Trait Theory on Consumer Behavio
Principles of trait theory
A trait is referred to as a characteristic way in
which a person acts, feels, perceives, or believes.
When an individual is being described, people
are likely to use trait terms. Personality traits are
of a big interest to psychologists (Kumar, 2009
p 1).
The interest of psychologists is to find traits that
do not easily change and are inherited.
Personality trait theory studies consumer
behavior in terms of individual traits such as
influence, innovation, consumer ethnocentrism,
and materialism.
The principles of trait theory were originally laid
down by Gordon Allport who stated that traits
should be described as stable and enduring
inclination to act in a consistent given way
across a range of different circumstances. He
recommended that traits be considered to be
bipolar with the opposite end of each
characteristic defining opposite traits.
Trait theory defines people in terms of how
extrovert or how introvert they are. Consumers
make decisions of purchasing each day. A
majority of big organizations conduct research
on consumer buying decisions in a lot of details
to answer questions regarding the behavior of
buyers (Nakanisi, 1972, p 1).
Wants and behavior of a person originate from
culture. The behavior of human beings is to a
large extent learned. Cultural factors apply the
deepest and broadest influence on buyer
behavior. Growing up in a society a person
learns wants, perceptions, behaviors, and basic
values (Albernese, 1993, p 1).
Success, efficiency, involvement and activity,
progress, freedom, youthfulness, material
comfort, health and fitness, humanitarianism,
and individualism are some of the values that a
person learns from a society. Cultures regarding
the buying behavior greatly vary from one
culture to another.
Background of Journal article
The aim of the journal article is to propose a
comprehensive model which indicates that
buyers with diverse optimum stimulation level
(OSL) have different assessments of goods and
services, shopping behaviors, and shopping
values.
The OSL of a person shows an individual’s
preferred level of environmental inspiration and
predisposition to operate in the presence of
environments (Wang, 2011, p 6).
Methodology
The methodology of the study is interviewing
retail shoppers in Taiwan. Questionnaires were
formulated in English and translated to Chinese.
According to the findings in the journal,
consumers in Taiwan with high OSL indicated
better and favorable assessments of design
elements, layout, ambient, and density
compared to buyers who have low OSL (Wang,
2011, p 11).
The journal hypothesizes that shoppers with
higher OSL will have more positive assessments
on layout, design, and ambient elements than
those with lower OSL.
Data was collected directly from shoppers in
Taiwan who visited the stores. Information was
collected during the peak hours for ten days.
Respondents were obtained randomly at the
exits of the stores when the customers were
almost leaving the department stores.
Findings of the journal
According to the research, consumers in Taiwan
who have high OSL were found to be having
more positive assessments of the density, design,
and ambient elements of a store compared to
shoppers who have low OSL (Wang, 2011, p 7).
In addition, buyers with high OSL indicated
higher utilitarian and hedonic values from their
buying. Noticeably, the buyers with high OSL
took more time and spent more money in shops.
Hedonic value is based on emotions and shows
that individuals shop for enjoyment, sensory
stimulation, fantasy, and for fun. Shoppers with
high OSL are more probable to be motivated by
the environment of a retail store and obtain fun
and delight from such an environment.
Utilitarian value is based on whether an activity
during a buying trip was completed in an
effective and opportune way. Aspects of a Shop
like layout are formed to enable the buyer to
shop efficiently (Wang, 2011, p 10).
Because of their high sensitivity to the
environment, buyers who have high OSL are
more probable to become aware of such aspects
of the store, make appropriate use of them, and
move across a shop more effectively.
Link to the main theory
It is obvious that there is a close link between the
journal, the personality trait theory and the buyer
behavior because according to the journal, the
perceptions of consumers about the retail
environment have an effect on their value of
shopping and buying behaviors.
Almost 70% of buying decisions are made at the
shops (Wang, 2011, p 8). OSL is an intrinsic
motivation and is able to affect the nature and
strength of the relationship between variables of
environmental response in retailing.
Consumers are generally more of experience
staggers than retailers. Great experiences of the
consumer are unforgettable and are able to
create emotional bonds between the retailers and
consumers.
The research greatly contributes to the growing
organization of international retailing research
by studying the implications of buyer’s
maximum motivation levels on their opinion
about the elements of stores, perceived value of
buying, and buying behaviors.
Managerial implications
With the research and findings from this journal,
retailers will be able to concentrate on the
various elements such as layout, ambient, and
design of their shops. By so doing, the retailers
and marketers will be able to attract many
buyers with higher OSL and persuade them to
spend more money in their stores (Wang, 2011,
p 7).
Spending and the amount of shopping are the
main buyer behaviors of interest in the journal.
The amount of money spent by a consumer in a
store directly adds up to the retail sales and is a
significant element for recognizing customers
that are loyal.
The duration of a shopping trip is described as
the amount of time the buyer spends in a shop.
Buyers who have high OSL explore through
shopping and enjoy trying new products in the
retail store which may result in them spending
more time in the shops. Moreover, shoppers with
high OSL are risk takers and spend more money
on new goods and on impulse buying.
Application to managers
Expertise in customer retail is essential for the
success for retailers. It is very difficult for
worldwide retailers because it is usually hard to
provide a compelling and reliable retail
experience over different culture (Schiffman,
2010, p 1).
Buyers with different environmental motivation
needs have different behavior of seeking
varieties and different sensitivities to shop
aspects. Retailers therefore should take into
consideration the maximum stimulation levels
of consumers because they are more buyers.
Even though managers can’t change the OSL of
the consumer because it is a personal trait, they
may affect the behavior of the consumer by
manipulating their store environments (Wang,
2011, p 15).
For example, male and young shoppers have
higher OSL and therefore, the managers will
need additional environmental elements to
produce more stimulating environments in an
effort to convince such buyers to spend more
money and time in the store.
Reference List
Albernese, P 1993, ‘Personality and consumer
behavior: an operational approach’, Association
for consumer research. Web.
Kumar, A 2009, ‘Chapter 5 personality and
consumer behavior’, Neo-freudian personality
theory. Web.
Nakanisi, M 1972, ‘Personality and consumer
behavior extensions’, Association for consumer
research. Web.
Schiffman, K 2010, ‘Personality and consumer
behavior’, Consumer behavior, Eighth
Edition. Web.
Wang, L 2011, ‘An imperical investigation of
the influence of optimum stimulation levels in
retailing’, International journal of retail and
distribution management, Vol. 40 no. 1, pp. 6 –
17.
Marketing Analysis of the Consumers
Behavior
Marketers must have a careful consideration in
analyzing the behavior of consumers as they
usually decline what seems to be a winning
offer. The buying behavior is complicated as
various factors influence it.
Understanding these behaviors is an important
break through to the marketers. Consumer
behavior is rationale and target oriented.
Marketers may think that they have completely
understood their consumers but the decisions to
purchase seem to be irrational. What is
perceived as an irrational behavior to a marketer
is very rational to the buyer.
• The consumer is liberal.
The buyer is not obligated to consider the
marketing strategies of the marketer. Consumers
process information carefully and in most
instances they have the upper hand in selecting
the best product to choose from a variety of other
available products. Consumer behavior is
progressive. The consumer progresses to ensure
that the products they get adequately satisfies
their needs. Marketers are to come to terms with
this process.
• Consumers differ in preference.
Individuals who have the same roots in terms of
culture, rank in the society, and means of
livelihood may depict very diverse lifestyles. A
lifestyle is an individual’s way of life as depicted
in his or her actions, views, and interests. These
diverse consumer lifestyles affect their
purchasing power.
• The role that a consumer plays in the
society affects his or her purchasing
power.
An individual constitutes diverse groups such as
family, unions, and associations. A person’s task
in each grouping is related to his or role and
status in the particular group. A role is defined
as a list of tasks that the individual is expected
to accomplish according to the other people who
directly or indirectly depends on either him or
her.
• Consumer behavior is influenced by his or
her financial status.
This greatly influences the buyer’s ultimate
product choice and the decision to exchange his
or her money for the particular commodity. The
end users usually restrict expenses on the eating-
places, entertainment, and holiday at the times
they are experiencing financial constraints. They
cut back on the kinds of expenditure they want
to make. It is essential that marketers pay close
attention to the flow in personal incomes and
savings.
• Adaptation of products
It is essential for marketers to choose on the
level to which they will modify their
commodities and marketing strategies to fulfill
the distinctive requirements of different end
users in a variety of markets.
• The variance of international markets
Marketers can opt to standardize their
commodities and for the reason of reducing the
operation costs and benefit from economies of
scale. However, modifying marketing strategies
in each country gives rise to better products that
adequately meets the needs of the local end
users.
• Consumer behavior is strongly controlled
by cultural diversities.
For example, in the West, an efficient product’s
brand name will be brilliant and short to the
point, suggesting the purpose of the commodity.
However, the same product in Asia must have
qualities of luck to fit in this culturally different
market.
• Advertisement
Advertisement can change the behavior of a
consumer. Advertising adds the appeal to the
commodity hence enables it to get to the target
end user. Advertising relay the information
about a commodity to a consumer hence ease the
process of transaction. The target audience gets
the information about the commodity before
making the final purchase decision.
• Trends in globalization and its influence
on the behavior of consumers
The changes due to globalization have increased
the exposure of the consumers to varied
influences. These influences could arise from
technological improvements. Motivating a
consumer affects his or her purchasing ability
• Motivation
An individual usually has more than one need at
a time. A number of needs are natural such as
feeling of thirst and hunger while others are
psychological such as want for recognition and
satisfaction. Motivation often ignites the
different needs of a consumer . Marketers often
work on arousing this need in order to reach the
consumers.
• The role of perception in consumer choices
Perception is the method through which
individuals choose, categorize, and deduce
information to come up with a significant view
of life. An individual that has been stimulated is
prepared to act. The action taken depends on
how the individual perceives the situation.
• Learning and consumer behavior
The behavior of a person often changes after
learning through experience. The use of efficient
motivational techniques and different marketing
strategies can make consumers to develop
loyalty to similar brands if they like the utility
they get from it as compared to dissimilar
brands.
• Beliefs
These are mainly acquired through actions and
learning routines. A belief refers to thoughts that
an individual has formulated to represent
something. If some beliefs about particular
products are false, marketers often engage in
campaigns to reverse these beliefs.
• Attitudes
Attitudes appertain to an individual’s constant
feelings and tendencies in relation to different
objects and opinions. Attitudes places
individuals in a fix situation of either loving or
hating things, going towards them or getting
away form them.
Marketers ought to understand the consumer
behavior before embarking on selling their
goods and services as the end users vary in many
aspects of their purchasing behavior.
Consumer Decision Making Behavior
Introduction
Starbucks restaurant is a brand name known
within the United states for provision of high
quality beverage especially coffee drinks. The
company has developed through good
experience on provision of high quality
products. The restaurant is known for employees
who are well informed about coffee and best
ways of producing products suitable for human
consumption (Keegan and Green, 2002).
This gives the restaurant one of the best brand
images amongst consumers making them feel
some sense of prestige whenever they associate
with the brand. The marketing concept adopted
by this Company focuses on identifying
customer needs within various market segments
and responding appropriately.
Marketing strategies applied by any company
should conform to the already designed
marketing policies, and should have capability
of achieving global competitive advantages
(Bartlett and Sumantra, 2010; Wills and Jacobs,
1991).
Concept of status Consumption
The image of the organization attracts
consumers; they are often attracted to brands
portraying good public image. Organizations
which enjoy good reputation have the ability of
attracting pubic attention hence pulling potential
consumers. Even the employees at times are
willing to take low wages just for the sake of
being identified with organizations which
portray strong public reputations.
The image’s ability to attract quality and
experienced personnel leads to more positive
consequences hence improvement on the
organization’s profitability (Horton, 2005, pp 1-
8). Consumers’ decision on the kind of services
and products to purchase is normally influenced
by the brand of the company.
Consumers sometimes are forced and willing to
buy products from organizations with poor
brand name only when the prices are low,
conversely they tend to reward good image by
paying high prices for their products
(Cherenson, 2002). This idea could be utilized
by marketers to ensure that their products
dominate certain niches within the market owing
to good image.
Products and services rendered should always
relate to the needs of consumers within a
particular market niche. For a company to
succeed in the global market, it has to assess the
needs and preferences of consumers (Pinto,
2008).Marketers could utilize Starbucks brand
name to supply range of products under the same
umbrella at affordable prices. The other products
could be milk and other soft drinks containing
the company’s logo on the cover.
The manner in which the organization treats
employees and how it conducts its business
publicly has the ability of differentiating its
brand from other related organizations within
the same market set-up, hence reinforces the
consumers’ loyalty towards it.
Precise and clear definition of organizations
image usually communicates and creates
renewed belief and confidence within the
consumer. This is a good determinant of the
organizations success (Bartlett and Sumantra,
2010; Wills and Jacobs, 1991).
Marketers should apply some flexibility in
decision making and have the ability to take any
challenge concerning Starbucks soft drinks
within the market. Provision of non-fat milk
owing to consumer demand led to expansion of
Starbuck’s market base.
They embrace innovations and abide by their
business mission enabling them to deliver
quality services, and supply high quality
products. It’s a quality-driven organization with
products crafted to satisfy the consumer desires.
They produce a variety of products to the market
providing consumers with different options
depending on their tastes
Market orientation
Marketers could utilize Starbucks connection
between its reputation and the financial
performance exposed within the stock market to
capture consumers. At times consumers make
their decisions on brand image based on overall
annual financial performance.
The organizations stock market performance
and secure prices presents core factors used in
determining the market percentage which it
commands. The extent to which Starbucks gains
market share within United States improves
helps in improving its profitability depending on
the workable strategies employed by
management and marketers (Kotler et al, 2001).
Usually the cost of buying high market share
may be above the expected returns, however
high shares automatically bring higher profits
especially in cases where the costs of goods are
low within a big market share.
Starbucks marketers should be actively involved
in market actions which require detection and
quick responses towards market changes like
pricing methods, customer product preferences
and technology. These actions lead to high
financial performance (Kotler et al, 2001).
A company could hold a small market share but
realize huge profits because of the high shares it
holds within the market. This could best be
attributed to quality products or services offered
which wins consumers’ confidence and also
hold down the costs (Wind, 1978).
Public relations could be used to help in
expansion of the market through discovering
and promoting uses of new products and further
persuading consumers to use more of their
products for their personal benefits. This has
since encouraged consumers to buy more of
Starbuck’s coffee leading to expansion of its
market share hence increase in the level of sales
(Kotler et al, 2001).
Target market Analysis
Any organization that wishes to have market
success or high profitability should equip its
marketers to ensure they win in the market place.
Starbucks should utilize its public relations tools
to gain the competitive advantage. This can only
happen when the company offers unique
advertisements on goods and services that other
competitors do not offer.
They may utilize their instruments, like use of
well trained staff to cover the special needs of
certain market segments that are ignored by
others. To win the public the company has to
prepare to offer best prices for quality goods or
unique qualities that entice consumers’
willingness to pay higher prices (Chandon et al,
2000).
Tough competitive environment may lead to
breaching of some rules rendering public
relations less important (Horton, 2005, pp 1-8).
Competitor’s strength and weaknesses could
always be assessed by analyzing the kind of soft
drinks and coffee the customers’ value in the
market (Sinclair and Stalling, 1990). This could
be achieved by asking the customers the benefits
they value and the important attributes they use
to grade the company to other competitors
within the market industry (Blattberg and
Golanty, 1978).
These relations help the marketers to identify
areas which Starbucks look vulnerable which
other competitors could easily utilize to topple
them. The presence of competitors could at
times result in more benefits since it helps in
improving the total demand. In industries where
competitors relate in harmony, there is sharing
of market cost, improvement of products and
easy introduction of new technologies (Kotler et
al, 2001).
Consumer Behaviors based on Socio-
Cultural Environment
The reputation of an organization is one of the
factors which determine the level of its
interaction with the local communities
(Solomon, 1983). Starbuck’s ability to grow is
dependent on the support it gets from the
community in terms of labor standards, respect
to cultural beliefs including land use and other
key reputations (Doole and Lowe, 2008).
Public relations act as link which enables
consumers to quickly adapt to Starbuck’s coffee
within US environs. This enables the company’s
easy analysis on the issues which might impact
the society positively or negatively, hence adjust
its services and products to suit public interest
making satisfaction of customer interest the
primary goal (Horton, 2005, pp 1-8).
Starbucks coffee could simply loose societal
approval when it experiences trouble with the
labor force, or lacks enough support within its
native land. It could also loose reputation by not
adhering to government’s policies and
regulations. This could be very detrimental since
it affects the market success of the organization
(Ries and Trout, 1972).
This shows that good reputation and public
relations should precede quality production of
goods and services. Corporate social
performance impacts organization’s profit levels
by influencing its reputations. This acts as a
direct influence on the company’s competitive
advantage and ability to attract and retain
experienced and talented employees (Horton,
2005, pp 1-8).
Consumer Behaviors based on Media
exposure
Marketers could utilize the media which offers a
point of contact between consumers and the
organizations, since it allows for advertisement
of Starbuck’s new products within the market
(Fill, 2005). This stations the organization at the
position where it attracts consumers and
negotiates prices to the benefit of the industry.
The creation of awareness through the media
expands the customer base and helps in
increasing the sales. It helps in completion of
most economic transactions by revealing the
kind of goods and services, their qualities and
price (Horton, 2005, pp 1-8).
The missing of crucial information is what
sometimes leads to the act of consumers
despising the product or service being offered.
This could well be articulated through the media
i.e. Television, radio or newspapers (Horton,
2005, pp 1-8).
Marketers could use advertisement and
promotion as some of the tools which companies
spend heavily on since they are likely to woe
consumers and win their confidence. Any
business organization which has got plans of
dominating and operating within the market for
long time should enhance the management’s
relationship and reputation (Belch & Belch,
2001).
Consumer Behaviors based on Political
Environment
Consumer relation enables the free flow of
information which assists organizations in
making informed decisions. This aid in building
trust amongst Starbuck, the US government and
the people, also the idea enhances the company’s
credibility. However, there are times when
journalist commentators are paid to promote
political issues between rival companies.
Earlier reporters and editors could be paid large
sum of money by companies to write in favor of
their products and services. This promoted a lot
of harm on other organizations who though
having good reputation and quality services or
products, are unable to penetrate market due to
suppression and intimidation. This causes
reduction in consumer trust hence loss of sales,
market share and ultimately profit (Blair and
London, 1981).
Marketing strategies concerning Consumer
Decision Making Behavior
In a bid to perform more expansive business and
win more customers on board, marketers could
utilize different issues which have boosted
Starbuck’s enthusiasm towards success in
relation to consumer behaviors towards their
products. These include; making affordable
products, making the Company more accessible
to consumers and making good public
awareness programs (Anderson, 1982; Resnik et
al, 1979).
Products Affordability; after thorough market
survey, Starbucks realized the need to categorize
clients on the basis of their social life. Therefore,
at the event of increasing prices, the level of
income of consumers becomes the first
consideration (Smith, 1956). This is done so as
to ensure that they are not suppressed by the
change in prices. Starbucks also gives premium
prices for all the services rendered to customers.
Priority is given to customers before
implementing any new innovation that may
affect the pricing methods (Baines et al, 2005;
Chung, 2003). On availability issues, as the
company expands its business operations, focus
is placed upon strategic places which have good
consumer base.
Starbucks increased the number of stores and
offered services which satisfied the customer’s
desires and needs i.e. those travelling, those at
home and those in offices. Starbucks uses
improved communication channels and also
utilizes its strong brand name to woe customers.
The Company also entered into partnerships
with other small companies in order to create
channels through which they could sell coffee
and coffee related products (Abratt, 1993).
Marketers should engage in the establishment of
short-term principle actions which assist them in
discovering right marketing principles to apply.
The marketing strategies to be applied should be
tested by use of selected measures in order to
establish their effectiveness.
All activities within Starbuck depend on the
already set targets based on the company’s
vision statement. The controls based on
consumer behaviors enable establishment of
company’s progress and proper implementations
of right plans which promotes sales (Srivastava
et al, 1975; Weinstein, 1994).
The statistics on the current consumer levels
reveals preferences and buying patterns together
with market territories. These details enable the
company marketers to easily reach the desired
consumer with right products (Kondrat, 2010).
The issue of differentiating consumers based on
chosen variables enables marketers to identify
the purchasing power of consumers hence
making it possible for marketers to identify
consumers by their needs. Selection of the best
customers enables effective communication and
reinforces the relationship between marketers
and the consumers, but mostly based on the
quality of services rendered (Kondrat, 2010;
Beane and Ennis, 1987).
Conclusion
Consumer behavior within the market has great
impact on organization’s performance since it
dictates on the level of its corporate reputation.
The brand image could be improved only
through promotional tools which focus on
consumer satisfaction. Profits ploughed back
into the business by a product or services depend
solely on the level of sales through promotional
activities.
Sound financial position of any organization and
its profitability is determined by its ability to
respond positively to the community and the
environment. It is also determined by the ability
of the company to attract potential consumers.
However, there is a possibility that those within
the management team could act in a manner
which reduces the fame on company’s
reputation and brand image.
The management qualities as well as the quality
of goods and services remain an important factor
which determines the length of time an
organization could operate within the market.
All the drivers of financial excellence in an
organization are basically linked to the extent
through which the company utilizes its tools on
public relations; this applies on both social and
environmental sectors. Marketers should be
watchful on seasonal consumer behaviors to
avoid unnecessary losses.
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How Advertising Persuasion Techniques
Influence Consumer’s Behavior
Advertising remains a powerful provision in the
marketing realms. As consumers, the
importance of advertising in influencing
purchase decisions remains critical. Various
advertising techniques enable consumers to
change their purchasing habits and adopt the
usage of new products (Randfish, 2010). Of
particular interest is the manner in which
appealing advertisements of drugs manipulate
the consumption and addiction trends of the
consumers.
It is vital to note the role of advertising in
transforming consumer’s health-related lifestyle
either for the best or worst. Thus, the effect of
advertising is usually subtle and inherent.
Generally, advertising is largely about
manipulating individuals’ decisions and choices.
The principle aim of advertising is usually to
bring a concept to the public’s awareness. This
occurs by highlighting desirable qualities or
traits in order to stir clients’ desire to buy the
advertised brands and their products (Randfish,
2010).
It is critical to observe that the consumer
behavior transforms with the advertising
technique employed by the company. This is
applicable in the context of drug abuse and
addiction. Usually, when correct media are
appropriately used in advertising, there is an
equal responsive behavior from the targeted
audience.
A televised advert on cigarette smoking
accompanied with persuasive presentations and
appealing comments would definitely influence
most consumers to try the cigarette. This is
similarly realized when different alcoholic
brands are persuasively and colorfully
advertised. The processing companies have
learnt to develop persuasive and attractive
adverts within appropriate media channels to
influence the purchasing behavior of their
consumers or target group (Schooler, Basil &
Altman, 1996).
A persuasive advertising would make a person
believe in the products or service and buy it.
False imagery and exaggerated advertisement
messages are usually pertinent within persuasive
advertisement. These exaggerated messages and
over-estimation of the positive impacts of a
product have a potential role in swaying a
consumer’s conviction and behavior. The
exposure of consumers to such attractive adverts
plays a significant role in transforming their
lifestyles as well as behaviors.
The incorporation of trendy messages and
attractive pictures within most adverts has
played a critical role in transforming consumers’
behavior and consumption trends (Randfish,
2010). Observably, most persuasive adverts are
not usually accompanied by pertinent
information regarding the negative impacts of
the particular drug in context. Most of
persuasive adverts generally explicitly convey
the exaggerated information about a particular
product.
This is particularly with the realization that most
client would want to associate themselves with
more trendy and appealing products. To
successfully manipulate individuals’
perceptions, most organizations brainstorm for
longer durations (Schooler, Basil & Altman,
1996).
Usually, their main aim is to develop appropriate
campaigns with the objective of swaying the
clientele’s behavior code. It is also important to
note that the process of developing this behavior
transformation through conviction remains very
tough. This is important in the context of drug
promotion and other related advertisement
provisions.
Mostly, persuasive advertising adopt the input
from notable celebrity personalities. They use
them in their products promotion to enhance and
popularize their brands. This has significantly
transformed consumer behaviors particularly
within the youth who are keener of associating
themselves with certain celebrities or popular
brand.
Such persuasive advertisements might also
result into peer influence and pressure within
groups, thus making people to willfully change
their lifestyle and behaviors through adoption of
certain brands (Randfish, 2010).
It is vital to note that in several media
discourses, behavioral targeting remains a
critical advertisement technique that has led to a
significant count of behavior change among
consumers. The marketers by application of
relevant technologies are capable of delivering
appropriate information to various consumers
based on their already profiled characters.
As a consumer, commercial advertisements that
popularize alcoholic substances have
particularly remained appealing (Schooler, Basil
& Altman, 1996). Generally, it is observable that
certain behaviors have developed collectively
amongst the youth due to the persuasive
advertisement techniques.
For instance, an attractive demonstration of how
the taste of a certain alcoholic drink tastes is a
more persuasive advertisement approach
capable of causing a significant behavior
change. Within certain adverts in the media,
certain heroic characters, celebrities, and many
achievers have been associated with the use of
certain drinks (Randfish, 2010). For example,
these include the notable energy drinks. It is
clearer that as a consumer, one would
categorically get influenced in their behavior
and consumption trends.
It is evident that such behavioral transformations
usually begin with the urge or desire to have a
taste of the attractively advertised product.
Consequently, this urge eventually leads to a
habitual practice, causing one to adopt an
addiction behavior. Generally, it is notable that
the influence of the advertisements on the
media, television, magazines, and radio among
other social channels remain critical in
transforming the behavior of consumers.
Whether the Majority of American
Advertising Send a Message of Drug
Prevention
Although considerable effort has been put by the
American government agencies and other lobby
groups to prevent drug abuse and addiction, it is
notable that there still exist some gaps.
However, it is critical to observe that most
American advertising have incorporated the
messages or information about the negative
impacts of drug use. The advertisements
common in most media houses and channels are
mostly geared towards the youth as well as the
teenage population.
For instance, the National Youth Anti-Drug
Media Campaign remains a key contributor in
educating as well as encouraging youths within
US to reject the use of drugs and other
intoxicating substances (NYADMC, 2001). As a
result, there has been significant awareness
creation through advertising in the media on the
negative effects of tobacco and alcohol. The
government agencies as well as other advocacy
groups have initiated significant purchase of the
advertising media.
There has also been the establishment of an
array of media-based instruments for educators
as well as community groups. Media literacy has
played a critical role in the campaign against
drug abuse within US. This vital information has
been developed appropriately through the
involvement and engagement of major
government agencies as well as other advocacy
or lobby groups.
Through active media campaigns, youths are
increasingly becoming the target population of
the active advertisement through the media.
Some of the observable media channels used in
the advertisement of drug prevention include the
billboards, the magazines, radio, and television
as well as through the internet and other social
sites like Facebook (NYADMC, 2001).
The advocacy groups have particularly impacted
on the media positively towards creating and
launching the drug prevention media campaigns.
Most advocacy groups have realized the
importance of media on the America’s teenage
or young population.
This perhaps explains why there seems to be
equally intensive campaigns and awareness
creation on the negative health and social
impacts of addiction and drug abuse. The extents
of the challenges and complications emanating
from drug use have also led to these intensive
campaigns. Media literacy has helped the
teenagers comprehend the manner in which the
media are developed (Schooler, Basil & Altman,
1996).
There are also active campaigns that educate the
recipients on the various methodologies applied
to enhance persuasion in the drug
advertisements. There are advertisements that
aim to assist the youths as well as other persons
that are vulnerable to drug and substance abuse
develop critical thinking and decision skills.
Through the various warning and
advertisements, the recipients develop the
capacity to change their behaviors into
constructive and healthy lifestyles (Schooler,
Basil & Altman, 1996).
It is crucial to note that active advertisements
against drug and substance abuse may similarly
lead to a positive behavior change amongst
populations. The youth and other vulnerable
persons to drugs are able to internalize critical
skills necessary for them to guard themselves
from seductive messages concerning drugs as
well as other unhealthy lifestyles behaviors or
resolutions.
The advertisements have also led to the
development of healthy self-esteem appropriate
for avoiding seductive advertisements that are
more likely to persuade people to adopt drug use
behaviors (NYADMC, 2001). It is noteworthy
that most government agencies and other
advocacy groups have actively campaigned
through the media on the negative influences of
drug use and substance addiction.
Despite these efforts, it is still apparent that there
are notable challenges that are intrinsic in these
initiatives. In conclusion, it is important to note
that the issue of drug and substance abuse has
led to significant challenges within US. Some of
these challenges mostly affect students,
teenagers, and youths and range from socio-
economic to public health problems.
Factors Affecting Consumer Behavior
Introduction
Understanding consumer behavior is a critical
aspect of success for marketers in all sectors of
the economy. Studying consumer behavior
furnishes companies with information about
consumers’ demands, perceptions, and their
spending habits.
Understanding consumer behavior enables
companies compete effectively, stay in business,
improve sales, and develop better and effective
marketing strategies. Many factors affect
consumer behavior. They are classified into
three groups namely internal, external, and
situational factors. Internal and external factors
are intertwined.
However, they affect consumer behavior in
different ways. Many factors that affect
consumer behavior are beyond the control and
manipulation. Factors that influence consumer
behavior include motivation, perception,
learning, feelings, personal preferences,
thinking, social norms, cultural values, trends,
group influence, family influence, cultural
influence, sub-cultural influence, environment,
economy, culture, marketing, age, prevailing
circumstances, and personal life.
Internal factors
Internal factors that influence consumer
behavior include motivation, perception,
learning, feelings, personal preferences, and
thinking. These factors are also referred to as
personal factors. A consumer’s motivation to
purchase a certain product or service mainly
depends on an urge to fulfill a certain desire or
attain a certain goal. Consumers’ perceptions
largely affect their behaviors. They determine
how they value certain products or services
based on their perceived outcomes or benefits.
Perception can be influenced by factors such as
education, marketing, and advertising. Many
consumer behaviors are adapted from learning.
People learn to like or dislike certain products
depending on the information they get form
materials such as books, magazines, and online
sources. Personal preferences affect consumer
behaviors because they determine consumer
attitudes and perceptions.
For example, some consumers prefer high heel
shoes to flat shoes. This influences how they
make decisions on the type of shoes to purchase.
Consumer behaviors are also influenced by
feelings and thinking. Emotions play a critical
role in determining whether consumers purchase
certain products or not. Through thinking,
consumers analyze products, compare them with
others, and decide which products and services
best suit their needs.
External factors
External factors that influence consumer
behavior include social norms, cultural values,
trends, group influence, family influence,
cultural and sub-cultural influence, and
environment. Social norms are strong
determinants of consumer purchasing behaviors.
In many societies, certain social norms restrict
individuals of certain genders to certain ways of
dressing or doing social things.
For example, women only purchase certain
types of clothing that does not contradict their
norms. This greatly affects their purchasing
behaviors. Group influences includes
informational influence, comparative
influences, and comparative influences.
Informational influences take place in situations
where consumers seek information from
families or friends.
Comparative influences take place when a
consumer bases his/her decision on the identity
of the group to which they belong. For example,
a young person will buy the type of shoes that
his/her peers buy. Finally, normative influences
involves establishment of rules regarding the
behavior of group members. These aspects
determine what consumers purchase. Trends
have significant influence on consumers
especially young people.
They dress in the latest fashion in order to look
relevant and knowledgeable. Older people are
less attracted to trends and fashion. They mostly
dress for comfort. Families also affect the
process of decision making by consumers. For
example, purchasing trends change when a
single individual starts a family. Single people
purchase products that suit their lives as single
individuals.
In contrast, married people purchase products
that fulfill the needs of all their family members.
As such, they purchase more products. I
addition, families influence decision making.
Unlike in the case of single individuals that
make personal decisions, married individuals
make joint decisions that take into account the
preferences of other family members. Cultural
and sub-cultural factors include social norms
and beliefs.
In certain cultures, modes of dressing, feeding,
and communication are determined by norms,
traditions, and beliefs. Therefore, consumers are
very selective on what they purchase.
Collectivist cultures differ from individualistic
cultures. In collectivist cultures, decisions are
made collectively. As such, consumer behaviors
are determined by the collective decision made.
In contrast, the consumer habits observed in
individualistic societies depend on personal
tastes and preferences.
Situational factors
One of the most important aspects of business is
the consumer market. An important skill is
needed for businesses to understand the needs of
customers. In addition, they should understand
the factors that affect their behaviors. Examples
of situational factors that affect consumer
behavior include economy, culture, marketing,
age, prevailing circumstances, and personal life.
These factors that affect consumer spending
have different effects in varying degrees. Some
have stronger effects than others do depending
on the status of the consumer. Economy is the
main and most important factor. This is because
it determines the financial status of consumers,
the amount of money they are willing to spend,
and the amount available to spend. If the state of
the economy is worse, then consumers will have
little to spend and will therefore shun spending.
However, if the economy is thriving, consumers
possess a lot of money and they therefore spend
it on buying goods and services. In addition, the
economy also affects the job markets. High rates
of employment mean that consumers have more
money to send while low rates of employment
means that the economy is unstable and
therefore little money to spend. Culture is also
an important factor. Culture determines the
beliefs, attitudes, and prejudices that people
harbor. This in turn affects their purchasing
tendencies.
People’s attitude and beliefs are largely
influenced by their families and friends. It is
important to study the effect of culture on
consumers’’ spending tendencies. Marketing is a
very effective tool that is used to control and
influence consumers’ spending tendencies. It
influences consumes by telling them what to buy
and why to buy. Age is also a determinant of
consumer behaviors. People of different ages
have different needs and preferences.
Therefore, consumer behaviors depend on age
and the suitability of certain goods and services
to certain ages. For example, movies attract
more young people compared to old people.
Finally, personal life and prevailing
circumstances influences consumer behaviors
significantly. For example, the spending habits
of married people are different from sending
habits of single people. The wants and needs of
married people are more. Therefore, they spend
more.
Conclusion
Many factors affect the purchasing decisions
that consumers make. These decisions are
influenced by a wide range of factors that are
grouped in three classes. They include internal,
external, and situational factors. Factors in each
group influence consumer behavior differently
in varying degrees. Examples of internal factors
include motivation, feelings, perception, and
attitude.
External factors include group influence, family,
environment, culture, and sub-culture
influences. Situational factors include economy,
personal life, age, and prevailing circumstances.
Study of consumer behavior is important
because it furnishes companies with information
about consumers’ demands, preferences,
perceptions, and spending habits. In addition, it
helps businesses improve sales and develop
better and effective marketing strategies.
Genetically Modified Food and European
Consumer Behavior
Introduction
Genetically Modified Food (GMF) is a product
of Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO).
These organisms have been genetically
bioengineered or cloned either chemically,
through selective breeding or by use of
radiations. The organisms have been subjected
to experimental analysis for a long period in an
effort to eradicate hunger in the world.
GMF trigger controversial legal, health and
ethical issues that are yet to be resolved. GMF
critics express their concerns based on
economic, ecological and biological issues. For
instance, steroids are incorporated in organisms
to modify them into larger and better products.
Supporters of the technology on the other hand
have a Utilitarian perspective stating that
various advantages outweigh the harmful effects
and therefore, the GMF should be embraced
globally.
For instance, GMFs are pesticide free and it is
not only environmentally safe but also is
economical for farmers since the plants or
animals can resist pests. They therefore are not
prone to diseases such as bacterial, fungal or
viral. The foods can be modified to resist cold,
drought and still maintain or amplify the
nutritional value and to crown it all, they are
more affordable.
Irrespective of all the merits, some countries
have opted to ban the foods or others trade
organizations such as the European Union
dictate that GMF must be highlighted on the
product labels. Consequently consumers are
reluctant at incorporating them in their diet. Is it
within the rights of individuals to alter
organisms just because they have ability to do
so? This paper will address the issue of GMFs
and why they are still rejected by the European
consumers irrespective of the outwards
consumer benefits they have.
European Consumers
The European market as compared to that of the
United States reflects a contrasting stand. In the
U.S, GMF is embraced as an economically and
socially attractive sector, that its growth
continuous to be enormous. Large farms
continue to be allotted to cater for GMOs.
Conversely, GMF food are scarce in Europe for
the countries continue to impose harsh laws
regarding GMF production and having to ban
the GMF based on negative opinion. In Europe,
there are fewer lands for cultivation and often
are positioned in areas of high population. These
lands are not public but private property and
therefore, cultivation is hard.
Disregard for GMF in Europe is mainly due to
the issue that the food requires more analysis in
terms of being tested and researched more. The
EU Directive 2001/18/EC outdated the
Directive 90/220/EEC restricting marketing and
experimental release of GMF. The directive was
aimed at ensuring extensive research is carried
on GMFs for the benefit of the public. Labeling
every product with GMF was also a requirement
for the consumers to make personal choices on
the products.
In the United Kingdom, GMF is restricted by the
Department for Environment, Food and Rural
Affairs (DEFRA) in the market as enforced by
the EU directives. The Advisory Committee on
Novel Foods and Processes (ACNFP) is
awarded with the responsibility of advising the
Food Standards Agency (FSA) on GMF to
ensure public food safety. This has facilitated
banning of GMF since they are said to be
hazardous to the human health.
Reasons behind the Rejection of GMF in the
European Market
One of the core issues surrounding the dilemma
of whether or not to embrace the GMFs is
inadequate understanding of the technology
surrounding the issue. Many European
consumers fear technological debut and
therefore they becomes skeptic. Inadequate
understanding results to mistrust which often is
undesirable especially when it is expressed
publicly.
The European Union is applying the strategy of
taking things slow and meanwhile, research
could be done extensively on the benefits and
hazards associated with the food. GMFs cannot
be regarded as inherently dangerous and
therefore, it is for the welfare of the consumers.
This is because GMF not only add up to
malnutrition problem but also they aid in
conserving the environment since it amplifies
production and decreases overreliance of
chemicals.
In the rising global population, such a
technology would prove beneficial since more
food is needed and no enough agricultural land.
This is especially very timely in developing
world and therefore, Europeans may be reluctant
at embracing the technology since it does not
seem very critical in their world forgetting that
in the future, a higher food demand may force
the use of GMF to become the only way
forward.
The European consumers sometimes disregard
the GMF claiming that the practice is unnatural
since it causes irreversible harm to organisms. In
such cases, an animal may not recover the
changes since they are genetically incorporated.
The germ plasm which dictates heredity may be
discarded through the technology. This violates
the intellectual’s rights since it involves altering
organisms for the benefit of human.
Other consumers are afraid of food-borne
diseases such as the mad cow although it is not
related with the issue of bioengineering. They
have noted strong phrases such as “What is
happening to our food? Is it still safe? Are we
being told everything?” In EU, a hard stance on
the issue is evident since the debates
surrounding GMO initiated from there. It has
resulted to differentiated European market
which has fears of transgenic food with various
supermarkets chains aiding in embracing GM
free food which sells more.
They claim that every individual has a right to
preference which emphasize on the need to put
labels The European market is not only opposed
to selling the GMFs in their region but also in
having these organisms grown there.
The Europeans have a tendency of being so keen
on the views and opinions of environmentalists
rather than the academic institutions. It is crucial
since these environmentalists have been having
a negative opinion about bioengineering and
therefore, this affects the consumer.
This is unlike the Americans who look upon
academic opinions and less on that of the
environmentalists. The cultural attitudes are
crucial when it becomes to the consumers
preference. The European media is very
extensive when it comes to covering issues
regarding GMF. They have insisted on using
strong statements referring to GMF as
Frankenstein Foods. As a result, there has the
public is alarmed about the effects of these
products.
Conclusion
Consumer opinion is very significant when it
comes to implementing certain policies.
Negative opinion of the GMF in the European
consumers has not only affected globalization
efforts but also a clash in the global socio-
political welfare.
Cultural differences, individual opinions, the
media and environmental entities have had a
great part in influencing the trends by which
GMF is handled in Europe. International trade is
affected by such differences. Public uneasiness
regarding GMF especially in Europe has
affected their productivity.
The public has been influenced by the
environmentalists and the media thus creating
uncertainty of the future of GMF. European
Union member states have been faced with a
dilemma regarding GMF since it has adversely
affected the international trade. Nevertheless,
European consumers prefer organic food rather
than GMF and their opinion should not be
interfered with since they possess the right to do
so.
Bibliography
Gaisford, J & Kerr W, Economic analysis for
international trade negotiations: the WTO and
Agricultural Trade, Edward Elgar Publishing,
United Kingdom, 2001.
Gordon, S, Critical Perspective on Genetically
Modified Crops and Food, Rosen Publishing
Group, Inc., New York, 2006.
Nottingham, S, Eat Your Genes: How
Genetically Modified Food is Entering our Diet.
Zed Books, Ltd, New York, 2003.
Shaw, I, Is It Safe to Eat? Enjoy Eating and
Minimizing Food Risks. Springer, New Zealand,
2005.
Sherlock, R & Morrey, J, Ethical Issues in
Biotechnology. Rowman & Littlefield
Publishers, Inc., Maryland, 2002.
How Cognitive Dissonance Can Affect
Consumer Behavior
Introduction
The term cognitive dissonance which is
associated with Leon Festinger came into
existence in 1957. It is used to describe a
psychologically disturbing state or imbalance
that occurs when there is inconsistency about
various cognitions on a thing. The most common
examples of inconsistent cognitions are the
awareness that smoking is harmful to the health,
the belief that it is pleasurable and the urge to
smoke.
Cognitive dissonance motivates actions to
reduce dissonance. Cognitive dissonance theory
argues that individuals possess cognitive
elements about themselves, their past behavior,
their beliefs and attitudes and their
environments. Consonance is said to occur when
one cognitive element follows from another.
If one does not follow another, they are said to
be dissonant and this creates psychological
tension referred to as cognitive dissonance.
Since cognitive dissonance is associated with
psychological disturbances, individuals change
the dissonant cognitive elements to reduce
dissonance. Cognitive dissonance takes place
after individuals make decisions and before
efforts to reduce dissonance are made.
Analysis
Most people ask themselves whether the
qualities or characteristics of services can
influence the possibility of cognitive
dissonance. This can be addressed by looking at
some of the things that characterise services.
They include intangibility, inseparability, lack of
faith and perishability. It is believed that these
characteristics of services, the marketing
problems that emerge and marketing strategies
used in dealing with problems encountered
cause cognitive dissonance among consumers of
services
Intangibility leads to lack of protection through
patents and makes it difficult to display or
communicate services. These problems do not
only make marketers uncomfortable but also the
consumers. It is more difficult to evaluate
services than it is to evaluate goods. As
consumers purchase services, they face more
risks than the ones they face when purchasing
consumer goods. Intangibility therefore
increases the difficulty of making the decision to
purchase and the perceived risks involved in the
process of purchasing .
Inseparability poses a challenge in that it forces
the customer to be involved in production. It is
also a problematic idea in that once customers
get involved in production; it becomes difficult
to produce services on a mass scale at a central
location. In addition, the provider is seen as the
service itself, something which is
disadvantageous. Dissatisfaction as a result of
the services received causes customers to feel
responsible for the problem.
This is however different when they purchase
the goods. Customers play an important role in
satisfactory delivery of the service. As a result,
they may have more complaints with regard to
services than the goods. Special requests by
customers may also be associated with varying
prices for the same product. Such problems are
believed to cause variability in the type of
services the customers get thus initiating
cognitive dissonance.
Perishability implies that it is not possible to
keep inventories of services. Charging different
prices to different customers is often the strategy
used by marketers to avoid losing revenue. In
addition, they use contests, coupons and
premiums. An increase in the variability of
service prices which is a marketing strategy used
to respond to perishability increases the
likelihood of cognitive dissonance among
consumers of perishable goods.
Although cognitive dissonance has been
discussed in different types of literature, it does
not have a reliable scale to measure it. However,
it can be assessed using a 22-item scale
immediately after purchase. In the past, different
indirect measures have been used to find out the
occurrence of cognitive dissonance. In addition,
more direct measures such as physiological
measures have also been used.
The process of developing a scale for measuring
cognitive dissonance starts with an exploration
of the cognitive dissonance domain. Since there
are various definitions and distinctions of the
concept, researchers have attempted to develop
a scale that can measure both the cognitve and
emotional aspects of dissonance in the post
purchase and pre-use phase of consumption.
The first stage in the development of the scale is
the scale item generation. This involves
generating a total pool of more than hundred
dissonance items from exploratory research
involving four focus groups with consumers.
The validity of the content is then assessed by
consumer behavior experts who are given the
emotional and cognitive definitions of
dissonance used in the study.
During the process of scale development, the
adequacy with which a specified domain of
content is sampled is a major consideration.
Scale item generation is followed by the first
stage of data collection and purification. Since
the first stage alone is not enough, it is followed
by the second stage of data collection and
purification.
These processes are believed to establish
important facts associated with cognitive
dissonance. Dissonance follows a personal
decision but may take place throughout the
whole process of decision making and may
never disappear completely. Its presence,
magnitude and effects should be studied in all
stages of the decision making process .
Consumer behavior is usually an interesting area
to focus on. It involves a clear understanding of
the psychology of the buyer and external
influences such as culture, reference groups,
family and social class. However, it is fortunate
that there is basic knowledge about consumer
behavior that exists and can be used by
industries to make important decisions.
Cognitive dissonance theory states that at some
points, there are bits of relevant cognitions
which may not be consistent with one another.
The theory appears fascinating to most
researchers and practitioners since it presents
marketing implications which appear to
contradict tradition. For instance, advertising is
intended at converting potential customers into
buyers and once sales are made, the business
comes to an end. Dissonance theory on the other
hand implies that the purpose of advertising
starts after a consumer buys the product.
Advertising only facilitates the attempt to
rationalize the choice by the attractiveness of the
brand the customer chooses. For instance,
companies that advertise their goods are
believed to make more sales since reading
advertisements instigates the buying behavior.
However, the dissonance theory predicts
otherwise by arguing that the buyers of a product
tend to read advertisements more often than
those who do not buy the product. According to
cognitive dissonance theory, when one brand is
chosen more by customers, its rank position
goes upward while the rejected brand goes
downwards (Oshikawa, 1969).
Conclusion
There is the need for more research to be
conducted on the area of cognitive dissonance
and the ever increasing importance of services.
Services have been impacting the world
economy in an enormous manner. Earlier
reasearchers have also indicated the need to
conduct more research on cognitve dissonance.
They argue that it is of great concern since
majority of consumers exhibit some form of
dissonance occasioned by many factors.
References
Oshikawa, S. (1969) can cognitive dissonance
theory explain consumer behavior? Journalof
Marketing, 33(4), 44-49.
Kansal, P., & Bawa, A. (2008) Cognitive
Dissonance and the Marketing of Services:
Some Issues. Journal of Services Research 8(2),
32-51.
Sweeney, J. (2000). Cognitive Dissonance after
Purchase. Psychology and Marketing , 17(5),
369-385.
