Concept & Etiology: Spina bifida affects the endocrine and neural systems by not permitting the
neural tubes to fuse. The opening allows meninges and spinal cord to protrude or herniate which
causes neurologic impairment. This deviates from the definition of health because this is a
physical condition/illness that causes direct harm to a person’s wellbeing.
Classified: Spina bifida is classified in three forms: Spina bifida occulta is the mildest and most
common. Most cases do not result in the spinal nerves protruding or neurological deficits. It
results in a small separation in one or more bones in the vertebrae. Meningocele is rare and the
spinal cord does protrude through the vertebral opening. Myelomeningocele is the most severe and
the spinal canal remains open along several vertebrae in the lower or middle back. The meninges,
spinal cord and nerves protrude through the opening and form a sac on the infants back at birth.
Manifestations: Spina bifida is usually diagnosed before birth but if suspected after birth
symptoms would include paralysis, constipation or incontinence, a dimple, birthmark or an area on
the back that is hairy.
Diagnostic Tests: Diagnostic test such as a prenatal ultrasound, amniocentesis and a blood test
can be performed to test for spina bifida before birth. Test that can be performed after birth are a
physical exam, a spinal x-ray, spinal CT and spinal MRI
Concept and Etiology: Brain Herniation
Brain herniation occurs when there is something inside the skull that produces pressure that moves
brain tissue. Often associated with brain swelling or bleeding from injuries, stroke, or a tumor. As
brain herniation is due in part to pressure being introduced, it can occur in any "direction" as it
were. From side to side, up or down, it can put pressure on the pituitary gland as a result. Brain
herniation can put pressure on parts of the brain that control consciousness, thus, resulting in a
stupor or coma. This deviates from normal brain functions and is life-threatening.
Brain herniation can be classified as intracranial or extracranial. Intracranial hernias can be
transtentorial or tonsillar. Transtentorial herniation involves "the upper part of the brain
(cerebrum) being forced through the tentorial notch, which divides the cerebrum from the lower
parts of the brain (cerebellum and brain stem). In people with this type of herniation,
consciousness is reduced. The side of the body opposite the tumor may be paralyzed. The pupil of
the eye on the side of the herniation may widen (dilate) and may not narrow (constrict) in response
to bright light." Tonsillar herniation involves "a mass (tumor or bleeding) in the lower part of the
brain that pushes the lowest part of the cerebellum (cerebellar tonsils) through the opening at the
base of the skull (foramen magnum). As a result, the brain stem, which controls breathing, heart
rate, and blood pressure, is compressed and malfunctions."
Signs and symptoms include high blood pressure, irregular or slow pulse, severe headache,
weakness, cardiac arrest, loss of consciousness/coma, loss of all brainstem reflexes (blinking,
gagging, and pupils reacting to light).
Testing can be done to determine if a brain hernia is present such as an x-ray of the skull and neck,
CT scan of the head, MRI of the head, and if a bleeding disorder is suspected blood tests can be
done. Brain herniation is a severe life-threatening brain injury, usually caused by other serious
disorders such as a brain tumor. Treatment is necessary and depending on timing can save
someone's life.
Concept and Etiology
Alzheimer’s disease is a progressive disorder that destroys memory by causing the brain to shrink
and brain cells to perish. The medical condition Alzheimer’s affect the endocrine and neural
system that work together to influence diverse human behavioural aspects such as metabolism,
growth and reproduction (Walinga & Stangor, 2014). The change in the neuroendocrine
mechanisms in the body is one of the major indicators of the health problem. The normal day to
day functions that are performed by the endocrine and neural systems get diminished due to the
formation of plaques around the brain cells that affect the communication between the systems
(NHS, 2021).
Classification
The common yet complex multifactorial neurodegenerative disease is a common kind of dementia
that can be classified based on severity. According to Gupta, Alzheimer’s disease (AD), including
its mild cognitive impairment stage, might or might not progress into AD (Gupta et al., 2019). It
can be classified as early-onset or late-onset. The signs and symptoms relating to early-onset
appear when an individual is between the age of thirties and mid-sixties, whereas the signs and
symptoms of late-onset arise during or after mix-sixties (U.S. National Library of Medicine, 2021).
Clinical Manifestations
The common signs and symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease are the loss of memory that can disrupt
day to day life, complexities in solving problems or planning things, difficulty in completing
familiar activities, and trouble comprehending spatial relationships and visual images (10 early
signs and symptoms of Alzheimer’s. Alzheimer's Disease and Dementia, 2021). When individuals
are affected by the mental health condition, they also find it difficult to take part in conversations
or follow conversations. Due to the diminished ability of the brain to function, the affected
individuals are unable to actively participate in work or social lives. There are signs of mental
decline, difficulty in understanding and thinking, disorientation and delusion and lack of ability to
create memories.
Diagnostic Tests
Some of the diagnostic tests that can be done to illuminate the diagnosis of the medical condition
are evaluation of medical history, physical and neurological examination, brain mapping.
Similarly, mental status tests can also be carried out to identify the deterioration in the memory of
individuals (Diagnosis. Alzheimer's Disease and Dementia, 2021). According to Alzheimer’s
Association, there is no single test that can help to determine the neurodegenerative disease. In
addition to evaluating the medical history, neurological examinations and mental cognitive status
tests can also help to evaluate the issues that an individual might be experiencing in the brain
(Diagnosis. Alzheimer's Disease and Dementia, 2021). Several tests can be used for identifying the
signs and symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease.
10 early signs and symptoms of Alzheimer’s. Alzheimer's Disease and Dementia. (2021). Retrieved
November 16, 2021, from https://www.alz.org/alzheimers-dementia/10_signs\.
Diagnosis. Alzheimer's Disease and Dementia. (2021). Retrieved November 16, 2021, from
https://www.alz.org/alzheimers-dementia/diagnosis.
Gupta, Y., Lama, R. K., Kwon, G. R., Weiner, M. W., Aisen, P., Weiner, M., ... & Hardy, P.
(2019). Prediction and classification of Alzheimer’s disease based on combined features from
apolipoprotein-E genotype, cerebrospinal fluid, MR, and FDG-PET imaging biomarkers. Frontiers
in computational neuroscience, 13, 72.
NHS. (2021). Causes -Alzheimer's disease. NHS choices. Retrieved November 16, 2021, from
https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/alzheimers-disease/causes/.
U.S. National Library of Medicine. (2021, April 7). Alzheimer disease: Medlineplus genetics.
MedlinePlus. Retrieved November 16, 2021, from
https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/condition/alzheimer-disease/.
Walinga, J., & Stangor, C. (2014, October 17). 4.4 putting it all together: The nervous system and
the endocrine system. Introduction to Psychology 1st Canadian Edition. Retrieved November 16,
2021, from https://opentextbc.ca/introductiontopsychology/chapter/3-4-putting-it-all-together-the-
nervous-system-and-the-endocrine-system/.
U.S. National Library of Medicine. (2020, August 2). Brain Herniation: MedlinePlus medical
encyclopaedia. MedlinePlus. Retrieved from Brain herniation: MedlinePlus Medical
Encyclopaedia
Maiese, K. (2021, November 17). Brain herniation - brain, spinal cord, and nerve disorders.
Merck Manuals Consumer Version. Retrieved from Brain Herniation - Brain, Spinal Cord, and
Nerve Disorders - Merck Manuals Consumer Version
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conditions/s/spina-bifida.html
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