Southern New Hampshire University
ATH-101 Introduction to Anthropology
Module 6 Overview
Learning Objectives
Contrast, through an anthropological lens, how different cultural groups manage political
affairs
Appraise how anthropology relates to religion
Analyze how anthropologists view religion
POLITICS AND RELIGION
President Abraham Lincoln is credited as saying, “Nearly all men can stand adversity, but if
you want to test a man’s character, give him power.” Anthropologists, such as political
scientists, share an interest in a culture’s social and political organization. However,
anthropologists are interested in nonindustrial societies’ political issues as well as industrial
ones in any given time period. Anthropologists investigate the acquisition of power, the
strength of the power, its uses, and who in the culture or society is eligible to hold power
(Heider, 2007).
Bands2are small, kin-based groups of people who usually live by foraging (hunting and
gathering). (Kin-based means they are usually all related.) Bands are led by men (usually)
who lead by example and persuasion. Leaders do not have any authority and do not have the
means to enforce political decisions. Examples of band societies include the Inuit of Canada,
Ainu of Japan, and the Tiwi of Australia.
Tribes2consist of a few hundred to a few thousand people. Tribal groups may be foragers,
horticulturists, or pastoralists or may live by a combination of subsistence patterns. For
example, the Yanomani of Venezuela are horticulturists but also hunt and gather. Headmen
(tribal leaders) must lead by example and persuasion and are expected to be generous.
Leaders in tribal groups may be elected and have authority in some contexts. However,
power in tribal groups is limited by the “underlying egalitarian social ethics” that are also
present in tribal groups (Bonvillain, 2010). Members can ignore or try to dispose of leaders
who try to exert too much authority in the group. Tribal groups include the Blackfeet of
Montana, Dani of New Guinea, and the Munda of India.
Chiefdoms2are composed of several hundred to thousands of people. Chiefdom economies
are based on farming, horticulture, or agriculture with few exceptions. Chiefs (or, in some
groups, “big men”) have more responsibility than tribal or band leaders, as they regulate the
production and redistribution of goods, solve conflicts, and lead raids to enemy villages or
groups (Miller, 2005). While chiefs and their families enjoy higher status and prestige,
chiefdoms themselves are fairly egalitarian. Chiefs or big men must lead with example and
persuasion. Chiefdoms include the Zulu of South Africa, Maoris of New Zealand, and
Tongan Islanders.
States2contain thousands to millions of people. States have formal governments that are
centralized and have a hierarchical structure of authority that may include a president, a king
or queen, or an emperor (Bonvillain, 2010). All previously mentioned political powers are
embedded in a larger state political organization. States carry the most power, as they 1)
define citizenship and its rights and responsibilities, 2) have standing armies and police, 3)
keep formal track of populations in terms of censuses, 4) have the power to collect taxes, and
5) have the power to control the flow of information (Miller, 2005). States, in comparison to
the other types of political organizations, have the greatest amount of inequality in access to
power, wealth, and prestige (Schultz & Lavenda, 2012).
Anthropologists seek to find out what religion is and what purposes or functions it serves for
cultures. Simply put, religion includes “thoughts, actions, and feelings based on beliefs in the
existence of spirit beings” (e.g., deities, ghosts, and demons) and supernatural forces
(Bonvillain, 2010). Religion usually goes beyond beliefs and includes practices. Practices,
such as rituals, guide individuals through significant moments of life cycle such as birth,
marriage, or death.
What purpose does religion serve in societies? Anthropologists have identified functions that
religion serves across cultures. First, religion is used to explain events that are unknown or
uncontrollable. Religion provides psychological relief in times of anxiety or stress. Finally,
religious beliefs and practices also support social cohesion and act as formal and informal
systems of social control (Bonvillain, 2010).
Religions have individuals or groups who function as part-time or full-time specialists.
Religious specialists may be called from the spirit world or may receive special religious
education to qualify for positions. Priests are full-time religious practitioners who carry out
or direct rites of passage that mark birth, marriage, or death. Priests do not need to have
contact or communicate with the supernatural or spirit world. Shamans are part-time
practitioners who have direct contact with the spirit world. Shamans are able to go into
trances, communicate with spirit helpers, and have out-of-body experiences (Heider, 2007).
Mediums have special gifts that allow them to make contact with the spirit world, usually in
a trance-like state (Bonvillain, 2010). They are usually the conduit between living people and
the spirit world. Diviners are specialists who can understand the will of the supernatural
through messages or omens. They may recognize the messages through tea leaves or tarot
cards.
REFERENCES
Bonvillain, N. (2010).2Cultural anthropology2(2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice
Hall.
Heider, K. G. (2007).2Seeing anthropology: Cultural anthropology though film2(4th ed.).
Boston, MA: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon.
Miller, B. D. (2005).2Cultural anthropology2(3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson
Schultz, E. A., & Lavenda, R. H. (2012).2Cultural anthropology: A perspective on the human
condition2(8th ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
