Eliot and Pound: A Comparative Analysis of
Art and Technique in Modernism
Introduction
Art is a skill that facilitates the order of things
like sculptures, poems, and paintings. In his
book The Techne Theory: A New Language for
Art, Staten states that a skilled craftsman, like an
artist, requires knowledge of previous works (4).
The statement directly contrasts the Romantic
view of an artist, which portrays a craftsman as
a genius who can create unique art from nothing.
According to the Romantic, all past conventions
are violated, and the genius develops a new
concept that never existed. Staten states that
“Techne is just practical know-how” (4). A skill
or knowledge of the artisan occurs naturally, like
a mechanical activity.
In support of Staten’s viewpoint about art in his
book, two modern theorists, Thomas Stearns
Elliot and Ezra Pound, are used to justify their
thoughts. The two were critical literary writers
in the contemporary era whose prose can be
compared and contrasted as they shared similar
ideas and different opinions. The modernist era
brought about new writers like Eliot and Pound,
who developed new themes, styles, and
techniques for art formation; a comparison and
contrast can be drawn to understand their
contribution to literary craft.
The research paper is structured as follows: it
compares Thomas Eliot and Ezra Pound by first
concisely describing why they left America.
Their bibliographies are also presented briefly to
help clarify knowing the two philosophers. An
elaboration of art production based on the techne
Standpoint is then given. An analysis of the
artistic, literary theory and criticism is then
provided to understand the similarities between
Eliot and Pound. In understanding the
definitions of art presented by Ezra and Pound,
the main emphasis is placed on the theories of
art they formulated and their approach to literary
tradition.
The contrast between Ezra and Eliot is then
elaborated based on their course toward literary
art [The Artist’s Touch] in The Techne Theory.
The nature of their collaboration is further
executed, especially concerning The Waste
Land poem. Their differences are further
identified and elaborated by focusing on literary
styles and themes. Despite presenting similar
artworks, artists’ writing techniques are
different. The research paper ends with a
conclusion under which all the main arguments
of the report are summarized.
Comparison
Eliot and Pound: Leaving America
Thomas Stearns (T.S.) Eliot and Ezra Pound
were two great poets of the twentieth century
who developed a good friendship after meeting
in Europe as exiles from America. The two
writers met in 1914 and discovered they had
similar desires for arts and poetry. Eliot and Ezra
decided to leave their home country at a young
age and relocated permanently to Europe (Devi
and Singha 20). As a result, of their departure
and relocation, modernism was developed. They
[Eliot and Pound] both identified the difficulty
of surviving in America as an artist, as it was a
cultural desert, making them feel displaced.
Another writer that followed in the footsteps of
Ezra and Pound was James Baldwin. “I didn’t
know what was going to happen to me in France,
but I [Baldwin] knew what was to happen to me
in New York” (Baldwin). Those were his
remarks when asked during an interview why he
departed America. The three [Eliot, Pound, and
Baldwin] were drawn to Europe as it was the
treasure house of culture. The presence of the
old cities, libraries, monuments, and museums
offered them the artistic resource and
environment which lacked in their home country
(Odom 2). Europe was an organic society and
satisfied the two writers’ hunger for order and
tradition as religion and politics were more
institutionalized and bound.
Eliot and Pound: Biographies
Ezra Pound and Eliot were almost agemates with
only three years difference, and both grew up
and studied in America. Ezra was born in 1885
in Hailey and studied Romance philosophy at
Hamilton College and the University of
Pennsylvania (Devi and Singha 21). In 1906
while on a study trip to Europe, Pound met other
writers in various literary circles, including
William Yeats and Ford Madox Ford (Odom 13).
Ezra met Eliot in 1914, and after realizing they
shared a lot, they developed good friendships
(Odom 2). He traveled to France and then Italy,
where he supported Mussolini’s regime due to
his obsession with political and economic
matters.
Consequently, Thomas Eliot was born in 1888 in
ST. Louis and attended Harvard University. He
had a strong belief in tradition which made him
appreciate culture. Eliot settled in England in
1914 after traveling in Germany and Paris
(Bashota and Ejupi 3). He began working on The
Waste Land in 1921, which was later
restructured by Pound (Bashota and Ejupi 6). In
contrast to Ezra Pound, Thomas settled in
England without relocating again and started a
publishing career.
Techne Standpoint: Art Production
Artists and non-creators do not view art
production the same way. Audiences view skill
as finished items that need to be appreciated,
while producers view fellow artists’ work as
made and try to analyze how it was developed
(Staten, “The Techne Standpoint” 39). Through
the experience of other people’s work, an artist
creates their techne, thus deepening their art-
making knowledge. Eliot viewed the past as an
integrative part of the present as it laid ground
on what was already identified, making change
easy. Ezra Pound affirmed this in his literary
work The Spirit of Romance. He stated that an
artist’s abilities could only facilitate the
association of the past with the present. Techne
has an impact on the promotion of the skills
establishing a good artist:
Once we [Staten and all humans] become
attentive to the nature of techne … all
purposeful, goal-directed human action … is
techne guided. There is no human agency
without techne. We can’t even form a goal-
directed intention without the intermediary of
techne. […] human beings are transformed from
biological organisms to agents by the technai
they incorporate […]. (Staten 9)
Staten notes that “Techne is just practical know-
how” (4). It is the skillful attainment of goals,
including literary art, arts of mathematics,
fishing, or carpentry (Baldwin). Art refers to the
skill in which everything is organized or made,
thus indicating that museums contain arts of
work, not art. As opposed to the Romantic
humanist ideas of art, techne is socio-historical
and not an individual possession. It is practical
knowledge accumulated over time before
migrating to one’s body [Mind].
Literary Theory and Criticism
During the early twentieth century, a series of
movements in America and Europe resulted in
modernism. Ezra Pound and Thomas Elliot were
among the many practitioners and exponents
who facilitated its development. The many
political, economic, and religious actions in the
nineteenth century resulted in the various
modernism witnessed during this period [1910-
1930] (Bashota and Ejupi 2). Modernist writers
such as Yeats, Dante, and Eliot borrowed
knowledge from their predecessors and
redeveloped them into improved literary works.
The emphasis on impersonality, tradition, and
classicism by previous American humanists like
Paul Elmer and Irving Babbitt facilitated the
ideas he [Eliot] had (Devi and Singha 24). T.S.
Eliot became the most influential modernist
through his literary criticism and poetry.
On the other hand, Ezra Pound engaged in
various roles, including poetic critic. He
promoted his works and those of others,
including Eliot and Joyce. Pound also translated
numerous works of art from Chinese, Greek, and
Latin. He advocated for a poem that was precise,
concrete, concise in expression, and
appropriately informed (Bashota and Ejupi 5).
The theory of tradition adopted by Eliot was
borrowed from Pound and Babbitt (Bashota and
Ejupi 6). All significant works of art, whether
past or present, significantly impact the
subsequent results of art as they form an ideal
order that is constantly modified. Eliot
implicated the need for current writers to find
common ground with past texts even after they
expound more. He further advanced the
impersonality theory by implying that artists
express accurate formulation of feelings and
thoughts rather than personality during art
crafting. The ideas presented by Eliot and Ezra
have had a lasting influence on art definition.
Contrast
Techne Theory: The Artist’s Touch
A different author can analyze a written piece of
art, preserving more valuable information while
the less important one gets disregarded. Ezra
Pound intervened in Eliot’s work The Waste
Land and made minimal changes while cutting
off parts to make the writing fascinating
(Bashota and Ejupi 4). The paradigmatic poem
of modernism was formless and required
restructuring to make it perfect. Staten states,
“[…] a skilled artist generates combinations that
are more than nonsense but which have only
potential value, which the second faculty has to
grasp and choose to actualize its potential” (The
Techne Standpoint 41).
The artist’s touch is an artisan’s ability to make
correct judgments without thinking much. Eliot
sought help from Pound to modify the poem
[The Waste Land] and make it more appealing
(Devi and Singha 18). According to Staten,
“[…] The largest scale act of selection was …
performed by a different person [Pound] than the
one who generated the combination [Eliot] (The
Techne Standpoint 39). Ezra pound was a
complete artist compared to Eliot as he had more
techne [skills].
Ezra and Eliot followed different paths in
literary writing and life before reaching their
mature techne intuitions. There is no perfect
artisan who can develop art with zero mistakes:
There is no getting away from the element of
‘subjectivity,’ the art –intuition, which is … both
in the artist’s touch and … the audience’s
response. It is irreducible in techne … it reflects
… that human beings are doing this, and
everything they do requires the judgment of an
intuitive sort […]. It takes skill to make art … no
one is born with that skill. It is developed
through exercise … learning, and reflection.
(Staten, “The Techne Standpoint” 41)
Eliot tended to write longer poems than Ezra,
and they were [the poems] restructured and
edited by different authors (Devi and Singha 20).
The two [Eliot and Pound] published articles
discussing how poets should take the writing
journey early in their careers.
Themes and Literary Styles
Ezra Pound used different literary techniques
and styles in his writings. He [Pound] adopted
the imagism movement, which stressed clarity,
precision, and economy of language as in
classical Japanese and Chinese poetry (Monson
128). The new approach did not adhere to the
traditional rhyme and meter. The newly adopted
style by Ezra aimed to “compose in the sequence
of the musical phrase, not in the sequence of the
metronome” (Bashota and Ejupi 2). Contrary to
this, Eliot uses varying techniques, including
fragmentation, repetition, and imagism. He
[Eliot] also uses poetic devices like the
personification of nature, allusions, and imagery
of death.
Unlike Eliot, who relocated permanently to
Britain and attained citizenship, Pound did not
settle in England but moved to France and Italy
before returning to America in 1939 (Bashota
and Ejupi 3). The principal theme Ezra included
in his works is the importance of aesthetics and
art. He also addressed economics, nature, love,
history, and journey. Conversely, Eliot focused
on themes like tranquility, regeneration,
mortality, and alienation (Monson 140). He
liked topics that could communicate the
uncertain psychological state of humanity
during the twentieth century.
Conclusion
New and young artists emerged during the
modernist era coming up with unique styles and
techniques of writing. Among the many writers
emerging during this period, the two greatest
ones were T.S. Eliot and Ezra Pound, who
pioneered modernism. In comparison, the two
artists left America and relocated to Europe. The
two writers agree that past literary work is
integral to present art. Ezra Pound worked on
Eliot’s work and restructured it into a more
acceptable poem free of errors. T.S. Eliot’s
poem The Waste Land was long and ambiguous
hence the intervention from Pound per his
[Eliot’s] request.
However, Eliot and Ezra contrasted several
times as they followed different paths toward
attaining their full potential. Among the two,
Ezra was skilled more and was asked by Eliot to
restructure the poem he had already written. The
two [Ezra and Eliot] writers adopted different
writing techniques and styles, which they
elaborated more in their two respective
approaches, the theory of imagism and the tenet
of impersonality. Ezra and Eliot also focused on
varying themes they saw fit to address in their
respective works of art.
Works Cited
Baldwin, James. “James Baldwin, the Art of
Fiction.” The Paris Review, Interview by Jordan
Ergably, 1984. Web.
Bashota, Halil, and Vlera Ejupi. Imagist Poetry
of the Twentieth Century American Poets: Ezra
Pound, Amy Lowell, and Hilda Doolittle. 2019,
pp. 1–8. Web.
Devi, Konjengbam Indira, and H. Nanikumar
Singha. “Discussion on T.S. Eliot’s Poetic
Theory: A Review.” International Journal of
Linguistics and Literature (IJLL), vol. 7, no. 3,
2018, pp. 19–25. Web.
Monson, Jane. British Prose Poetry: The Poems
without Lines. Cham, Springer International
Publishing : Imprint : Palgrave Macmillan,
2018, pp. 1-147. Web.
Odom, Nicholas. Borrowing Time: The
Classical Tradition in the Poetic Theories of T.
S. Eliot and Ezra Pound. 2019, pp. 1–43. Web.
Staten, Henry. “The Artist’s Touch.” Techne
Theory: A New Language for Art, Bloomsbury
Publishing, 2019, pp. 3–13. Web.
—. “The Techne Standpoint.” Techne Theory: A
New Language for Art, Bloomsbury Publishing,
2019, pp. 33-42. Web.
Modern Arts Development in the USA
Public Support for Arts
Gerro researched to determine whether the
members of public support the American arts
industry. The author used evidence from the
USA to make the pertinent determinations
concerning this question. The research explores
how the social status, the cultivation of esthetics,
and attendance of artistic events affect the
inherent attitudes of the cultural policies in the
USA. The researcher sought to answer and
addressed three critical research questions about
the topic.
First, the research required to answer the
question of whether the similar attributes of the
public social status affect the attendance of
artistic events. This research question also
addressed the inquiry of whether the similarity
of social status can affect the attitudes and
opinions of funding the industry.
The second question addressed the issue of how
public attendance of artistic events affects their
willingness to fund the industry. This question
was meant to determine whether the design of
arts has transformed the perception of people
towards the arts. Thirdly, the study sought to
answer the inquiry concerning esthetic
disposition. Specifically, it sought to determine
whether this disposition affects the public
funding of arts.
The inquiries were answered by a survey in both
the USA and the UK to make determinations that
were pertinent to the two countries. After the
research, it was established that a white member
of the public with high incomes was not
necessarily supporting artistic funding (Gerro
24).
This implies that the level of income does not
prompt the public to support or disregard the
funding of arts. In the second question, it was
determined that the people who attend the public
artistic events support the funding of this
industry. In essence, the critical interpretation of
this finding is that the artists can create an
emotional connection of satisfaction with the
attendants.
However, the authors also identified some
interesting disparities between USA and UK.
The critical strong point of the research study is
the fact that it analyzes the results in accordance
to the affinity that exists between attendance of
arts by the public, social setups and financial
capability of the attendants.
In that regard, it has considered a wide scope
that makes it credible and reliable. However,
whereas this research has made crucial
determinations regarding the funding of arts by
the public, it is evident that there are some
deficiencies in this research. Importantly, the
researchers did not identify why the differences
were noted between the two countries.
Teaching Artists in the USA
When it comes to the development of modern
arts, it is important to focus on the artists who
teach and train people about the various aspects
of industrial practice. In this regard, Risner
investigated about the hybrid life and
commitment of artists who teach the arts. In
specific, the paper sought to focus on the artists
who train students on dance and aspects that are
related to this field. The author noted that
teaching artists had not been defined resolutely
to determine their real descriptor.
In essence, their description has remained
ambiguous and contestable in America. From a
critical point of view, this is an indication that
the present system has not embraced the
comprehensive training program in pursuit of
improvement. The researcher conducted a
survey from a broad variety of dancing artists in
the USA.
Particularly, the research focused on sixty-four
dancing artists as the sample population for the
study. Having carried out the research, it was
established that three recounting and crucial
themes were pertinent to the topic. First,
insufficient preparation was identified as an
important aspect that affected the effectiveness
of the trainers. Secondly, the trainers incurred
some critical challenges when undertaking the
lessons.
The third issue was identified as the existence of
many perspectives and view regarding the right
way of training. In this regard, Risner identified
that the industry has not determined the clear
program and criteria of professionalization as
well as certification (184). In other words, the
pertinent personnel has not indicated the
standards of evaluating and certifying the
trainers.
The research study concluded with making
recommendations about the possible ways of
improving the dancing industry by introducing
the tertiary dancing programs. Although the
research made critical determinations, it should
have included other related arts, such as music
and instrumentation, in order to expand the
scope of the research.
Artistic Involvement and Educational
Performance
The availability of instruments is a critical
determining factor when it comes to the success
of arts in the USA. Accordingly, three
researchers, including Young, Cordes, and
Winner, sought to evaluate the relationship that
exists between academic achievements and the
students’ involvement in artistic works.
Importantly, they wanted to determine whether
the availability of artistic instruments at home
and school can affect the academic
achievements of children.
Although this research seems to concentrate in
the academic autonomy of arts and education, it
is a crucial study because it seeks to determine
whether the development of arts can play a part
in the failure of other sectors of the country. The
research was conducted to focus on a period of
ten years starting from 1998 to 2008. They
compared the stated variables to different types
of cognition, including participation in sports
after classes, social factors, and economic
aspects of the educational system.
It was established that students who were
involved in sports after the class work performed
better than the ones who did not participate in
recreational activities (Young, Cordes, and
Winner 9). Importantly, the ones who had access
to musical instruments performed higher than
those who could not get them.
Although this approach was effective, it was
evident that the research did not take into
consideration the indicative elements of
parenting. Understandably, the attitudes of
parents are also major factors that determine the
success of students in school. As such, the
effects caused by the availability of artistic
instruments can be overshadowed by the
attitudes of parents towards those instruments.
Freer and Bennet conducted similar research
concerning the development of musical and
academic identities among the university
students. In essence, the researchers established
that the musical artists and education have been
on the opposite side for a long time. This conflict
is intensified when the musician and teachers
view themselves as members of one side rather
than both parts.
The research conducted parallel research in both
the USA and Australia whereby a sample of 72
participants was drawn from two urban
universities from both countries. Through the
survey that was conducted, it was established
that musical identities are more visible than the
educator’s persona. Essentially, the musical
persona overshadows the latter and becomes the
framework of determining the educators’
ideologies and techniques (Freer & Bennett
271).
Works Cited
Freer, Patrick, and Dawn Bennett. “Developing
musical and educational identities in university
music students.” Music Education
Research 14.3 (2012): 265-284. Print.
Gerro, Tally. “Do individuals who attend the arts
support public funding of the arts? Evidence
from England and the USA.” Journal of Policy
Research in Tourism, Leisure and Events 4.1
(2012): 1-27. Print.
Risner, Doug. “Hybrid lives of teaching and
artistry: a study of teaching artists in dance in the
USA.” Research in Dance Education 13.2
(2012): 175-193. Print.
Young, Laura N., Sara Cordes, and Ellen
Winner. “Arts involvement predicts academic
achievement only when the child has a musical
instrument.” Educational Psychology 4 (2013):
1-13. Print.
Martin Luther King Jr.’s Legacy and
Modern-Day Criticism
Introduction
Martin Luther King Jr., commonly referred to by
the initials MLK was an American activist and
Baptist minister mostly known for his efforts to
end racism in the United States. King was linked
to the development of the civil rights movement
as it was considered to cause a lot of revolution
in the country through the use of peaceful
demonstrations, which succeeded in the
attainment of numerous policies that made
African Americans recognized in the then highly
racist country. His efforts to combat racism and
fight for equality made him perceived
differently among the different social groups in
the United States. While the Negroes perceived
him as their savior, the whites and government
saw him as a radical leader who radicalized the
issue of racism, causing chaos across the
country. This aspect made him meet a lot of
resistance, especially from the government
mechanisms, whenever he visited a state since
he was considered a threat to the nation’s peace.
Despite being treated as a terrorist during his
life, Martin Luther King is currently
remembered as a humanitarian who succeeded
in bringing equality not only in the United States
but also across the world.
Critics that Martin Luther may Experience
in the Modern-day
Martin Luther King played a critical role in
attaining civil rights across the United States.
King’s mode of advocacy was one of a kind as it
involved peaceful demonstrations where he,
together with other activists, matched roads with
placards showing their grievances and the
various things they wanted the government to
change. Such matches were highly denounced
by the government, which had passed
discriminatory laws, because they believed the
demonstrations would destroy the social order
(Harvey, n.p). This aspect made martin Luther
face police officers dedicated to eliminating
such protests as they were considered unlawful.
The media back then denounced him and his
entire course. According to Harvey, King was
despised by the media as it was a tool against
him. Most of the publications painted a negative
image of him as he was considered a rebel and
an enemy of the state. This aspect made him
known as a revolutionist dedicated to causing
trouble for the state. Such elements have
significantly changed in the mainstream media
as Martin Luther is considered a national hero
who shaped America’s political and social lives
(Harvey, n.p). His efforts are currently regarded
as optimistic as he is even celebrated as one of
the most influential people in the country’s
history.
Critics he Might be Having on Modern-day
Domestic and Foreign Policy
If Martin Luther King were there today, he
would have highly criticized the current policing
and economic policies experienced in the United
States. Such policies are perceived to
significantly impact the country’s people as they
have made the country have a bad reputation not
only within the land but also across the world.
The use of excessive force by the police has led
to demonstrations across the country since the
minority groups are the ones that are highly
affected. These events are similar to those
experienced during his time, including
discrimination against blacks. In addition,
economic policies like high commodities prices
are not new to the country as the country has
always been materialistic (Rossner 236).
Considering the various issues that King
advocated for during his time, he would be at the
forefront today, leading demonstrations across
the country over the extrajudicial killings that
have been experienced in recent years, where
most of the victims of police brutality have been
Negroes. Due to this reason, King would not
watch what he had fought for being brought
back, leading to the death of innocent people in
the name of maintaining law and order.
Application of the Letter from Birmingham
King’s letter from Birmingham is still applicable
today. Although equality laws exist, King
advocated for various aspects still exercised in
the modern world. In the letter from
Birmingham, Luther talked about how the
government had implemented regulations that
discriminate among some people (Schwartz
375). He advocated for the people that should
rise to fight injustice. In his letter, Luther states
that it is the moral responsibility of the citizens
to break all unjust laws through direct action
instead of waiting for justice to be obtained
through the courts, as it may take forever for
such a thing to happen. He argued that injustice
to anyone in a single place was a threat to justice
anywhere else (Schwartz 375). Such aspects are
applied today as people still undertake peaceful
demonstrations in the United States to advocate
for the acts of injustice experienced across the
country. For example, the Black Lives Matter
protests after the continued cases of police
murders have been an act of fighting injustice.
In addition, Luther complained about how the
police were used to suppress the fight against
racial discrimination, which is still experienced
today as the police still execute blacks in the
disguise of maintaining law and order.
Christian Voice Intervention
As a minister, Martin Luther used the bible to
teach about the virtues taught in Christian
teachings. Through summons, he preached
about equality, peace, and love among
Christians, which significantly impacted the
mobilization of individuals who matched
together in the street demonstration (Rossner
239). The teaching of peace made the protesters
calm and composed. The Protestants did not
fight back even when the police engaged them
physically. Such an aspect made it challenging
for the police to disperse them as they were
united and dedicated to dying for what they
believed in. Such a voice would play a
significant role in modern society as it would
unite people as one Christian family irrespective
of an individual’s racial background. The voice
would advocate against inhumanity that is
undertaken by the police making it easy to push
for the development of laws that criminalize
police brutality.
Conclusion
Martin Luther King played a critical role in
developing a modern society where all people
are considered essential. His acts gave hope to
the people of color as they were not regarded as
relevant in American society. The change in
presentation of King from being considered a
rebel and an enemy of the state to becoming an
international hero who fought against inequality
shows that he was a great man. His efforts
changed the mentality of many who advocate for
abolishing policies against humanity. King’s
letter from Birmingham is still relevant today as
it reflected on things still experienced in the
modern world. Aspects like police brutality
reflect how the police troubled the blacks. His
Christian voice could still be used today to
preach peace, unity of purpose, and the
importance of loving one another. Through such
unity, individuals can unite and push for a
typical course: racial discrimination.
Modernism in Art: Themes and Techniques
The Enlightenment worldview, which centered
on the person and gave great weight to reasoned
decision-making, defined the Modern Age.
During this time, capitalism, imperialism,
democratization, and science-based rationalism
all witnessed significant growth. To express
their unique perspectives, modern artists
abandoned traditional approaches to philosophy,
color, and design. Scientific advancements that
made them doubt the stability of the “actual”
world and the accuracy of experience
strengthened their views.
The Black Square is a symbol for art generally,
not only the first artwork of a grassroots venture.
In 1915, Kazimir Malevich created his first
Black Square (Black). Given that it distinguishes
between realistic paintings and abstract
paintings, it is one of the foundational pieces of
contemporary art and of Western art and artists.
The square was deemed a work of Suprematism
by Malevich, a style he announced but which is
virtually solely linked to his own output.
Dali’s depiction of the Greek fable of Narcissus
is depicted in this artwork. A young man of
outstanding beauty named Narcissus destroyed
the hearts of numerous lovers because he only
cared about himself. In order to show Narcissus’
transition from the kneeling figure in the water
into the hand clutching the egg and flower with
a hallucinogenic effect, Dali employed a careful
method that he referred to as “hand-painted
color photography.” Narcissus poses in the
backdrop as he did before his shift. Dali’s
concern with illusion and delusion gave rise to
the play with “double visions.”
Photomontage was created by Hausmann, a
founding member of the Berlin Dada movement,
as a satirical and subversive protest technique.
Although a stamp identifies the “art critic” as
George Grosz, another member of the team, the
image was presumably taken from a magazine
and was cut out in anonymity. The critic appears
to be under the grip of capitalist interests, as
suggested by the piece of a German bill hanging
around his neck. The background text is a
portion of poetry that Hausmann created for
Berlin’s ramparts.
Confusion, solitude, and disappointment are the
main themes of the Modernist era. The attitudes
and emotions that afflicted Americans in the
early 1900s are reflected in these topics.
Postmodern art defines the development of art in
the years following World War II, whereas
modernism art represents the avant-garde
movements that first appeared in the early
twentieth century. The topics of alienation,
metamorphosis, consumerism and the relative
nature of reality are explored in both Modernist
and Postmodern fiction. The “Black Square”
symbolizes confusion; the picture with
Narcissus symbolizes loneliness, and the
photomontage shows disappointment.
Modernism employed techniques including
reprise, incorporation, rewriting, recapitulation,
revision, and parody while overtly rejecting the
notion of realism. The certainties of
Enlightenment thought were likewise left by
Modernism, and many expressionists also
disapproved of religion. Modernism was a
radical viewpoint that aspired to rejuvenate how
contemporary civilization regarded life, art,
politics, and science. It emerged out of the
revolutionary atmosphere at the beginning of the
20th century.
Many currents of Modernism were justified by
the Second World War as the cause of the
offshoot. However, Modernism appeared
primarily as a protest against the old values and
ideals, thereby challenging the society of that
time. The currents of Modernism can be
attributed to modern thinking, but it should be
understood that this current, as a result, created
modern thinking on the basis of the protest of the
past.
National Museum of Modern and
Contemporary Art, Korea
It is well-known that art can heal the human
mind, soul, and body. However, during these
challenging times, it is much more difficult for
people to visit their favorite museums and
galleries to enjoy the works of art presented
there. Thankfully, modern technologies allow us
to share museums’ exhibits and opportunities
online – and our National Museum of Modern
and Contemporary Art located in Korea is not an
exception. While not everyone enjoys Korean
culture, almost everyone can find something
engaging and amazing in our numerous
collections and exhibitions. The museum’s
official website allows its visitors to join an
online tour showing our best artworks.
One reason why one can value our digital
museum is that we offer an audio guide that will
share interesting information and insights about
several exhibitions. This guide is available in
both audio and text formats, making it extremely
convenient for various visitors. For example,
one of my favorite exhibitions is “My Your
Memory” – it explores the essence and impacts
of memory that belongs to the whole society and
functions as a method of communication. The
first artwork shown in this exhibition is called
“Sleep” and was created by Andy Warhol. This
is a 5-hour black-and-while film in which you
can see a person sleeping – this process is a
significant part of memorizing. I am certain that
this exhibition will not leave you indifferent and
will additionally educate you about the most
important aspects of memory.
Finally, virtual tours of our museum’s most
impressive halls and collections are available
free of charge to everyone. For those who would
like to view works of art with experienced
guides, we offer long (about 30 minutes) videos
in which each work in a particular exhibition is
commented on by one of our experts. For
instance, you may visit the “Lee Kun-hee
Collection: Masterpieces of Korean Art”
exhibition by watching a video available on our
website. Overall, our National Museum of
Modern and Contemporary Art is a premiere
museum. It must be visited by all people
interested in art because we offer numerous
digital opportunities and truly want to spread the
value and wonder of Korean art and culture.
IT Department in Modern Healthcare
Organization
An IT department plays a tremendous role in any
modern healthcare organization, as does the IT
for healthcare in general. According to Shi and
Singh (2019), “IT departments in health care
organizations play a critical role in decisions to
adopt new information technologies, to improve
health care delivery, increase organizational
efficiency, and comply with various laws and
regulations.” Regarding specific activities and
systems, IT in healthcare is responsible for
systems that collect, store, share, structure, and
monitor information, including financial
systems, pharmacy data systems, medical record
systems, and others. The mentioned systems and
processes fall into three broad categories:
clinical and administrative information systems
and decision support systems (Shi & Singh,
2019). The first two categories are necessary to
facilitate patient care delivery and
administration activities, respectively. Decision
support systems provide the required
information and analysis to improve managerial
and clinical decision-making processes. These
include forecasting the volumes of work,
optimizing healthcare professionals’ schedules,
and utilizing individual patient data to develop
improved treatments.
Regarding the impacts on patients, they can be
identified all across the framework. Information
technologies are an essential resource in the
structure of healthcare. Moreover, it is a
resource that affects other resources within the
system – for instance, the implementation of
healthcare IT can improve the performance of
healthcare specialists. Clinical information
systems can support the decisions that
healthcare professionals make on an individual
level, and the overall workflow of these
specialists can be optimized with the help of
managerial decision support systems.
Healthcare IT positively affects even the
prospects of Health Service Financing, as IT
systems help control financial flows, billing, and
create reports.
On the Processes level, the effect of healthcare
IT is incomparable – it improves all sorts of care,
including outpatient, inpatient, managed, and
long-term care. Regardless of the type, any care
implies collecting data about patients. IT
systems can use this data to optimize care for
each patient individually, which will increase the
chances of recovery and reduce the likelihood of
medical errors and the time necessary for
recovery. Furthermore, another positive effect of
health IT is less obvious, yet no less critical –
optimization of all managerial, administrative,
and financial processes results in the reduction
of time for respective procedures. This means
that patients can get help sooner, and the system
overall can adapt to any changes in external and
internal circumstances quicker, which can save
lives in the end.
Finally, regarding the Outcomes, all three of
them, including cost, access, and quality, are
affected directly by healthcare IT. Firstly, as was
demonstrated before, the correct
implementation of IT solutions in healthcare can
increase the quality of services due to the
individual approach and general optimization of
processes. The costs for healthcare organizations
can also be reduced due to the use of information
technology – standardization of information,
electronic transferability and access,
automatization of accounting, and other
processes all result in optimization. Such
optimization allows for a cut-off of unnecessary
costs associated with extra time or effort spent
on these tasks. Subsequently, this organizational
level cost decrease can be projected to patients’
prices, which can also be reduced. Finally, I
believe that the impact on access will not be as
significant; however, a general efficiency rise
can lead to improvements in access due to
changes in costs and volumes of medical
services. Initially, I had assumed that the impacts
of IT on healthcare are significant, as IT is vital
to the infrastructure of the modern world.
Therefore, my thoughts on this subject did not
change dramatically, but I learned a lot
regarding the importance of healthcare IT.
American Art Deco and Mid-Century
Modern Designs
Introduction
The sphere of architecture and design has always
had various movements and styles popular
during different periods. The three period
designs that will be discussed in this essay are
American Art Deco, Frank Lloyd Wright, and
Mid-century Modern, which were particularly in
demand in the twentieth century. These styles
had a tremendous impact on modern American
and global architecture and design, penetrating
many aspects of contemporary life.
American Art Deco
Art Deco was a popular design and architecture
movement worldwide, and it acquired new
distinct features when it started to spread in
America. This style was initially presented at an
exhibition in Paris in 1925, where more than
15,000 artists presented their works produced
using this design (Art Deco). It later gained
popularity globally in in the 1930s and 1940s
(Art Deco). Art Deco, which was the shortened
version for arts décoratifs, was characterized by
symmetry, angularity, and vivid colors (Art
Deco). It was able to influence all areas of
human existence, from buildings and trains to
furniture and jewelry. Artists started developing
this style at the end of the nineteenth century
when many realized that architecture and design
of that time became outdated and not visually
pleasing. The two prominent artists and
architects who played a significant role in
generating the Art Deco movement were Eugene
Grasset and Hector Grimard, who received
immense support from the French government
(Art Deco). Art Deco incorporated the elements
of cubism and fauvism, making the final
products, constructed using this style, look
luxurious and modern.
Art Deco became so widespread and in demand
because even though it made buildings and
things appear deluxe, it utilized relatively
inexpensive materials. Art Deco was not costly;
hence, it has long been perceived as the
“Cinderella” among many designers (Art Deco).
Still, this approach allowed all classes to have
access to seemingly opulent products and enjoy
modern buildings in their neighborhoods (Art
Deco). The implementation of lines indicated
progress, balance, and speed of development of
the contemporary culture. It was criticized by
more traditional and conservative artists, but
most viewed this style as a new opportunity for
expression. Therefore, this style continues to be
present in the decoration and design of
buildings, interiors, transportation, and
accessories.
When this style was initially introduced in the
United States, it not only became favored by
American architects, who developed additional
features for it. In the 1920s, the U.S. did not want
to engage in international exhibitions like the
one held in Paris in 1925 because it wanted its
architects to make Art Deco uniquely American
(Art Deco). Indeed, its uniqueness was
especially noticeable in newly constructed
skyscrapers, becoming the symbol of the
growing power of the American nation during
the two world wars (Art Deco). This style
allowed politicians to channel stability and
growth through such constructions as the
Empire State Building, Golden Gate Bridge,
Chrysler Building, and Rockefeller Center (Art
Deco). American Art Deco highlighted
technological advancement in the U.S. as well as
the distinctive trait of the American nation of
finding beauty and positivity in the routine.
Frank Lloyd Wright
An American designer and architect, Frank
Lloyd Wright, made a substantial contribution to
the advancement of the architecture of the
twentieth century. Wright developed so-called
“organic architecture,” which was known to
incorporate natural settings, newly invented
materials, and blurred design (The 20th-Century
Architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright).
Furthermore, this style included spatial
manipulations and geometric abstractions,
resembling elements of nature. It started to
spread globally during the first half of the past
century not only due to its beautiful style but
also because of the fact that Wright’s buildings
were comfortable for living.
Since this style was inspired by various cultures
and design movements, it quickly gained
popularity worldwide. In fact, Wright’s
approach was acclaimed by the public; thus,
many buildings constructed using this design
have remained nearly unchanged since the past
century (The 20th-Century Architecture of
Frank Lloyd Wright). His works were
recognized as a national treasure since they
represented the authentic views and desires of
Americans who wanted to connect with nature
through art.
For the U.S. government, buildings designed by
Wright represented an opportunity to
demonstrate Americans’ substantial influence
and contribution to global architecture. Hence,
all constructions are legally protected, and their
management is done by the Frank Lloyd Wright
World Heritage Council (The 20th-Century
Architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright). The
Council strives to preserve the original design
and materials utilized for Wright’s works to
maintain the spirit and emotions the architect
experienced when generating these art pieces.
Mid-Century Modern
The Mid-century Modern design remains
popular due to its sole combination of organic
materials, clear lines, and retro style. It became
popular in the 1950s-1980s, particularly among
German designers who immigrated to the United
States after World War II (What are the Common
Features of Mid-Century Modern Design?). In
fact, perfect geometry and minimal style seem to
be borrowed from the disciplined and
conservative German culture. Designers mainly
worked on making furniture for office buildings,
where various amenities were in demand due to
the increasing number of clerks. The primary
materials utilized for Mid-century Modern
products were teakwood, rosewood, and oak
since these trees were durable and easy to
manipulate. To give the furniture a modern look,
designers used glass, plastic, vinyl, metal, and
even marble for decoration (What are the
Common Features of Mid-Century Modern
Design?). Notably, this style combined
seemingly incompatible features like strict lines
and smooth curves as well as versatile colors and
minimalism.
Contemporary society became interested in
Mid-century Modern design not only for its
appearance but also due to the fact that furniture
was light for transportation and comfortable in
daily life. The elevated amenities made using
mid-century modern design allowed to visually
increase the light and space in small apartments
(Epifano). Additionally, it could be easily
combined with other styles (Epifano). Thus, it
became trendy among the working middle class
living in metropolitan areas.
Although black and white Americans lived in
Modernist homes and apartments, this design
was frequently utilized by the media and the
government to promote racial segregation at that
time. Since the latter was legal before the Civil
Rights Act, newspapers often used the Mid-
century Modern style to represent white
families’ harmonious lives (Wilson 3). Only
affluent black families, who were equivalent to
white middle-income people, could afford to
live in such houses, showing that this design was
employed as a silent segregator in terms of race
and wealth (Wilson 5). It appears that Mid-
century Modern designers unintentionally built
houses that symbolized the whiteness and
discrimination of that period.
Conclusion
In summary, three unique designs were popular
in the United States in the past century: Art
Deco, Mid-century Modern, and Frank Lloyd
Wright’s style. They possess common features
of clear lines, diverse colors, and a wide range
of materials used. However, the three had a
diverse impact on American society. Art Deco
popularized progress and technological
advancement, Wright’s style inspired people to
connect with nature, and Mid-century Modern
was used by the media for the propaganda of
racial segregation during the time when it was
legislatively supported.
Theory of Modern Art: Rationalization
Analytical
Buchloh observes the cyclical appearance of
action and reaction in art since the advent of
Cubism, and infers from this that art reflects
somehow the state of society. In the associated
readings, the authors make some similar points
about the tidal movement between realism and
abstraction, although they are not uniformly as
focused on the socio-political content or
significance of the current art trends.
In all cases, the authors make a distinction
between visually reproducing reality, on the one
hand, and ignoring it to some degree, on the
other hand. These observations accurately
describe the changes that occurred in art over the
first decades of the 20th century. However, it is
not always convincing, from the perspective of
2011, to read these often-inflexible assertions
about the directional progression of art, and its
potential connection to politics.
Buchloh asserts that art responds to the
oppression of the regimes then current in the
country where the artist lives and/or works. He
asks,
“Is there a simple causal connection, a
mechanical reaction, by which growing political
oppression necessarily and irreversibly
generates traditional representation? Does the
brutal increase of restrictions in socio-economic
and political life unavoidably result in the bleak
anonymity and passivity of the compulsively
mimetic modes that we witness, for example, in
European painting of the mid-1920s and early
1930s?”
He is contending that artists react to the limiting
atmosphere around them by hearkening back to
representational styles. He is damning of all
figurative content as a throwback, a return to
outdated and played-out concepts and goals,
formed by the political environment.
While he does not come right out and declare his
political affiliation, his attitude towards
capitalism is very hostile. He speaks of the
“bankruptcy of capitalist economics” and, for
example, accuses capitalism of using war as its
final economic solution to the persistent
problems of utilizing every person’s skills and
keeping them fed.
He also seems not to be friendly to fascism.
What seems to bother him about all political
systems is the way that people are managed and
controlled, for example via “managed
unemployment.”
The authors in the readings all have grasped that
something quite significant has changed in art.
They all have seen, as Apollinaire notes, that
there is occurring either a return to earlier forms
of painting, or adoption of a variety of elements
from earlier times (Classicism and
Romanticism), or from disparate cultures,
technologies, or genres.
Buchloh regards this sort of re-definition of self
as a desperate clinging to a lost role of centrality
and importance. He calls the painters of Cubism
and its immediate neighbors in time and
development, “senile old rulers.”
However all these protestations might also have
been simply an effort on the part of artists in the
early decades of the 20th century to make sense
of the transforming world around them. This
was especially a challenge given the
demoralizing upset of World War I.
These authors, many of them artists themselves,
focus more than Buchloh does on the appearance
and content of the art itself. They seem more
interested in what comes next in art. This, itself,
was a novel question to be asking, after so many
centuries of slow, almost indistinguishable
change.
Jeanneret and Ozenfant, in particular, appear to
be trying to lay out a path for art to follow so that
their work can result in, “an objectification of
the entire world.” This involves, for them,
creating order by selecting from among many
elements. They aim to present the viewer with
something that is, “free of conventions” and,
“universal.”
While the reference to conventions may evoke
the hated and reviled bourgeoisie, the main
thrust of this article seems to be anti-political.
This seems to be a perhaps deliberate attempt to
move art distinctly outside the whole mess of
politics and social movements.
This does not actually contradict Buchloh’s
insistence on a connection between the system
of governance and the forms of art. Buchloh
would probably contend that wanting to be
outside current politics is actually a commentary
on the impact of current politics
Carra focuses on the artist’s treatment of line and
color and light. He claims for artists a goal of,
“creation, not the imitation of phenomena”. He
sees artists as in dialogue only with other artists,
“listening to ourselves.” This is another
expression of the artist as separate, outside,
standing apart from politics and social
movements.
Gleizes is the exception to this apparent willful
obliviousness of the socio-political universe that
surrounds them. He notes in his 1920 essay on
the Dadaist movement that the social and
political and class situation has been changing
rapidly, and that people have being thrown about
by the violence of events. His is the most explicit
expression, among these readings, of an
awareness of art as a marker of class
distinctions.
He points out that the upper and lower classes
are being deliberately separated and set at odds.
This is perhaps not surprising, since the Dadaists
were specifically interested in a democratization
of art and the de-professionalization of the
creation of art.
Buchloh is heavy-handed in suggesting that all
figurative or representational art is a symptom of
oppression. The other authors are looking at art
less through the prism of political science than
as artists themselves. Both are probably seeing a
truth in the situation, but from different
perspectives.
Buchloh lays his ideas out at the end of his essay,
as follows,
“The aesthetic attraction of these eclectic
painting practices originates in a nostalgia of the
moment in the past when the painting modes to
which they refer had historical authenticity.
But the spectre of derivativeness hovers over
every contemporary attempt to resurrect
figuration, representation, and traditional modes
of production, This is not so much because they
actually derive from particular precedents, but
because their attempt to re-establish forlorn
aesthetic positions immediately situates them in
historical secondariness.
That is the price of instant acclaim achieved by
affirming the status quo under the guise of
innovation. The primary function of such
cultural re-presentations is the confirmation of
the hieratics of ideological domination.”
Apollinaire, Guillaume. “The New Spirit .”
In Art in Theory: 1900 to 2000, by C. Harrison
and P. Wood, 228-230. Oxford: Wiley-
Blackwell, 2002.
Buchloh, Benjamin D. “Figures of Authority,
Ciphers of Regression: Notes on the Return of
Representation in European Painting.” First
appeared in the periodical October, volume 16,
Spring, 1981, 39-68. Republished in Art in
Modern Culture: an Anthology of Critical Texts,
by Francis Frascina and Jonathan Harris, edited
by Francis Frascina and Jonathan Harris, 222-
238. London: Phaedon Press, 1992.
Carra, Carlo. “Our Antiquity.” In Art in Theory:
1900-2000, by C Harrison and P. Wood. Carra-
Our Antiquity p232-p236. Oxford: Wiley-
Blackwell, 2002.
Gleize, Albert. “The Dada Case.” In Art in
Theory, by C. Harrison and P. Wood, 242- 245.
Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2002.
Jeanneret, Charles Edouard (Le Corbusier), and
Amedee Ozenfant. “Purism.” In Art in Theory:
1900-2000, by C. Harrison and P. Wood, 239-
242. OXfprd: Wiley-Blackwell, 2002.
The Impact of Modernity on Muslim Political
Parties in Turkey
Modernized countries have a higher standard of
living, recourses, and social resources than non-
modernized ones, despite many objections and
reluctance to modernity. As a result, many non-
Western academics and decision-makers work to
modernize or unify their systems (Armajani).
Since Weber famously stated that one of the
significant conditions for the rise of Modernity
was the ethics of austere Protestants, other
religions, including Islam, are frequently
regarded as lacking in these work values.
However, Islamic culture resists such change in
the Muslim world since many Muslims see
modernization as one of the world’s most
terrible systems contributing to oppression and
social injustice.
Islam does not always resist progress and
Modernity, although Islamic cultures have
remained constant and have not progressed as
they ought to; this is primarily due to the Holy
Qur’an doctrine not being fully comprehended
and implemented. A claim by the power classes
in the Muslim world asserts that their cultures
are Islamic. However, when one objectively
examines these societies in light of the Qur’an’s
values and directives, aside from some rituals,
one finds it very difficult to consider the claims
seriously after noticing such rites and traditions.
As a result of modernization, the Islamic elites
have attempted to create a political Islam based
on anti-Western sentiment. Still, it has been a
complete and utter failure, as seen in Turkey’s
case. Turkish Islamism has criticized the
country’s development model as being Western.
The majority of residents in Turkey are
Muslims, and since the Turkish Republic’s
formation, modernization has been a central
pillar. After defeating the allied forces, Ataturk
and his followers began implementing a severe
modernization strategy known as secularization
to eliminate Islam from Turkish politics. The
main goal of such initiatives was to destabilize
the radicalism of Islamic orthodoxy, which had
come to represent Muslim Turkish society in
general. As a result, numerous religious and
political parties were abolished and deemed
ineffective.
The Kemalist reform program was a thorough
application of adaptationism to the Westernizing
secularist strategy in modernizing the Islamic
paradigm. Rather than reforming, the ancient
political structures of Islamic government and
society were gradually abolished (Powll 290).
The ancient Islamic political parties were
eliminated through a series of reforms over the
next century, with the sultanate’s role removed
in 1922 and the caliphates in 1924. The
authorities assumed charge of political
foundations immediately, abolished the official
tariqat organizations, and took control of
religious instruction from the traditional ulema.
Political organizations and parties, nonetheless,
currently exist without question. One of the four
critical pillars of democracy, political parties
help expand it. They play such a vital role in a
country’s development that they impact other
development patterns. A significant degree of
social mobility and the emergence of a new
middle class with administrative and
bureaucratic capitalist characteristics were the
results of the administration’s modernization
initiatives and economic and social reforms.
This group’s political ambitions impacted
political structures after the post-World War II
building era, which consequently helped clear
the way for developing political parties in future
generations. Therefore, the emergence of the
middle-income post-revolutionary has had
various effects on political parties and politics.
Such effects can be seen in areas including
influencing the political structures of power, the
middle class’s influence on political groups and
parties, and efforts to change the political
culture.
In 1950, Turkey shifted from a one-party to a
multi-party system, universally recognized as a
significant accomplishment. This gave the
perception that democracy could emerge from
tyranny and that society was modernizing. Such
high hopes were suddenly shattered by the army
invasion in May 1960 and, to some extent, by
the country’s practices in the years before the
revolution. Turkey, regarded as an example of
development within a non-totalitarian context,
now appeared to have lost its initial vigor and
drive, seemingly veering off its course of
political development and modernization.
The turning point in Turkish politics and modern
society occurred on May 14, 1950, when the
Democratic Party of Celal was elected president,
and the Republican Party was driven into
opposition. It initiated a brand-new method of
choosing leaders that included social
mobilization and increased political
participation, which differed from their older
Islamic techniques. The success of the Turkish
venture into party democracy stands in contrast
with political regimes in neighboring nations
and the majority of the Third World.
Highly institutionalized political parties
differentiate Turkey from other new
democracies. The absence of civil society
organizations in Turkey has made parties more
critical of individuals, resulting from
modernization. The political turbulence, party
fragmentation, and ideological polarization
characteristics of the Turkish political party
system started to emerge. The middle
Motherland Party garnered adequate support to
form a government entirely on its own for a brief
period in the 1980s. In the 1990s, party system
fragmentation resurfaced to a much greater
degree. Since 1991, Turkey has been governed
by coalition governments.
Like many Turkish parties, the WP is extremely
leader-oriented in its organization and internal
political dynamics. Informed debate, divergent
opinions, and robust leadership elections are not
everyday party practices, but due to
modernization, they have started being
incorporated. The party officials only provide a
restricted form of consultation in response to
demands for intra-party democracy, which one
cynical observer described as “the leader’s
expression of his thoughts and the validation
from the others by nodding without expressing a
word.” The WP has also closely resembled the
mass party model and escaped the
organizational decline that afflicted the other
parties.
The continuities and inconsistencies of the
Turkish modernism crisis and victories
Paradoxes and anomalies offer debates on
Modernity on a wide range of topics. It
highlights the presence of Modernity beyond the
west and offers political sciences the option to
investigate other modernization paths. Since the
late imperial era and up till the present, there has
been a conflicting between modernizing and
industrializing the Turkish case. The Tanzimat
period brought about reforms that permitted the
Turkish polity to develop a range of civil,
economic, judicial, educational, military, and
political institutions while maintaining its
allegiance to Islam. These indicated
modernization’s growing influence and
functioned as the foundation for the reforms that
would define the 20th century.
Works Cited
Armajani, Jon. “Modern Islamist
Movements.” 2011. Web.
“Islam and Politics around the World. Edited by
John L.Esposito and Emad El‐
DinShamin. Oxford: Oxford University Press,
2018. Pp. 237. Paperback., $21.95.” Religious
Studies Review, vol. 45, no. 3, 2019, pp. 390–
390. Web.
Powll, Russell. “Shari’a Politics: Islamic Law
and Society in the Modern World. Edited by
Robert W. Hefner. Indiana University
PRESS2011. Pp. 344. $27.95. ISBN: 0-253-
22310-5.”Journal of Law and Religion, vol. 28,
no. 1, 2013, pp. 287–291. Web.
