics around this time, particularly if they did not adhere to strict Marxism, were forcibly deported from Russia. One researcher, Konstantin Kornilov, worked to bridge the gap between behaviorism and proponents of human consciousness using Marxist terminology to curry government favor (Lawson et al., 2018). It worked for a time, but he was eventually fired, and his work was purged from scientific annals. Early work in developmental psychology by Russian thinkers like Lev Vygotsky was also lost for a time. Vygotsky proposed a dual process to developmental functions with elementary perception and attention representing the lower functions and human thought based on higher functions as a result of interaction with rich culture. Due to the cross-cultural nature of some of this work, it was also put to an end during the communist rule of Russia. Academics in Russia have enjoyed more interaction with their Western counterparts since the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. The future of such relationships has yet to be written. Chinese Psychology Take a step back now and reframe from the ways of thinking passed down from Ancient Greece and millennia of Judeo-Christian society; we are about to examine philosophies and social organizations that originally formed without the influence of any Western thought. As is often referenced, the West celebrates individualism whereas the East has tended toward a collectivist mentality (Lawson et al., 2018). It is also true that the philosophical roots that have been the underpinning of Chinese society are not easily separated from its approach to psychology, and that the nature-nurture conversation is nuanced. One of the pillars of Confucianism, a dominant Chinese philosophy, is a stable social order (Lawson et al., 2018). In this order, everyday citizens can achieve excellence using ethical decision-making and a strong focus on education. An afterlife is not the overarching focus; instead, a peaceful existence on earth is based on ideals of humanity and righteousness. Adherence to social norms is a key to this peaceful utopia, so much

PSY 3301, History and Systems of Psychology 3

UNIT x STUDY GUIDE Title

so that Confucianism cannot be subsumed under any governmental or psychological design; it is an underlying component of Chinese culture.

Taoism is another piece of the Chinese story; your textbook describes this philosophy as more mystical than Confucianism, though not necessarily in direct conflict. Tao involves “a state of unity with the universe” and focuses on inaction and a transcendent approach to living (Lawson et al., 2018, p. 348). Both Taoism and Confucianism take inspiration from an ancient philosophical text called the I Ching, which translates to Book of Changes (Lawson et al., 2018). Think of an all-encompassing comprehension of interrelationships and changes—what a way to experience the world! Nature and nurture are interrelated by default, and education is always a means toward growth. Civil service examinations were a function of Chinese society centuries before psychological testing came into being in the West, so the developing system of psychological assessment fit well with the Chinese approach. Unfortunately, as we saw with Russia, political affiliations and suspicions made academic sharing difficult at times. European colonization outside of its natural boarders might certainly have been seen as off-putting, and China went through its own episodes with Communism, censorship, and the expulsion of certain academicians (Lawson et al., 2018). All in all, however, some collaboration has been possible over the years, and particular aspects of psychology “speak” to the Chinese way of life. In an earlier unit, we examined yin and yang; here is another phenomenon that runs parallel to a biopsychosocial approach where mind and body are seen as interconnected units of the whole. Developmental, educational, and industrial/organizational psychology fit well into the Chinese vocabulary, and many psychology programs exist across China today (Lawson et al., 2018). A firm system of delivering clinical psychological services is not currently in place, so other professionals are working to fill in where they are able. China does have high rates of depression and suicide, so perhaps this will be an area of emphasis in the future. Then again, think of some Buddhist perspectives, such as the concept that desire leads to the pain and dissatisfaction in our lives. Would accepting what you have and who you are eliminate some of the frustration born from expectations? Check out the following: The Life of the Buddha - Video - Films On Demand.

Indigenous Psychologies In Unit VI, we studied groups who were historically marginalized by psychology and Western society as a whole; now, we will add individuals in places where Western psychology just has not been studied for that long. As we saw in China, the underlying culture is important to understanding the basis for any indigenous psychology, and your textbook notes “political, economic, religious, and social” considerations at work (Lawson et al., 2018, p. 359). In Latin America, psychology, out of necessity, has taken the shape of an applied profession more than a scientific paradigm due to acute social problems brought on by political and economic instability (Lawson et al., 2018). While Latin American scholars may have desired to study empirically, economic hardships and social problems necessitated their focus elsewhere. Latin America has also seen its share of dictatorships

PSY 3301, History and Systems of Psychology 4

UNIT x STUDY GUIDE Title

over the years, where again, academics who fall out of favor may disappear, be censored, or even be killed. One intriguing concept that comes from Latin American psychology is the idea of liberation psychology, which is the idea that theory does not address problems but, rather, existing problems necessitate a theory to help address them. South Africa has had a long and troubled history with colonization and segregation; coming out of apartheid there were certainly social issues to be addressed (Lawson et al., 2018). Violence, poverty, racism, and the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) crisis all hit parts of Africa. However, South African scholars were quick to take advantage of renewed international exchange. Once again, we see an applied emphasis for a time, with a focus on addressing these serious problems as immediately as possible. Indian-Asian psychology is addressed together, though there are multiple countries and cultures to examine in this part of the world. Any number of socioeconomic conditions have left an impact, though India does boast a large number of psychology study programs today (Lawson et al., 2018). Licensing and accreditation are not universally coordinated at this time. Indian psychology tends to emphasize the area’s unique cultural thought—a generally behaviorist perspective and a recognition of existing social problems. Take a look at how social forces can have a negative impact on indigenous children in the following "Challenges for Indigenous Children" video segment. The transcript for this video can be found by clicking on “Transcript” in the gray bar to the right of the video in the Films on Demand database. On the other side, take a look at the experience of a highly accomplished Japanese-American woman with role conflict in the "Human Identities" video segment. The transcript for this video can be found by clicking on “Transcript” in the gray bar to the right of the video in the Films on Demand database.

Conclusion As we have moved through time and geography in our examination of non-Westernized psychology, we have seen how the cultural framework behind a society shapes the direction of their psychological investigation. Is one way more “right” than another, or shall we be like the pragmatic William James and do what works in a given situation?

Reference Lawson, R. B., Anderson, E. D., & Cepeda-Benito, A. (2018). A history of psychology: Globalization, ideas,

and applications (2nd ed.). Routledge.