Theoretical Approach Towards Criminology: Biological/individual Positivism
Biological/Individual Positivism was developed as a theoretical approach to criminology in the
late 18th and early 19th centuries and was established by key figures Cesare Lombroso, Enrico
Ferri, and Raffaele Garofalo. These criminological positivists were the first to concern
themselves with discovering and eliminating the causes of crime and criminality. To discover
and eliminate the causes of crime and criminality, positivists engaged the methods of scientific,
rather than philosophical analysis. The main argument of biological/ individual positivism is
that crime occurs because the offender has not been sufficiently or effectively socialized, or
educated of society's values. Core principles of positivism include, the doctrine of determinism,
focus on the actor not the act, and treatment not punishment. Other core concepts of individual
positivism include rejecting metaphysical or risky approaches and adopting scientific methods.
The innovation of biological/individual positivism introduced a collection of new ideas and
practices that have contributed significantly to the growth of criminology.
Biological Positivism represents the earliest manifestation of Individual Positivism and is
associated with the Italian School of Positivist Criminology inspired by the work of Cesare
Lombroso. Lombroso was famous in the 19th century because he claimed to have discovered
the causes of crime. Lombroso's theory suggested that "criminals are distinguished from non-
criminals by the manifestation of physical anomalies that represented atavistic or degenerative
origin". Atavism means the hereditary transmission from earlier generations and ancestors.
Atavism was a term Lombroso used to describe individuals who were not fully developed.
Lombroso believed that the criminal was almost a separate species demonstrating a variety of
mental and physical characteristics separating them from the rest of society. "Specifically, he
claimed that criminals have abnormal dimensions of the skull and jaw". Lombroso's theoretical
approach was to believe that becoming a criminal was somehow to be explained through
identifying specific characteristics of individuals. On the basis of Lombroso's arguments, he
constructed and classified criminals in four main categories. Firstly, born criminals who can be
distinguished by their physical atavistic characteristics. Secondly, insane criminals who are
labeled as idiots, imbeciles, and alcoholics. Thirdly, occasional criminals are those who were
pulled into crime by their environment or situation. Finally, criminals by passion are those
motivated to commit crimes by love, anger, honor or other emotional factors.
Lombroso argued that criminology should focus primarily on the scientific study of criminals
and criminal behavior. At the end of the 19th century, it was suggested that criminality is
inherited in the same way as physical characteristics. The attempt to locate proof of genetic
transmission for criminality was focused on three areas - family studies, twin studies, and
adoption studies. Goring conducted a study with 3000 prisoners that had a history of long and
frequent sentences, and a control group of non-criminals. According to the results, the
"prisoners were inferior to the control group in terms of physical size and mental ability, while
strong associations between the criminality of children and their parents and between brothers
were found*. Osborn and West also discovered that around 40% of the sons of criminal fathers
were criminals themselves, compared to a figure of 13% for sons of non-criminal fathers. The
twin study method was been widely used in seeking to determine the influence of hereditary
in, for example, intelligence, and also in disturbances such as alcoholism, depression, and
schizophrenia. Lange examined a group of 30 men, consisting of 13 identical twins and 17
fraternal twins who all had a prison record. Lange found that in 77% of the identical twin cases,
the other brother also had a record. This percentage relationship is referred to as a criminal
concordance, meaning both members of a pair have a particular attribute. According to the
findings from previous studies, identical twins generally showed a much higher degree of
criminal concordance than fraternal twins. However, the criminal concordance was found to be
higher for both categories where more serious offenses had been committed, for example,
murder.
An alternative strategy to the use of twins is to study adopted children. "The assumption in
such work is that if adopted children resemble biological rather than adoptive parents in some
important respects, then this is potentially evidence of a genetic influence*. Research by
Hutchings and Mednick found evidence that adoptees with criminal records had a higher
proportion of biological mothers and fathers with criminal records than adoptees with no
criminal records. Researchers concluded that there was an inherited characteristic element that
was transmitted from the criminal parents to their children that increased the likelihood of the
children developing criminal behavior. Compared to the classicism approach, positivism
argued that criminals did not willingly choose to commit a crime, but instead were determined
into crime by factors beyond the criminal's control. Therefore, behavior is determined within
individuals. Positivists called this the doctrine of determinism. As the approach of positivism
grew over time, the biological and heredity concepts were reduced, and psychological and
environmental factors grew more attention. 'Focus on the actor, not the act is another core
concept of positivism, as its beliefs were to focus on the criminal rather than the crime. Bradley
and Walters also acknowledged that "if the crime is the result of factors beyond the control of
the individual, then the criminal cannot be viewed as responsible but rather as irresponsible."
The positivist aspect was not to punish criminals but to rehabilitate them. The necessary steps
to be taken would be to identity the causes of crime committed by an individual, then address
these causes. "Thus, it was the job of the expert to both identify these factors and then designed
ways of treating them".
"Positivism was founded on the belief, that there were other factors either innate to the
individual or to be found in the immediate environment which could be identified, and which
would help determine the criminal from the non-criminal". Burke acknowledged how The
Italian Positivist School denied the concept of free will and the approach of equality that was
expressed by the classism approach. Positivists replaced this with the assumption of
determinism. Today, people consider Lombroso's work to have been condensed and somewhat
laughable. However, Lombroso and other key figures made some significant contributions to
the development of modern criminological theory. 'It should be remembered that these ideas
led to rather more liberal interpretations of punishment". Burke recognizes that Lombroso
demonstrated the significance of examining clinical and historical records. Most importantly,
he recognized the need for multi-factor explanations of crime that includes not only hereditary
but also social, cultural and economic factors*. Biological/ individual positivism has
significantly impacted the criminal justice system today. The theories and concepts previously
developed have contributed to the ending of cruel, inhumane treatment of criminals and to the
reformation of the death penalty. As Walklate says that these criminals may be different and
abnormal, but they were subjected to forces outside of their control. Therefore, imprisonment
might be a more appropriate punishment than execution*. The Positivist School of thought
made it possible to get the criminals the help they need to be rehabilitated.
This essay has been concerned with introducing the basic features of biological/ individual
positivism in criminology, and the importance of the historical development of biological
positivism. It has outlined the new ideas and practices it has introduced into today's society.
According to biological positivism, criminals are different to non-criminals. Criminals are
somehow impaired and are missing something that non-criminals have. This impairment was
manifested in biological and psychological factors. Therefore, individuals did not choose to
commit a crime, but factors beyond their control had driven them to commit a crime. Unlike
the classicism approach, positivism believed that it should not only be about punishment.
Positivism aimed to reform, rehabilitate or cure. The punishment should fit the criminal, not
the crime.
Biological/Individual Positivism was developed as a theoretical approach to criminology in the
late 18th and early 19th centuries and was established by key figures Cesare Lombroso, Enrico
Ferri, and Raffaele Garofalo. These criminological positivists were the first to concern
themselves with discovering and eliminating the causes of crime and criminality. To discover
and eliminate the causes of crime and criminality, positivists engaged the methods of scientific,
rather than philosophical analysis. The main argument of biological/ individual positivism is
that crime occurs because the offender has not been sufficiently or effectively socialized, or
educated of society's values. Core principles of positivism include, the doctrine of determinism,
focus on the actor not the act, and treatment not punishment. Other core concepts of individual
positivism include rejecting metaphysical or risky approaches and adopting scientific methods.
The innovation of biological/individual positivism introduced a collection of new ideas and
practices that have contributed significantly to the growth of criminology.
Biological Positivism represents the earliest manifestation of Individual Positivism and is
associated with the Italian School of Positivist Criminology inspired by the work of Cesare
Lombroso. Lombroso was famous in the 19th century because he claimed to have discovered
the causes of crime. Lombroso's theory suggested that "criminals are distinguished from non-
criminals by the manifestation of physical anomalies that represented atavistic or degenerative
origin". Atavism means the hereditary transmission from earlier generations and ancestors.
Atavism was a term Lombroso used to describe individuals who were not fully developed.
Lombroso believed that the criminal was almost a separate species demonstrating a variety of
mental and physical characteristics separating them from the rest of society. "Specifically, he
claimed that criminals have abnormal dimensions of the skull and jaw". Lombroso's theoretical
approach was to believe that becoming a criminal was somehow to be explained through
identifying specific characteristics of individuals. On the basis of Lombroso's arguments, he
constructed and classified criminals in four main categories. Firstly, born criminals who can be
distinguished by their physical atavistic characteristics. Secondly, insane criminals who are
labeled as idiots, imbeciles, and alcoholics. Thirdly, occasional criminals are those who were
pulled into crime by their environment or situation. Finally, criminals by passion are those
motivated to commit crimes by love, anger, honor or other emotional factors.
Lombroso argued that criminology should focus primarily on the scientific study of criminals
and criminal behavior. At the end of the 19th century, it was suggested that criminality is
inherited in the same way as physical characteristics. The attempt to locate proof of genetic
transmission for criminality was focused on three areas - family studies, twin studies, and
adoption studies. Goring conducted a study with 3000 prisoners that had a history of long and
frequent sentences, and a control group of non-criminals. According to the results, the
"prisoners were inferior to the control group in terms of physical size and mental ability, while
strong associations between the criminality of children and their parents and between brothers
were found*. Osborn and West also discovered that around 40% of the sons of criminal fathers
were criminals themselves, compared to a figure of 13% for sons of non-criminal fathers. The
twin study method was been widely used in seeking to determine the influence of hereditary
in, for example, intelligence, and also in disturbances such as alcoholism, depression, and
schizophrenia. Lange examined a group of 30 men, consisting of 13 identical twins and 17
fraternal twins who all had a prison record. Lange found that in 77% of the identical twin cases,
the other brother also had a record. This percentage relationship is referred to as a criminal
concordance, meaning both members of a pair have a particular attribute. According to the
findings from previous studies, identical twins generally showed a much higher degree of
criminal concordance than fraternal twins. However, the criminal concordance was found to be
higher for both categories where more serious offenses had been committed, for example,
murder.
An alternative strategy to the use of twins is to study adopted children. "The assumption in
such work is that if adopted children resemble biological rather than adoptive parents in some
important respects, then this is potentially evidence of a genetic influence*. Research by
Hutchings and Mednick found evidence that adoptees with criminal records had a higher
proportion of biological mothers and fathers with criminal records than adoptees with no
criminal records. Researchers concluded that there was an inherited characteristic element that
was transmitted from the criminal parents to their children that increased the likelihood of the
children developing criminal behavior. Compared to the classicism approach, positivism
argued that criminals did not willingly choose to commit a crime, but instead were determined
into crime by factors beyond the criminal's control. Therefore, behavior is determined within
individuals. Positivists called this the doctrine of determinism. As the approach of positivism
grew over time, the biological and heredity concepts were reduced, and psychological and
environmental factors grew more attention. 'Focus on the actor, not the act is another core
concept of positivism, as its beliefs were to focus on the criminal rather than the crime. Bradley
and Walters also acknowledged that "if the crime is the result of factors beyond the control of
the individual, then the criminal cannot be viewed as responsible but rather as irresponsible."
The positivist aspect was not to punish criminals but to rehabilitate them. The necessary steps
to be taken would be to identity the causes of crime committed by an individual, then address
these causes. "Thus, it was the job of the expert to both identify these factors and then designed
ways of treating them".
"Positivism was founded on the belief, that there were other factors either innate to the
individual or to be found in the immediate environment which could be identified, and which
would help determine the criminal from the non-criminal". Burke acknowledged how The
Italian Positivist School denied the concept of free will and the approach of equality that was
expressed by the classism approach. Positivists replaced this with the assumption of
determinism. Today, people consider Lombroso's work to have been condensed and somewhat
laughable. However, Lombroso and other key figures made some significant contributions to
the development of modern criminological theory. 'It should be remembered that these ideas
led to rather more liberal interpretations of punishment". Burke recognizes that Lombroso
demonstrated the significance of examining clinical and historical records. Most importantly,
he recognized the need for multi-factor explanations of crime that includes not only hereditary
but also social, cultural and economic factors*. Biological/ individual positivism has
significantly impacted the criminal justice system today. The theories and concepts previously
developed have contributed to the ending of cruel, inhumane treatment of criminals and to the
reformation of the death penalty. As Walklate says that these criminals may be different and
abnormal, but they were subjected to forces outside of their control. Therefore, imprisonment
might be a more appropriate punishment than execution*. The Positivist School of thought
made it possible to get the criminals the help they need to be rehabilitated.
This essay has been concerned with introducing the basic features of biological/ individual
positivism in criminology, and the importance of the historical development of biological
positivism. It has outlined the new ideas and practices it has introduced into today's society.
According to biological positivism, criminals are different to non-criminals. Criminals are
somehow impaired and are missing something that non-criminals have. This impairment was
manifested in biological and psychological factors. Therefore, individuals did not choose to
commit a crime, but factors beyond their control had driven them to commit a crime. Unlike
the classicism approach, positivism believed that it should not only be about punishment.
Positivism aimed to reform, rehabilitate or cure. The punishment should fit the criminal, not
the crime.
Biological/Individual Positivism was developed as a theoretical approach to criminology in the
late 18th and early 19th centuries and was established by key figures Cesare Lombroso, Enrico
Ferri, and Raffaele Garofalo. These criminological positivists were the first to concern
themselves with discovering and eliminating the causes of crime and criminality. To discover
and eliminate the causes of crime and criminality, positivists engaged the methods of scientific,
rather than philosophical analysis. The main argument of biological/ individual positivism is
that crime occurs because the offender has not been sufficiently or effectively socialized, or
educated of society's values. Core principles of positivism include, the doctrine of determinism,
focus on the actor not the act, and treatment not punishment. Other core concepts of individual
positivism include rejecting metaphysical or risky approaches and adopting scientific methods.
The innovation of biological/individual positivism introduced a collection of new ideas and
practices that have contributed significantly to the growth of criminology.
Biological Positivism represents the earliest manifestation of Individual Positivism and is
associated with the Italian School of Positivist Criminology inspired by the work of Cesare
Lombroso. Lombroso was famous in the 19th century because he claimed to have discovered
the causes of crime. Lombroso's theory suggested that "criminals are distinguished from non-
criminals by the manifestation of physical anomalies that represented atavistic or degenerative
origin". Atavism means the hereditary transmission from earlier generations and ancestors.
Atavism was a term Lombroso used to describe individuals who were not fully developed.
Lombroso believed that the criminal was almost a separate species demonstrating a variety of
mental and physical characteristics separating them from the rest of society. "Specifically, he
claimed that criminals have abnormal dimensions of the skull and jaw". Lombroso's theoretical
approach was to believe that becoming a criminal was somehow to be explained through
identifying specific characteristics of individuals. On the basis of Lombroso's arguments, he
constructed and classified criminals in four main categories. Firstly, born criminals who can be
distinguished by their physical atavistic characteristics. Secondly, insane criminals who are
labeled as idiots, imbeciles, and alcoholics. Thirdly, occasional criminals are those who were
pulled into crime by their environment or situation. Finally, criminals by passion are those
motivated to commit crimes by love, anger, honor or other emotional factors.
Lombroso argued that criminology should focus primarily on the scientific study of criminals
and criminal behavior. At the end of the 19th century, it was suggested that criminality is
inherited in the same way as physical characteristics. The attempt to locate proof of genetic
transmission for criminality was focused on three areas - family studies, twin studies, and
adoption studies. Goring conducted a study with 3000 prisoners that had a history of long and
frequent sentences, and a control group of non-criminals. According to the results, the
"prisoners were inferior to the control group in terms of physical size and mental ability, while
strong associations between the criminality of children and their parents and between brothers
were found*. Osborn and West also discovered that around 40% of the sons of criminal fathers
were criminals themselves, compared to a figure of 13% for sons of non-criminal fathers. The
twin study method was been widely used in seeking to determine the influence of hereditary
in, for example, intelligence, and also in disturbances such as alcoholism, depression, and
schizophrenia. Lange examined a group of 30 men, consisting of 13 identical twins and 17
fraternal twins who all had a prison record. Lange found that in 77% of the identical twin cases,
the other brother also had a record. This percentage relationship is referred to as a criminal
concordance, meaning both members of a pair have a particular attribute. According to the
findings from previous studies, identical twins generally showed a much higher degree of
criminal concordance than fraternal twins. However, the criminal concordance was found to be
higher for both categories where more serious offenses had been committed, for example,
murder.
An alternative strategy to the use of twins is to study adopted children. "The assumption in
such work is that if adopted children resemble biological rather than adoptive parents in some
important respects, then this is potentially evidence of a genetic influence*. Research by
Hutchings and Mednick found evidence that adoptees with criminal records had a higher
proportion of biological mothers and fathers with criminal records than adoptees with no
criminal records. Researchers concluded that there was an inherited characteristic element that
was transmitted from the criminal parents to their children that increased the likelihood of the
children developing criminal behavior. Compared to the classicism approach, positivism
argued that criminals did not willingly choose to commit a crime, but instead were determined
into crime by factors beyond the criminal's control. Therefore, behavior is determined within
individuals. Positivists called this the doctrine of determinism. As the approach of positivism
grew over time, the biological and heredity concepts were reduced, and psychological and
environmental factors grew more attention. 'Focus on the actor, not the act is another core
concept of positivism, as its beliefs were to focus on the criminal rather than the crime. Bradley
and Walters also acknowledged that "if the crime is the result of factors beyond the control of
the individual, then the criminal cannot be viewed as responsible but rather as irresponsible."
The positivist aspect was not to punish criminals but to rehabilitate them. The necessary steps
to be taken would be to identity the causes of crime committed by an individual, then address
these causes. "Thus, it was the job of the expert to both identify these factors and then designed
ways of treating them".
"Positivism was founded on the belief, that there were other factors either innate to the
individual or to be found in the immediate environment which could be identified, and which
would help determine the criminal from the non-criminal". Burke acknowledged how The
Italian Positivist School denied the concept of free will and the approach of equality that was
expressed by the classism approach. Positivists replaced this with the assumption of
determinism. Today, people consider Lombroso's work to have been condensed and somewhat
laughable. However, Lombroso and other key figures made some significant contributions to
the development of modern criminological theory. 'It should be remembered that these ideas
led to rather more liberal interpretations of punishment". Burke recognizes that Lombroso
demonstrated the significance of examining clinical and historical records. Most importantly,
he recognized the need for multi-factor explanations of crime that includes not only hereditary
but also social, cultural and economic factors*. Biological/ individual positivism has
significantly impacted the criminal justice system today. The theories and concepts previously
developed have contributed to the ending of cruel, inhumane treatment of criminals and to the
reformation of the death penalty. As Walklate says that these criminals may be different and
abnormal, but they were subjected to forces outside of their control. Therefore, imprisonment
might be a more appropriate punishment than execution*. The Positivist School of thought
made it possible to get the criminals the help they need to be rehabilitated.
This essay has been concerned with introducing the basic features of biological/ individual
positivism in criminology, and the importance of the historical development of biological
positivism. It has outlined the new ideas and practices it has introduced into today's society.
According to biological positivism, criminals are different to non-criminals. Criminals are
somehow impaired and are missing something that non-criminals have. This impairment was
manifested in biological and psychological factors. Therefore, individuals did not choose to
commit a crime, but factors beyond their control had driven them to commit a crime. Unlike
the classicism approach, positivism believed that it should not only be about punishment.
Positivism aimed to reform, rehabilitate or cure. The punishment should fit the criminal, not
the crime.
Biological/Individual Positivism was developed as a theoretical approach to criminology in the
late 18th and early 19th centuries and was established by key figures Cesare Lombroso, Enrico
Ferri, and Raffaele Garofalo. These criminological positivists were the first to concern
themselves with discovering and eliminating the causes of crime and criminality. To discover
and eliminate the causes of crime and criminality, positivists engaged the methods of scientific,
rather than philosophical analysis. The main argument of biological/ individual positivism is
that crime occurs because the offender has not been sufficiently or effectively socialized, or
educated of society's values. Core principles of positivism include, the doctrine of determinism,
focus on the actor not the act, and treatment not punishment. Other core concepts of individual
positivism include rejecting metaphysical or risky approaches and adopting scientific methods.
The innovation of biological/individual positivism introduced a collection of new ideas and
practices that have contributed significantly to the growth of criminology.
Biological Positivism represents the earliest manifestation of Individual Positivism and is
associated with the Italian School of Positivist Criminology inspired by the work of Cesare
Lombroso. Lombroso was famous in the 19th century because he claimed to have discovered
the causes of crime. Lombroso's theory suggested that "criminals are distinguished from non-
criminals by the manifestation of physical anomalies that represented atavistic or degenerative
origin". Atavism means the hereditary transmission from earlier generations and ancestors.
Atavism was a term Lombroso used to describe individuals who were not fully developed.
Lombroso believed that the criminal was almost a separate species demonstrating a variety of
mental and physical characteristics separating them from the rest of society. "Specifically, he
claimed that criminals have abnormal dimensions of the skull and jaw". Lombroso's theoretical
approach was to believe that becoming a criminal was somehow to be explained through
identifying specific characteristics of individuals. On the basis of Lombroso's arguments, he
constructed and classified criminals in four main categories. Firstly, born criminals who can be
distinguished by their physical atavistic characteristics. Secondly, insane criminals who are
labeled as idiots, imbeciles, and alcoholics. Thirdly, occasional criminals are those who were
pulled into crime by their environment or situation. Finally, criminals by passion are those
motivated to commit crimes by love, anger, honor or other emotional factors.
Lombroso argued that criminology should focus primarily on the scientific study of criminals
and criminal behavior. At the end of the 19th century, it was suggested that criminality is
inherited in the same way as physical characteristics. The attempt to locate proof of genetic
transmission for criminality was focused on three areas - family studies, twin studies, and
adoption studies. Goring conducted a study with 3000 prisoners that had a history of long and
frequent sentences, and a control group of non-criminals. According to the results, the
"prisoners were inferior to the control group in terms of physical size and mental ability, while
strong associations between the criminality of children and their parents and between brothers
were found*. Osborn and West also discovered that around 40% of the sons of criminal fathers
were criminals themselves, compared to a figure of 13% for sons of non-criminal fathers. The
twin study method was been widely used in seeking to determine the influence of hereditary
in, for example, intelligence, and also in disturbances such as alcoholism, depression, and
schizophrenia. Lange examined a group of 30 men, consisting of 13 identical twins and 17
fraternal twins who all had a prison record. Lange found that in 77% of the identical twin cases,
the other brother also had a record. This percentage relationship is referred to as a criminal
concordance, meaning both members of a pair have a particular attribute. According to the
findings from previous studies, identical twins generally showed a much higher degree of
criminal concordance than fraternal twins. However, the criminal concordance was found to be
higher for both categories where more serious offenses had been committed, for example,
murder.
An alternative strategy to the use of twins is to study adopted children. "The assumption in
such work is that if adopted children resemble biological rather than adoptive parents in some
important respects, then this is potentially evidence of a genetic influence*. Research by
Hutchings and Mednick found evidence that adoptees with criminal records had a higher
proportion of biological mothers and fathers with criminal records than adoptees with no
criminal records. Researchers concluded that there was an inherited characteristic element that
was transmitted from the criminal parents to their children that increased the likelihood of the
children developing criminal behavior. Compared to the classicism approach, positivism
argued that criminals did not willingly choose to commit a crime, but instead were determined
into crime by factors beyond the criminal's control. Therefore, behavior is determined within
individuals. Positivists called this the doctrine of determinism. As the approach of positivism
grew over time, the biological and heredity concepts were reduced, and psychological and
environmental factors grew more attention. 'Focus on the actor, not the act is another core
concept of positivism, as its beliefs were to focus on the criminal rather than the crime. Bradley
and Walters also acknowledged that "if the crime is the result of factors beyond the control of
the individual, then the criminal cannot be viewed as responsible but rather as irresponsible."
The positivist aspect was not to punish criminals but to rehabilitate them. The necessary steps
to be taken would be to identity the causes of crime committed by an individual, then address
these causes. "Thus, it was the job of the expert to both identify these factors and then designed
ways of treating them".
"Positivism was founded on the belief, that there were other factors either innate to the
individual or to be found in the immediate environment which could be identified, and which
would help determine the criminal from the non-criminal". Burke acknowledged how The
Italian Positivist School denied the concept of free will and the approach of equality that was
expressed by the classism approach. Positivists replaced this with the assumption of
determinism. Today, people consider Lombroso's work to have been condensed and somewhat
laughable. However, Lombroso and other key figures made some significant contributions to
the development of modern criminological theory. 'It should be remembered that these ideas
led to rather more liberal interpretations of punishment". Burke recognizes that Lombroso
demonstrated the significance of examining clinical and historical records. Most importantly,
he recognized the need for multi-factor explanations of crime that includes not only hereditary
but also social, cultural and economic factors*. Biological/ individual positivism has
significantly impacted the criminal justice system today. The theories and concepts previously
developed have contributed to the ending of cruel, inhumane treatment of criminals and to the
reformation of the death penalty. As Walklate says that these criminals may be different and
abnormal, but they were subjected to forces outside of their control. Therefore, imprisonment
might be a more appropriate punishment than execution*. The Positivist School of thought
made it possible to get the criminals the help they need to be rehabilitated.
This essay has been concerned with introducing the basic features of biological/ individual
positivism in criminology, and the importance of the historical development of biological
positivism. It has outlined the new ideas and practices it has introduced into today's society.
According to biological positivism, criminals are different to non-criminals. Criminals are
somehow impaired and are missing something that non-criminals have. This impairment was
manifested in biological and psychological factors. Therefore, individuals did not choose to
commit a crime, but factors beyond their control had driven them to commit a crime. Unlike
the classicism approach, positivism believed that it should not only be about punishment.
Positivism aimed to reform, rehabilitate or cure. The punishment should fit the criminal, not
the crime.
Biological/Individual Positivism was developed as a theoretical approach to criminology in the
late 18th and early 19th centuries and was established by key figures Cesare Lombroso, Enrico
Ferri, and Raffaele Garofalo. These criminological positivists were the first to concern
themselves with discovering and eliminating the causes of crime and criminality. To discover
and eliminate the causes of crime and criminality, positivists engaged the methods of scientific,
rather than philosophical analysis. The main argument of biological/ individual positivism is
that crime occurs because the offender has not been sufficiently or effectively socialized, or
educated of society's values. Core principles of positivism include, the doctrine of determinism,
focus on the actor not the act, and treatment not punishment. Other core concepts of individual
positivism include rejecting metaphysical or risky approaches and adopting scientific methods.
The innovation of biological/individual positivism introduced a collection of new ideas and
practices that have contributed significantly to the growth of criminology.
Biological Positivism represents the earliest manifestation of Individual Positivism and is
associated with the Italian School of Positivist Criminology inspired by the work of Cesare
Lombroso. Lombroso was famous in the 19th century because he claimed to have discovered
the causes of crime. Lombroso's theory suggested that "criminals are distinguished from non-
criminals by the manifestation of physical anomalies that represented atavistic or degenerative
origin". Atavism means the hereditary transmission from earlier generations and ancestors.
Atavism was a term Lombroso used to describe individuals who were not fully developed.
Lombroso believed that the criminal was almost a separate species demonstrating a variety of
mental and physical characteristics separating them from the rest of society. "Specifically, he
claimed that criminals have abnormal dimensions of the skull and jaw". Lombroso's theoretical
approach was to believe that becoming a criminal was somehow to be explained through
identifying specific characteristics of individuals. On the basis of Lombroso's arguments, he
constructed and classified criminals in four main categories. Firstly, born criminals who can be
distinguished by their physical atavistic characteristics. Secondly, insane criminals who are
labeled as idiots, imbeciles, and alcoholics. Thirdly, occasional criminals are those who were
pulled into crime by their environment or situation. Finally, criminals by passion are those
motivated to commit crimes by love, anger, honor or other emotional factors.
Lombroso argued that criminology should focus primarily on the scientific study of criminals
and criminal behavior. At the end of the 19th century, it was suggested that criminality is
inherited in the same way as physical characteristics. The attempt to locate proof of genetic
transmission for criminality was focused on three areas - family studies, twin studies, and
adoption studies. Goring conducted a study with 3000 prisoners that had a history of long and
frequent sentences, and a control group of non-criminals. According to the results, the
"prisoners were inferior to the control group in terms of physical size and mental ability, while
strong associations between the criminality of children and their parents and between brothers
were found*. Osborn and West also discovered that around 40% of the sons of criminal fathers
were criminals themselves, compared to a figure of 13% for sons of non-criminal fathers. The
twin study method was been widely used in seeking to determine the influence of hereditary
in, for example, intelligence, and also in disturbances such as alcoholism, depression, and
schizophrenia. Lange examined a group of 30 men, consisting of 13 identical twins and 17
fraternal twins who all had a prison record. Lange found that in 77% of the identical twin cases,
the other brother also had a record. This percentage relationship is referred to as a criminal
concordance, meaning both members of a pair have a particular attribute. According to the
findings from previous studies, identical twins generally showed a much higher degree of
criminal concordance than fraternal twins. However, the criminal concordance was found to be
higher for both categories where more serious offenses had been committed, for example,
murder.
An alternative strategy to the use of twins is to study adopted children. "The assumption in
such work is that if adopted children resemble biological rather than adoptive parents in some
important respects, then this is potentially evidence of a genetic influence*. Research by
Hutchings and Mednick found evidence that adoptees with criminal records had a higher
proportion of biological mothers and fathers with criminal records than adoptees with no
criminal records. Researchers concluded that there was an inherited characteristic element that
was transmitted from the criminal parents to their children that increased the likelihood of the
children developing criminal behavior. Compared to the classicism approach, positivism
argued that criminals did not willingly choose to commit a crime, but instead were determined
into crime by factors beyond the criminal's control. Therefore, behavior is determined within
individuals. Positivists called this the doctrine of determinism. As the approach of positivism
grew over time, the biological and heredity concepts were reduced, and psychological and
environmental factors grew more attention. 'Focus on the actor, not the act is another core
concept of positivism, as its beliefs were to focus on the criminal rather than the crime. Bradley
and Walters also acknowledged that "if the crime is the result of factors beyond the control of
the individual, then the criminal cannot be viewed as responsible but rather as irresponsible."
The positivist aspect was not to punish criminals but to rehabilitate them. The necessary steps
to be taken would be to identity the causes of crime committed by an individual, then address
these causes. "Thus, it was the job of the expert to both identify these factors and then designed
ways of treating them".
"Positivism was founded on the belief, that there were other factors either innate to the
individual or to be found in the immediate environment which could be identified, and which
would help determine the criminal from the non-criminal". Burke acknowledged how The
Italian Positivist School denied the concept of free will and the approach of equality that was
expressed by the classism approach. Positivists replaced this with the assumption of
determinism. Today, people consider Lombroso's work to have been condensed and somewhat
laughable. However, Lombroso and other key figures made some significant contributions to
the development of modern criminological theory. 'It should be remembered that these ideas
led to rather more liberal interpretations of punishment". Burke recognizes that Lombroso
demonstrated the significance of examining clinical and historical records. Most importantly,
he recognized the need for multi-factor explanations of crime that includes not only hereditary
but also social, cultural and economic factors*. Biological/ individual positivism has
significantly impacted the criminal justice system today. The theories and concepts previously
developed have contributed to the ending of cruel, inhumane treatment of criminals and to the
reformation of the death penalty. As Walklate says that these criminals may be different and
abnormal, but they were subjected to forces outside of their control. Therefore, imprisonment
might be a more appropriate punishment than execution*. The Positivist School of thought
made it possible to get the criminals the help they need to be rehabilitated.
This essay has been concerned with introducing the basic features of biological/ individual
positivism in criminology, and the importance of the historical development of biological
positivism. It has outlined the new ideas and practices it has introduced into today's society.
According to biological positivism, criminals are different to non-criminals. Criminals are
somehow impaired and are missing something that non-criminals have. This impairment was
manifested in biological and psychological factors. Therefore, individuals did not choose to
commit a crime, but factors beyond their control had driven them to commit a crime. Unlike
the classicism approach, positivism believed that it should not only be about punishment.
Positivism aimed to reform, rehabilitate or cure. The punishment should fit the criminal, not
the crime.
Biological/Individual Positivism was developed as a theoretical approach to criminology in the
late 18th and early 19th centuries and was established by key figures Cesare Lombroso, Enrico
Ferri, and Raffaele Garofalo. These criminological positivists were the first to concern
themselves with discovering and eliminating the causes of crime and criminality. To discover
and eliminate the causes of crime and criminality, positivists engaged the methods of scientific,
rather than philosophical analysis. The main argument of biological/ individual positivism is
that crime occurs because the offender has not been sufficiently or effectively socialized, or
educated of society's values. Core principles of positivism include, the doctrine of determinism,
focus on the actor not the act, and treatment not punishment. Other core concepts of individual
positivism include rejecting metaphysical or risky approaches and adopting scientific methods.
The innovation of biological/individual positivism introduced a collection of new ideas and
practices that have contributed significantly to the growth of criminology.
Biological Positivism represents the earliest manifestation of Individual Positivism and is
associated with the Italian School of Positivist Criminology inspired by the work of Cesare
Lombroso. Lombroso was famous in the 19th century because he claimed to have discovered
the causes of crime. Lombroso's theory suggested that "criminals are distinguished from non-
criminals by the manifestation of physical anomalies that represented atavistic or degenerative
origin". Atavism means the hereditary transmission from earlier generations and ancestors.
Atavism was a term Lombroso used to describe individuals who were not fully developed.
Lombroso believed that the criminal was almost a separate species demonstrating a variety of
mental and physical characteristics separating them from the rest of society. "Specifically, he
claimed that criminals have abnormal dimensions of the skull and jaw". Lombroso's theoretical
approach was to believe that becoming a criminal was somehow to be explained through
identifying specific characteristics of individuals. On the basis of Lombroso's arguments, he
constructed and classified criminals in four main categories. Firstly, born criminals who can be
distinguished by their physical atavistic characteristics. Secondly, insane criminals who are
labeled as idiots, imbeciles, and alcoholics. Thirdly, occasional criminals are those who were
pulled into crime by their environment or situation. Finally, criminals by passion are those
motivated to commit crimes by love, anger, honor or other emotional factors.
Lombroso argued that criminology should focus primarily on the scientific study of criminals
and criminal behavior. At the end of the 19th century, it was suggested that criminality is
inherited in the same way as physical characteristics. The attempt to locate proof of genetic
transmission for criminality was focused on three areas - family studies, twin studies, and
adoption studies. Goring conducted a study with 3000 prisoners that had a history of long and
frequent sentences, and a control group of non-criminals. According to the results, the
"prisoners were inferior to the control group in terms of physical size and mental ability, while
strong associations between the criminality of children and their parents and between brothers
were found*. Osborn and West also discovered that around 40% of the sons of criminal fathers
were criminals themselves, compared to a figure of 13% for sons of non-criminal fathers. The
twin study method was been widely used in seeking to determine the influence of hereditary
in, for example, intelligence, and also in disturbances such as alcoholism, depression, and
schizophrenia. Lange examined a group of 30 men, consisting of 13 identical twins and 17
fraternal twins who all had a prison record. Lange found that in 77% of the identical twin cases,
the other brother also had a record. This percentage relationship is referred to as a criminal
concordance, meaning both members of a pair have a particular attribute. According to the
findings from previous studies, identical twins generally showed a much higher degree of
criminal concordance than fraternal twins. However, the criminal concordance was found to be
higher for both categories where more serious offenses had been committed, for example,
murder.
An alternative strategy to the use of twins is to study adopted children. "The assumption in
such work is that if adopted children resemble biological rather than adoptive parents in some
important respects, then this is potentially evidence of a genetic influence*. Research by
Hutchings and Mednick found evidence that adoptees with criminal records had a higher
proportion of biological mothers and fathers with criminal records than adoptees with no
criminal records. Researchers concluded that there was an inherited characteristic element that
was transmitted from the criminal parents to their children that increased the likelihood of the
children developing criminal behavior. Compared to the classicism approach, positivism
argued that criminals did not willingly choose to commit a crime, but instead were determined
into crime by factors beyond the criminal's control. Therefore, behavior is determined within
individuals. Positivists called this the doctrine of determinism. As the approach of positivism
grew over time, the biological and heredity concepts were reduced, and psychological and
environmental factors grew more attention. 'Focus on the actor, not the act is another core
concept of positivism, as its beliefs were to focus on the criminal rather than the crime. Bradley
and Walters also acknowledged that "if the crime is the result of factors beyond the control of
the individual, then the criminal cannot be viewed as responsible but rather as irresponsible."
The positivist aspect was not to punish criminals but to rehabilitate them. The necessary steps
to be taken would be to identity the causes of crime committed by an individual, then address
these causes. "Thus, it was the job of the expert to both identify these factors and then designed
ways of treating them".
"Positivism was founded on the belief, that there were other factors either innate to the
individual or to be found in the immediate environment which could be identified, and which
would help determine the criminal from the non-criminal". Burke acknowledged how The
Italian Positivist School denied the concept of free will and the approach of equality that was
expressed by the classism approach. Positivists replaced this with the assumption of
determinism. Today, people consider Lombroso's work to have been condensed and somewhat
laughable. However, Lombroso and other key figures made some significant contributions to
the development of modern criminological theory. 'It should be remembered that these ideas
led to rather more liberal interpretations of punishment". Burke recognizes that Lombroso
demonstrated the significance of examining clinical and historical records. Most importantly,
he recognized the need for multi-factor explanations of crime that includes not only hereditary
but also social, cultural and economic factors*. Biological/ individual positivism has
significantly impacted the criminal justice system today. The theories and concepts previously
developed have contributed to the ending of cruel, inhumane treatment of criminals and to the
reformation of the death penalty. As Walklate says that these criminals may be different and
abnormal, but they were subjected to forces outside of their control. Therefore, imprisonment
might be a more appropriate punishment than execution*. The Positivist School of thought
made it possible to get the criminals the help they need to be rehabilitated.
This essay has been concerned with introducing the basic features of biological/ individual
positivism in criminology, and the importance of the historical development of biological
positivism. It has outlined the new ideas and practices it has introduced into today's society.
According to biological positivism, criminals are different to non-criminals. Criminals are
somehow impaired and are missing something that non-criminals have. This impairment was
manifested in biological and psychological factors. Therefore, individuals did not choose to
commit a crime, but factors beyond their control had driven them to commit a crime. Unlike
the classicism approach, positivism believed that it should not only be about punishment.
Positivism aimed to reform, rehabilitate or cure. The punishment should fit the criminal, not
the crime.
Biological/Individual Positivism was developed as a theoretical approach to criminology in the
late 18th and early 19th centuries and was established by key figures Cesare Lombroso, Enrico
Ferri, and Raffaele Garofalo. These criminological positivists were the first to concern
themselves with discovering and eliminating the causes of crime and criminality. To discover
and eliminate the causes of crime and criminality, positivists engaged the methods of scientific,
rather than philosophical analysis. The main argument of biological/ individual positivism is
that crime occurs because the offender has not been sufficiently or effectively socialized, or
educated of society's values. Core principles of positivism include, the doctrine of determinism,
focus on the actor not the act, and treatment not punishment. Other core concepts of individual
positivism include rejecting metaphysical or risky approaches and adopting scientific methods.
The innovation of biological/individual positivism introduced a collection of new ideas and
practices that have contributed significantly to the growth of criminology.
Biological Positivism represents the earliest manifestation of Individual Positivism and is
associated with the Italian School of Positivist Criminology inspired by the work of Cesare
Lombroso. Lombroso was famous in the 19th century because he claimed to have discovered
the causes of crime. Lombroso's theory suggested that "criminals are distinguished from non-
criminals by the manifestation of physical anomalies that represented atavistic or degenerative
origin". Atavism means the hereditary transmission from earlier generations and ancestors.
Atavism was a term Lombroso used to describe individuals who were not fully developed.
Lombroso believed that the criminal was almost a separate species demonstrating a variety of
mental and physical characteristics separating them from the rest of society. "Specifically, he
claimed that criminals have abnormal dimensions of the skull and jaw". Lombroso's theoretical
approach was to believe that becoming a criminal was somehow to be explained through
identifying specific characteristics of individuals. On the basis of Lombroso's arguments, he
constructed and classified criminals in four main categories. Firstly, born criminals who can be
distinguished by their physical atavistic characteristics. Secondly, insane criminals who are
labeled as idiots, imbeciles, and alcoholics. Thirdly, occasional criminals are those who were
pulled into crime by their environment or situation. Finally, criminals by passion are those
motivated to commit crimes by love, anger, honor or other emotional factors.
Lombroso argued that criminology should focus primarily on the scientific study of criminals
and criminal behavior. At the end of the 19th century, it was suggested that criminality is
inherited in the same way as physical characteristics. The attempt to locate proof of genetic
transmission for criminality was focused on three areas - family studies, twin studies, and
adoption studies. Goring conducted a study with 3000 prisoners that had a history of long and
frequent sentences, and a control group of non-criminals. According to the results, the
"prisoners were inferior to the control group in terms of physical size and mental ability, while
strong associations between the criminality of children and their parents and between brothers
were found*. Osborn and West also discovered that around 40% of the sons of criminal fathers
were criminals themselves, compared to a figure of 13% for sons of non-criminal fathers. The
twin study method was been widely used in seeking to determine the influence of hereditary
in, for example, intelligence, and also in disturbances such as alcoholism, depression, and
schizophrenia. Lange examined a group of 30 men, consisting of 13 identical twins and 17
fraternal twins who all had a prison record. Lange found that in 77% of the identical twin cases,
the other brother also had a record. This percentage relationship is referred to as a criminal
concordance, meaning both members of a pair have a particular attribute. According to the
findings from previous studies, identical twins generally showed a much higher degree of
criminal concordance than fraternal twins. However, the criminal concordance was found to be
higher for both categories where more serious offenses had been committed, for example,
murder.
An alternative strategy to the use of twins is to study adopted children. "The assumption in
such work is that if adopted children resemble biological rather than adoptive parents in some
important respects, then this is potentially evidence of a genetic influence*. Research by
Hutchings and Mednick found evidence that adoptees with criminal records had a higher
proportion of biological mothers and fathers with criminal records than adoptees with no
criminal records. Researchers concluded that there was an inherited characteristic element that
was transmitted from the criminal parents to their children that increased the likelihood of the
children developing criminal behavior. Compared to the classicism approach, positivism
argued that criminals did not willingly choose to commit a crime, but instead were determined
into crime by factors beyond the criminal's control. Therefore, behavior is determined within
individuals. Positivists called this the doctrine of determinism. As the approach of positivism
grew over time, the biological and heredity concepts were reduced, and psychological and
environmental factors grew more attention. 'Focus on the actor, not the act is another core
concept of positivism, as its beliefs were to focus on the criminal rather than the crime. Bradley
and Walters also acknowledged that "if the crime is the result of factors beyond the control of
the individual, then the criminal cannot be viewed as responsible but rather as irresponsible."
The positivist aspect was not to punish criminals but to rehabilitate them. The necessary steps
to be taken would be to identity the causes of crime committed by an individual, then address
these causes. "Thus, it was the job of the expert to both identify these factors and then designed
ways of treating them".
"Positivism was founded on the belief, that there were other factors either innate to the
individual or to be found in the immediate environment which could be identified, and which
would help determine the criminal from the non-criminal". Burke acknowledged how The
Italian Positivist School denied the concept of free will and the approach of equality that was
expressed by the classism approach. Positivists replaced this with the assumption of
determinism. Today, people consider Lombroso's work to have been condensed and somewhat
laughable. However, Lombroso and other key figures made some significant contributions to
the development of modern criminological theory. 'It should be remembered that these ideas
led to rather more liberal interpretations of punishment". Burke recognizes that Lombroso
demonstrated the significance of examining clinical and historical records. Most importantly,
he recognized the need for multi-factor explanations of crime that includes not only hereditary
but also social, cultural and economic factors*. Biological/ individual positivism has
significantly impacted the criminal justice system today. The theories and concepts previously
developed have contributed to the ending of cruel, inhumane treatment of criminals and to the
reformation of the death penalty. As Walklate says that these criminals may be different and
abnormal, but they were subjected to forces outside of their control. Therefore, imprisonment
might be a more appropriate punishment than execution*. The Positivist School of thought
made it possible to get the criminals the help they need to be rehabilitated.
This essay has been concerned with introducing the basic features of biological/ individual
positivism in criminology, and the importance of the historical development of biological
positivism. It has outlined the new ideas and practices it has introduced into today's society.
According to biological positivism, criminals are different to non-criminals. Criminals are
somehow impaired and are missing something that non-criminals have. This impairment was
manifested in biological and psychological factors. Therefore, individuals did not choose to
commit a crime, but factors beyond their control had driven them to commit a crime. Unlike
the classicism approach, positivism believed that it should not only be about punishment.
Positivism aimed to reform, rehabilitate or cure. The punishment should fit the criminal, not
the crime.
Biological/Individual Positivism was developed as a theoretical approach to criminology in the
late 18th and early 19th centuries and was established by key figures Cesare Lombroso, Enrico
Ferri, and Raffaele Garofalo. These criminological positivists were the first to concern
themselves with discovering and eliminating the causes of crime and criminality. To discover
and eliminate the causes of crime and criminality, positivists engaged the methods of scientific,
rather than philosophical analysis. The main argument of biological/ individual positivism is
that crime occurs because the offender has not been sufficiently or effectively socialized, or
educated of society's values. Core principles of positivism include, the doctrine of determinism,
focus on the actor not the act, and treatment not punishment. Other core concepts of individual
positivism include rejecting metaphysical or risky approaches and adopting scientific methods.
The innovation of biological/individual positivism introduced a collection of new ideas and
practices that have contributed significantly to the growth of criminology.
Biological Positivism represents the earliest manifestation of Individual Positivism and is
associated with the Italian School of Positivist Criminology inspired by the work of Cesare
Lombroso. Lombroso was famous in the 19th century because he claimed to have discovered
the causes of crime. Lombroso's theory suggested that "criminals are distinguished from non-
criminals by the manifestation of physical anomalies that represented atavistic or degenerative
origin". Atavism means the hereditary transmission from earlier generations and ancestors.
Atavism was a term Lombroso used to describe individuals who were not fully developed.
Lombroso believed that the criminal was almost a separate species demonstrating a variety of
mental and physical characteristics separating them from the rest of society. "Specifically, he
claimed that criminals have abnormal dimensions of the skull and jaw". Lombroso's theoretical
approach was to believe that becoming a criminal was somehow to be explained through
identifying specific characteristics of individuals. On the basis of Lombroso's arguments, he
constructed and classified criminals in four main categories. Firstly, born criminals who can be
distinguished by their physical atavistic characteristics. Secondly, insane criminals who are
labeled as idiots, imbeciles, and alcoholics. Thirdly, occasional criminals are those who were
pulled into crime by their environment or situation. Finally, criminals by passion are those
motivated to commit crimes by love, anger, honor or other emotional factors.
Lombroso argued that criminology should focus primarily on the scientific study of criminals
and criminal behavior. At the end of the 19th century, it was suggested that criminality is
inherited in the same way as physical characteristics. The attempt to locate proof of genetic
transmission for criminality was focused on three areas - family studies, twin studies, and
adoption studies. Goring conducted a study with 3000 prisoners that had a history of long and
frequent sentences, and a control group of non-criminals. According to the results, the
"prisoners were inferior to the control group in terms of physical size and mental ability, while
strong associations between the criminality of children and their parents and between brothers
were found*. Osborn and West also discovered that around 40% of the sons of criminal fathers
were criminals themselves, compared to a figure of 13% for sons of non-criminal fathers. The
twin study method was been widely used in seeking to determine the influence of hereditary
in, for example, intelligence, and also in disturbances such as alcoholism, depression, and
schizophrenia. Lange examined a group of 30 men, consisting of 13 identical twins and 17
fraternal twins who all had a prison record. Lange found that in 77% of the identical twin cases,
the other brother also had a record. This percentage relationship is referred to as a criminal
concordance, meaning both members of a pair have a particular attribute. According to the
findings from previous studies, identical twins generally showed a much higher degree of
criminal concordance than fraternal twins. However, the criminal concordance was found to be
higher for both categories where more serious offenses had been committed, for example,
murder.
An alternative strategy to the use of twins is to study adopted children. "The assumption in
such work is that if adopted children resemble biological rather than adoptive parents in some
important respects, then this is potentially evidence of a genetic influence*. Research by
Hutchings and Mednick found evidence that adoptees with criminal records had a higher
proportion of biological mothers and fathers with criminal records than adoptees with no
criminal records. Researchers concluded that there was an inherited characteristic element that
was transmitted from the criminal parents to their children that increased the likelihood of the
children developing criminal behavior. Compared to the classicism approach, positivism
argued that criminals did not willingly choose to commit a crime, but instead were determined
into crime by factors beyond the criminal's control. Therefore, behavior is determined within
individuals. Positivists called this the doctrine of determinism. As the approach of positivism
grew over time, the biological and heredity concepts were reduced, and psychological and
environmental factors grew more attention. 'Focus on the actor, not the act is another core
concept of positivism, as its beliefs were to focus on the criminal rather than the crime. Bradley
and Walters also acknowledged that "if the crime is the result of factors beyond the control of
the individual, then the criminal cannot be viewed as responsible but rather as irresponsible."
The positivist aspect was not to punish criminals but to rehabilitate them. The necessary steps
to be taken would be to identity the causes of crime committed by an individual, then address
these causes. "Thus, it was the job of the expert to both identify these factors and then designed
ways of treating them".
"Positivism was founded on the belief, that there were other factors either innate to the
individual or to be found in the immediate environment which could be identified, and which
would help determine the criminal from the non-criminal". Burke acknowledged how The
Italian Positivist School denied the concept of free will and the approach of equality that was
expressed by the classism approach. Positivists replaced this with the assumption of
determinism. Today, people consider Lombroso's work to have been condensed and somewhat
laughable. However, Lombroso and other key figures made some significant contributions to
the development of modern criminological theory. 'It should be remembered that these ideas
led to rather more liberal interpretations of punishment". Burke recognizes that Lombroso
demonstrated the significance of examining clinical and historical records. Most importantly,
he recognized the need for multi-factor explanations of crime that includes not only hereditary
but also social, cultural and economic factors*. Biological/ individual positivism has
significantly impacted the criminal justice system today. The theories and concepts previously
developed have contributed to the ending of cruel, inhumane treatment of criminals and to the
reformation of the death penalty. As Walklate says that these criminals may be different and
abnormal, but they were subjected to forces outside of their control. Therefore, imprisonment
might be a more appropriate punishment than execution*. The Positivist School of thought
made it possible to get the criminals the help they need to be rehabilitated.
This essay has been concerned with introducing the basic features of biological/ individual
positivism in criminology, and the importance of the historical development of biological
positivism. It has outlined the new ideas and practices it has introduced into today's society.
According to biological positivism, criminals are different to non-criminals. Criminals are
somehow impaired and are missing something that non-criminals have. This impairment was
manifested in biological and psychological factors. Therefore, individuals did not choose to
commit a crime, but factors beyond their control had driven them to commit a crime. Unlike
the classicism approach, positivism believed that it should not only be about punishment.
Positivism aimed to reform, rehabilitate or cure. The punishment should fit the criminal, not
the crime.
Biological/Individual Positivism was developed as a theoretical approach to criminology in the
late 18th and early 19th centuries and was established by key figures Cesare Lombroso, Enrico
Ferri, and Raffaele Garofalo. These criminological positivists were the first to concern
themselves with discovering and eliminating the causes of crime and criminality. To discover
and eliminate the causes of crime and criminality, positivists engaged the methods of scientific,
rather than philosophical analysis. The main argument of biological/ individual positivism is
that crime occurs because the offender has not been sufficiently or effectively socialized, or
educated of society's values. Core principles of positivism include, the doctrine of determinism,
focus on the actor not the act, and treatment not punishment. Other core concepts of individual
positivism include rejecting metaphysical or risky approaches and adopting scientific methods.
The innovation of biological/individual positivism introduced a collection of new ideas and
practices that have contributed significantly to the growth of criminology.
Biological Positivism represents the earliest manifestation of Individual Positivism and is
associated with the Italian School of Positivist Criminology inspired by the work of Cesare
Lombroso. Lombroso was famous in the 19th century because he claimed to have discovered
the causes of crime. Lombroso's theory suggested that "criminals are distinguished from non-
criminals by the manifestation of physical anomalies that represented atavistic or degenerative
origin". Atavism means the hereditary transmission from earlier generations and ancestors.
Atavism was a term Lombroso used to describe individuals who were not fully developed.
Lombroso believed that the criminal was almost a separate species demonstrating a variety of
mental and physical characteristics separating them from the rest of society. "Specifically, he
claimed that criminals have abnormal dimensions of the skull and jaw". Lombroso's theoretical
approach was to believe that becoming a criminal was somehow to be explained through
identifying specific characteristics of individuals. On the basis of Lombroso's arguments, he
constructed and classified criminals in four main categories. Firstly, born criminals who can be
distinguished by their physical atavistic characteristics. Secondly, insane criminals who are
labeled as idiots, imbeciles, and alcoholics. Thirdly, occasional criminals are those who were
pulled into crime by their environment or situation. Finally, criminals by passion are those
motivated to commit crimes by love, anger, honor or other emotional factors.
Lombroso argued that criminology should focus primarily on the scientific study of criminals
and criminal behavior. At the end of the 19th century, it was suggested that criminality is
inherited in the same way as physical characteristics. The attempt to locate proof of genetic
transmission for criminality was focused on three areas - family studies, twin studies, and
adoption studies. Goring conducted a study with 3000 prisoners that had a history of long and
frequent sentences, and a control group of non-criminals. According to the results, the
"prisoners were inferior to the control group in terms of physical size and mental ability, while
strong associations between the criminality of children and their parents and between brothers
were found*. Osborn and West also discovered that around 40% of the sons of criminal fathers
were criminals themselves, compared to a figure of 13% for sons of non-criminal fathers. The
twin study method was been widely used in seeking to determine the influence of hereditary
in, for example, intelligence, and also in disturbances such as alcoholism, depression, and
schizophrenia. Lange examined a group of 30 men, consisting of 13 identical twins and 17
fraternal twins who all had a prison record. Lange found that in 77% of the identical twin cases,
the other brother also had a record. This percentage relationship is referred to as a criminal
concordance, meaning both members of a pair have a particular attribute. According to the
findings from previous studies, identical twins generally showed a much higher degree of
criminal concordance than fraternal twins. However, the criminal concordance was found to be
higher for both categories where more serious offenses had been committed, for example,
murder.
An alternative strategy to the use of twins is to study adopted children. "The assumption in
such work is that if adopted children resemble biological rather than adoptive parents in some
important respects, then this is potentially evidence of a genetic influence*. Research by
Hutchings and Mednick found evidence that adoptees with criminal records had a higher
proportion of biological mothers and fathers with criminal records than adoptees with no
criminal records. Researchers concluded that there was an inherited characteristic element that
was transmitted from the criminal parents to their children that increased the likelihood of the
children developing criminal behavior. Compared to the classicism approach, positivism
argued that criminals did not willingly choose to commit a crime, but instead were determined
into crime by factors beyond the criminal's control. Therefore, behavior is determined within
individuals. Positivists called this the doctrine of determinism. As the approach of positivism
grew over time, the biological and heredity concepts were reduced, and psychological and
environmental factors grew more attention. 'Focus on the actor, not the act is another core
concept of positivism, as its beliefs were to focus on the criminal rather than the crime. Bradley
and Walters also acknowledged that "if the crime is the result of factors beyond the control of
the individual, then the criminal cannot be viewed as responsible but rather as irresponsible."
The positivist aspect was not to punish criminals but to rehabilitate them. The necessary steps
to be taken would be to identity the causes of crime committed by an individual, then address
these causes. "Thus, it was the job of the expert to both identify these factors and then designed
ways of treating them".
"Positivism was founded on the belief, that there were other factors either innate to the
individual or to be found in the immediate environment which could be identified, and which
would help determine the criminal from the non-criminal". Burke acknowledged how The
Italian Positivist School denied the concept of free will and the approach of equality that was
expressed by the classism approach. Positivists replaced this with the assumption of
determinism. Today, people consider Lombroso's work to have been condensed and somewhat
laughable. However, Lombroso and other key figures made some significant contributions to
the development of modern criminological theory. 'It should be remembered that these ideas
led to rather more liberal interpretations of punishment". Burke recognizes that Lombroso
demonstrated the significance of examining clinical and historical records. Most importantly,
he recognized the need for multi-factor explanations of crime that includes not only hereditary
but also social, cultural and economic factors*. Biological/ individual positivism has
significantly impacted the criminal justice system today. The theories and concepts previously
developed have contributed to the ending of cruel, inhumane treatment of criminals and to the
reformation of the death penalty. As Walklate says that these criminals may be different and
abnormal, but they were subjected to forces outside of their control. Therefore, imprisonment
might be a more appropriate punishment than execution*. The Positivist School of thought
made it possible to get the criminals the help they need to be rehabilitated.
This essay has been concerned with introducing the basic features of biological/ individual
positivism in criminology, and the importance of the historical development of biological
positivism. It has outlined the new ideas and practices it has introduced into today's society.
According to biological positivism, criminals are different to non-criminals. Criminals are
somehow impaired and are missing something that non-criminals have. This impairment was
manifested in biological and psychological factors. Therefore, individuals did not choose to
commit a crime, but factors beyond their control had driven them to commit a crime. Unlike
the classicism approach, positivism believed that it should not only be about punishment.
Positivism aimed to reform, rehabilitate or cure. The punishment should fit the criminal, not
the crime.
Biological/Individual Positivism was developed as a theoretical approach to criminology in the
late 18th and early 19th centuries and was established by key figures Cesare Lombroso, Enrico
Ferri, and Raffaele Garofalo. These criminological positivists were the first to concern
themselves with discovering and eliminating the causes of crime and criminality. To discover
and eliminate the causes of crime and criminality, positivists engaged the methods of scientific,
rather than philosophical analysis. The main argument of biological/ individual positivism is
that crime occurs because the offender has not been sufficiently or effectively socialized, or
educated of society's values. Core principles of positivism include, the doctrine of determinism,
focus on the actor not the act, and treatment not punishment. Other core concepts of individual
positivism include rejecting metaphysical or risky approaches and adopting scientific methods.
The innovation of biological/individual positivism introduced a collection of new ideas and
practices that have contributed significantly to the growth of criminology.
Biological Positivism represents the earliest manifestation of Individual Positivism and is
associated with the Italian School of Positivist Criminology inspired by the work of Cesare
Lombroso. Lombroso was famous in the 19th century because he claimed to have discovered
the causes of crime. Lombroso's theory suggested that "criminals are distinguished from non-
criminals by the manifestation of physical anomalies that represented atavistic or degenerative
origin". Atavism means the hereditary transmission from earlier generations and ancestors.
Atavism was a term Lombroso used to describe individuals who were not fully developed.
Lombroso believed that the criminal was almost a separate species demonstrating a variety of
mental and physical characteristics separating them from the rest of society. "Specifically, he
claimed that criminals have abnormal dimensions of the skull and jaw". Lombroso's theoretical
approach was to believe that becoming a criminal was somehow to be explained through
identifying specific characteristics of individuals. On the basis of Lombroso's arguments, he
constructed and classified criminals in four main categories. Firstly, born criminals who can be
distinguished by their physical atavistic characteristics. Secondly, insane criminals who are
labeled as idiots, imbeciles, and alcoholics. Thirdly, occasional criminals are those who were
pulled into crime by their environment or situation. Finally, criminals by passion are those
motivated to commit crimes by love, anger, honor or other emotional factors.
Lombroso argued that criminology should focus primarily on the scientific study of criminals
and criminal behavior. At the end of the 19th century, it was suggested that criminality is
inherited in the same way as physical characteristics. The attempt to locate proof of genetic
transmission for criminality was focused on three areas - family studies, twin studies, and
adoption studies. Goring conducted a study with 3000 prisoners that had a history of long and
frequent sentences, and a control group of non-criminals. According to the results, the
"prisoners were inferior to the control group in terms of physical size and mental ability, while
strong associations between the criminality of children and their parents and between brothers
were found*. Osborn and West also discovered that around 40% of the sons of criminal fathers
were criminals themselves, compared to a figure of 13% for sons of non-criminal fathers. The
twin study method was been widely used in seeking to determine the influence of hereditary
in, for example, intelligence, and also in disturbances such as alcoholism, depression, and
schizophrenia. Lange examined a group of 30 men, consisting of 13 identical twins and 17
fraternal twins who all had a prison record. Lange found that in 77% of the identical twin cases,
the other brother also had a record. This percentage relationship is referred to as a criminal
concordance, meaning both members of a pair have a particular attribute. According to the
findings from previous studies, identical twins generally showed a much higher degree of
criminal concordance than fraternal twins. However, the criminal concordance was found to be
higher for both categories where more serious offenses had been committed, for example,
murder.
An alternative strategy to the use of twins is to study adopted children. "The assumption in
such work is that if adopted children resemble biological rather than adoptive parents in some
important respects, then this is potentially evidence of a genetic influence*. Research by
Hutchings and Mednick found evidence that adoptees with criminal records had a higher
proportion of biological mothers and fathers with criminal records than adoptees with no
criminal records. Researchers concluded that there was an inherited characteristic element that
was transmitted from the criminal parents to their children that increased the likelihood of the
children developing criminal behavior. Compared to the classicism approach, positivism
argued that criminals did not willingly choose to commit a crime, but instead were determined
into crime by factors beyond the criminal's control. Therefore, behavior is determined within
individuals. Positivists called this the doctrine of determinism. As the approach of positivism
grew over time, the biological and heredity concepts were reduced, and psychological and
environmental factors grew more attention. 'Focus on the actor, not the act is another core
concept of positivism, as its beliefs were to focus on the criminal rather than the crime. Bradley
and Walters also acknowledged that "if the crime is the result of factors beyond the control of
the individual, then the criminal cannot be viewed as responsible but rather as irresponsible."
The positivist aspect was not to punish criminals but to rehabilitate them. The necessary steps
to be taken would be to identity the causes of crime committed by an individual, then address
these causes. "Thus, it was the job of the expert to both identify these factors and then designed
ways of treating them".
"Positivism was founded on the belief, that there were other factors either innate to the
individual or to be found in the immediate environment which could be identified, and which
would help determine the criminal from the non-criminal". Burke acknowledged how The
Italian Positivist School denied the concept of free will and the approach of equality that was
expressed by the classism approach. Positivists replaced this with the assumption of
determinism. Today, people consider Lombroso's work to have been condensed and somewhat
laughable. However, Lombroso and other key figures made some significant contributions to
the development of modern criminological theory. 'It should be remembered that these ideas
led to rather more liberal interpretations of punishment". Burke recognizes that Lombroso
demonstrated the significance of examining clinical and historical records. Most importantly,
he recognized the need for multi-factor explanations of crime that includes not only hereditary
but also social, cultural and economic factors*. Biological/ individual positivism has
significantly impacted the criminal justice system today. The theories and concepts previously
developed have contributed to the ending of cruel, inhumane treatment of criminals and to the
reformation of the death penalty. As Walklate says that these criminals may be different and
abnormal, but they were subjected to forces outside of their control. Therefore, imprisonment
might be a more appropriate punishment than execution*. The Positivist School of thought
made it possible to get the criminals the help they need to be rehabilitated.
This essay has been concerned with introducing the basic features of biological/ individual
positivism in criminology, and the importance of the historical development of biological
positivism. It has outlined the new ideas and practices it has introduced into today's society.
According to biological positivism, criminals are different to non-criminals. Criminals are
somehow impaired and are missing something that non-criminals have. This impairment was
manifested in biological and psychological factors. Therefore, individuals did not choose to
commit a crime, but factors beyond their control had driven them to commit a crime. Unlike
the classicism approach, positivism believed that it should not only be about punishment.
Positivism aimed to reform, rehabilitate or cure. The punishment should fit the criminal, not
the crime.
Biological/Individual Positivism was developed as a theoretical approach to criminology in the
late 18th and early 19th centuries and was established by key figures Cesare Lombroso, Enrico
Ferri, and Raffaele Garofalo. These criminological positivists were the first to concern
themselves with discovering and eliminating the causes of crime and criminality. To discover
and eliminate the causes of crime and criminality, positivists engaged the methods of scientific,
rather than philosophical analysis. The main argument of biological/ individual positivism is
that crime occurs because the offender has not been sufficiently or effectively socialized, or
educated of society's values. Core principles of positivism include, the doctrine of determinism,
focus on the actor not the act, and treatment not punishment. Other core concepts of individual
positivism include rejecting metaphysical or risky approaches and adopting scientific methods.
The innovation of biological/individual positivism introduced a collection of new ideas and
practices that have contributed significantly to the growth of criminology.
Biological Positivism represents the earliest manifestation of Individual Positivism and is
associated with the Italian School of Positivist Criminology inspired by the work of Cesare
Lombroso. Lombroso was famous in the 19th century because he claimed to have discovered
the causes of crime. Lombroso's theory suggested that "criminals are distinguished from non-
criminals by the manifestation of physical anomalies that represented atavistic or degenerative
origin". Atavism means the hereditary transmission from earlier generations and ancestors.
Atavism was a term Lombroso used to describe individuals who were not fully developed.
Lombroso believed that the criminal was almost a separate species demonstrating a variety of
mental and physical characteristics separating them from the rest of society. "Specifically, he
claimed that criminals have abnormal dimensions of the skull and jaw". Lombroso's theoretical
approach was to believe that becoming a criminal was somehow to be explained through
identifying specific characteristics of individuals. On the basis of Lombroso's arguments, he
constructed and classified criminals in four main categories. Firstly, born criminals who can be
distinguished by their physical atavistic characteristics. Secondly, insane criminals who are
labeled as idiots, imbeciles, and alcoholics. Thirdly, occasional criminals are those who were
pulled into crime by their environment or situation. Finally, criminals by passion are those
motivated to commit crimes by love, anger, honor or other emotional factors.
Lombroso argued that criminology should focus primarily on the scientific study of criminals
and criminal behavior. At the end of the 19th century, it was suggested that criminality is
inherited in the same way as physical characteristics. The attempt to locate proof of genetic
transmission for criminality was focused on three areas - family studies, twin studies, and
adoption studies. Goring conducted a study with 3000 prisoners that had a history of long and
frequent sentences, and a control group of non-criminals. According to the results, the
"prisoners were inferior to the control group in terms of physical size and mental ability, while
strong associations between the criminality of children and their parents and between brothers
were found*. Osborn and West also discovered that around 40% of the sons of criminal fathers
were criminals themselves, compared to a figure of 13% for sons of non-criminal fathers. The
twin study method was been widely used in seeking to determine the influence of hereditary
in, for example, intelligence, and also in disturbances such as alcoholism, depression, and
schizophrenia. Lange examined a group of 30 men, consisting of 13 identical twins and 17
fraternal twins who all had a prison record. Lange found that in 77% of the identical twin cases,
the other brother also had a record. This percentage relationship is referred to as a criminal
concordance, meaning both members of a pair have a particular attribute. According to the
findings from previous studies, identical twins generally showed a much higher degree of
criminal concordance than fraternal twins. However, the criminal concordance was found to be
higher for both categories where more serious offenses had been committed, for example,
murder.
An alternative strategy to the use of twins is to study adopted children. "The assumption in
such work is that if adopted children resemble biological rather than adoptive parents in some
important respects, then this is potentially evidence of a genetic influence*. Research by
Hutchings and Mednick found evidence that adoptees with criminal records had a higher
proportion of biological mothers and fathers with criminal records than adoptees with no
criminal records. Researchers concluded that there was an inherited characteristic element that
was transmitted from the criminal parents to their children that increased the likelihood of the
children developing criminal behavior. Compared to the classicism approach, positivism
argued that criminals did not willingly choose to commit a crime, but instead were determined
into crime by factors beyond the criminal's control. Therefore, behavior is determined within
individuals. Positivists called this the doctrine of determinism. As the approach of positivism
grew over time, the biological and heredity concepts were reduced, and psychological and
environmental factors grew more attention. 'Focus on the actor, not the act is another core
concept of positivism, as its beliefs were to focus on the criminal rather than the crime. Bradley
and Walters also acknowledged that "if the crime is the result of factors beyond the control of
the individual, then the criminal cannot be viewed as responsible but rather as irresponsible."
The positivist aspect was not to punish criminals but to rehabilitate them. The necessary steps
to be taken would be to identity the causes of crime committed by an individual, then address
these causes. "Thus, it was the job of the expert to both identify these factors and then designed
ways of treating them".
"Positivism was founded on the belief, that there were other factors either innate to the
individual or to be found in the immediate environment which could be identified, and which
would help determine the criminal from the non-criminal". Burke acknowledged how The
Italian Positivist School denied the concept of free will and the approach of equality that was
expressed by the classism approach. Positivists replaced this with the assumption of
determinism. Today, people consider Lombroso's work to have been condensed and somewhat
laughable. However, Lombroso and other key figures made some significant contributions to
the development of modern criminological theory. 'It should be remembered that these ideas
led to rather more liberal interpretations of punishment". Burke recognizes that Lombroso
demonstrated the significance of examining clinical and historical records. Most importantly,
he recognized the need for multi-factor explanations of crime that includes not only hereditary
but also social, cultural and economic factors*. Biological/ individual positivism has
significantly impacted the criminal justice system today. The theories and concepts previously
developed have contributed to the ending of cruel, inhumane treatment of criminals and to the
reformation of the death penalty. As Walklate says that these criminals may be different and
abnormal, but they were subjected to forces outside of their control. Therefore, imprisonment
might be a more appropriate punishment than execution*. The Positivist School of thought
made it possible to get the criminals the help they need to be rehabilitated.
This essay has been concerned with introducing the basic features of biological/ individual
positivism in criminology, and the importance of the historical development of biological
positivism. It has outlined the new ideas and practices it has introduced into today's society.
According to biological positivism, criminals are different to non-criminals. Criminals are
somehow impaired and are missing something that non-criminals have. This impairment was
manifested in biological and psychological factors. Therefore, individuals did not choose to
commit a crime, but factors beyond their control had driven them to commit a crime. Unlike
the classicism approach, positivism believed that it should not only be about punishment.
Positivism aimed to reform, rehabilitate or cure. The punishment should fit the criminal, not
the crime.
Biological/Individual Positivism was developed as a theoretical approach to criminology in the
late 18th and early 19th centuries and was established by key figures Cesare Lombroso, Enrico
Ferri, and Raffaele Garofalo. These criminological positivists were the first to concern
themselves with discovering and eliminating the causes of crime and criminality. To discover
and eliminate the causes of crime and criminality, positivists engaged the methods of scientific,
rather than philosophical analysis. The main argument of biological/ individual positivism is
that crime occurs because the offender has not been sufficiently or effectively socialized, or
educated of society's values. Core principles of positivism include, the doctrine of determinism,
focus on the actor not the act, and treatment not punishment. Other core concepts of individual
positivism include rejecting metaphysical or risky approaches and adopting scientific methods.
The innovation of biological/individual positivism introduced a collection of new ideas and
practices that have contributed significantly to the growth of criminology.
Biological Positivism represents the earliest manifestation of Individual Positivism and is
associated with the Italian School of Positivist Criminology inspired by the work of Cesare
Lombroso. Lombroso was famous in the 19th century because he claimed to have discovered
the causes of crime. Lombroso's theory suggested that "criminals are distinguished from non-
criminals by the manifestation of physical anomalies that represented atavistic or degenerative
origin". Atavism means the hereditary transmission from earlier generations and ancestors.
Atavism was a term Lombroso used to describe individuals who were not fully developed.
Lombroso believed that the criminal was almost a separate species demonstrating a variety of
mental and physical characteristics separating them from the rest of society. "Specifically, he
claimed that criminals have abnormal dimensions of the skull and jaw". Lombroso's theoretical
approach was to believe that becoming a criminal was somehow to be explained through
identifying specific characteristics of individuals. On the basis of Lombroso's arguments, he
constructed and classified criminals in four main categories. Firstly, born criminals who can be
distinguished by their physical atavistic characteristics. Secondly, insane criminals who are
labeled as idiots, imbeciles, and alcoholics. Thirdly, occasional criminals are those who were
pulled into crime by their environment or situation. Finally, criminals by passion are those
motivated to commit crimes by love, anger, honor or other emotional factors.
Lombroso argued that criminology should focus primarily on the scientific study of criminals
and criminal behavior. At the end of the 19th century, it was suggested that criminality is
inherited in the same way as physical characteristics. The attempt to locate proof of genetic
transmission for criminality was focused on three areas - family studies, twin studies, and
adoption studies. Goring conducted a study with 3000 prisoners that had a history of long and
frequent sentences, and a control group of non-criminals. According to the results, the
"prisoners were inferior to the control group in terms of physical size and mental ability, while
strong associations between the criminality of children and their parents and between brothers
were found*. Osborn and West also discovered that around 40% of the sons of criminal fathers
were criminals themselves, compared to a figure of 13% for sons of non-criminal fathers. The
twin study method was been widely used in seeking to determine the influence of hereditary
in, for example, intelligence, and also in disturbances such as alcoholism, depression, and
schizophrenia. Lange examined a group of 30 men, consisting of 13 identical twins and 17
fraternal twins who all had a prison record. Lange found that in 77% of the identical twin cases,
the other brother also had a record. This percentage relationship is referred to as a criminal
concordance, meaning both members of a pair have a particular attribute. According to the
findings from previous studies, identical twins generally showed a much higher degree of
criminal concordance than fraternal twins. However, the criminal concordance was found to be
higher for both categories where more serious offenses had been committed, for example,
murder.
An alternative strategy to the use of twins is to study adopted children. "The assumption in
such work is that if adopted children resemble biological rather than adoptive parents in some
important respects, then this is potentially evidence of a genetic influence*. Research by
Hutchings and Mednick found evidence that adoptees with criminal records had a higher
proportion of biological mothers and fathers with criminal records than adoptees with no
criminal records. Researchers concluded that there was an inherited characteristic element that
was transmitted from the criminal parents to their children that increased the likelihood of the
children developing criminal behavior. Compared to the classicism approach, positivism
argued that criminals did not willingly choose to commit a crime, but instead were determined
into crime by factors beyond the criminal's control. Therefore, behavior is determined within
individuals. Positivists called this the doctrine of determinism. As the approach of positivism
grew over time, the biological and heredity concepts were reduced, and psychological and
environmental factors grew more attention. 'Focus on the actor, not the act is another core
concept of positivism, as its beliefs were to focus on the criminal rather than the crime. Bradley
and Walters also acknowledged that "if the crime is the result of factors beyond the control of
the individual, then the criminal cannot be viewed as responsible but rather as irresponsible."
The positivist aspect was not to punish criminals but to rehabilitate them. The necessary steps
to be taken would be to identity the causes of crime committed by an individual, then address
these causes. "Thus, it was the job of the expert to both identify these factors and then designed
ways of treating them".
"Positivism was founded on the belief, that there were other factors either innate to the
individual or to be found in the immediate environment which could be identified, and which
would help determine the criminal from the non-criminal". Burke acknowledged how The
Italian Positivist School denied the concept of free will and the approach of equality that was
expressed by the classism approach. Positivists replaced this with the assumption of
determinism. Today, people consider Lombroso's work to have been condensed and somewhat
laughable. However, Lombroso and other key figures made some significant contributions to
the development of modern criminological theory. 'It should be remembered that these ideas
led to rather more liberal interpretations of punishment". Burke recognizes that Lombroso
demonstrated the significance of examining clinical and historical records. Most importantly,
he recognized the need for multi-factor explanations of crime that includes not only hereditary
but also social, cultural and economic factors*. Biological/ individual positivism has
significantly impacted the criminal justice system today. The theories and concepts previously
developed have contributed to the ending of cruel, inhumane treatment of criminals and to the
reformation of the death penalty. As Walklate says that these criminals may be different and
abnormal, but they were subjected to forces outside of their control. Therefore, imprisonment
might be a more appropriate punishment than execution*. The Positivist School of thought
made it possible to get the criminals the help they need to be rehabilitated.
This essay has been concerned with introducing the basic features of biological/ individual
positivism in criminology, and the importance of the historical development of biological
positivism. It has outlined the new ideas and practices it has introduced into today's society.
According to biological positivism, criminals are different to non-criminals. Criminals are
somehow impaired and are missing something that non-criminals have. This impairment was
manifested in biological and psychological factors. Therefore, individuals did not choose to
commit a crime, but factors beyond their control had driven them to commit a crime. Unlike
the classicism approach, positivism believed that it should not only be about punishment.
Positivism aimed to reform, rehabilitate or cure. The punishment should fit the criminal, not
the crime.
Biological/Individual Positivism was developed as a theoretical approach to criminology in the
late 18th and early 19th centuries and was established by key figures Cesare Lombroso, Enrico
Ferri, and Raffaele Garofalo. These criminological positivists were the first to concern
themselves with discovering and eliminating the causes of crime and criminality. To discover
and eliminate the causes of crime and criminality, positivists engaged the methods of scientific,
rather than philosophical analysis. The main argument of biological/ individual positivism is
that crime occurs because the offender has not been sufficiently or effectively socialized, or
educated of society's values. Core principles of positivism include, the doctrine of determinism,
focus on the actor not the act, and treatment not punishment. Other core concepts of individual
positivism include rejecting metaphysical or risky approaches and adopting scientific methods.
The innovation of biological/individual positivism introduced a collection of new ideas and
practices that have contributed significantly to the growth of criminology.
Biological Positivism represents the earliest manifestation of Individual Positivism and is
associated with the Italian School of Positivist Criminology inspired by the work of Cesare
Lombroso. Lombroso was famous in the 19th century because he claimed to have discovered
the causes of crime. Lombroso's theory suggested that "criminals are distinguished from non-
criminals by the manifestation of physical anomalies that represented atavistic or degenerative
origin". Atavism means the hereditary transmission from earlier generations and ancestors.
Atavism was a term Lombroso used to describe individuals who were not fully developed.
Lombroso believed that the criminal was almost a separate species demonstrating a variety of
mental and physical characteristics separating them from the rest of society. "Specifically, he
claimed that criminals have abnormal dimensions of the skull and jaw". Lombroso's theoretical
approach was to believe that becoming a criminal was somehow to be explained through
identifying specific characteristics of individuals. On the basis of Lombroso's arguments, he
constructed and classified criminals in four main categories. Firstly, born criminals who can be
distinguished by their physical atavistic characteristics. Secondly, insane criminals who are
labeled as idiots, imbeciles, and alcoholics. Thirdly, occasional criminals are those who were
pulled into crime by their environment or situation. Finally, criminals by passion are those
motivated to commit crimes by love, anger, honor or other emotional factors.
Lombroso argued that criminology should focus primarily on the scientific study of criminals
and criminal behavior. At the end of the 19th century, it was suggested that criminality is
inherited in the same way as physical characteristics. The attempt to locate proof of genetic
transmission for criminality was focused on three areas - family studies, twin studies, and
adoption studies. Goring conducted a study with 3000 prisoners that had a history of long and
frequent sentences, and a control group of non-criminals. According to the results, the
"prisoners were inferior to the control group in terms of physical size and mental ability, while
strong associations between the criminality of children and their parents and between brothers
were found*. Osborn and West also discovered that around 40% of the sons of criminal fathers
were criminals themselves, compared to a figure of 13% for sons of non-criminal fathers. The
twin study method was been widely used in seeking to determine the influence of hereditary
in, for example, intelligence, and also in disturbances such as alcoholism, depression, and
schizophrenia. Lange examined a group of 30 men, consisting of 13 identical twins and 17
fraternal twins who all had a prison record. Lange found that in 77% of the identical twin cases,
the other brother also had a record. This percentage relationship is referred to as a criminal
concordance, meaning both members of a pair have a particular attribute. According to the
findings from previous studies, identical twins generally showed a much higher degree of
criminal concordance than fraternal twins. However, the criminal concordance was found to be
higher for both categories where more serious offenses had been committed, for example,
murder.
An alternative strategy to the use of twins is to study adopted children. "The assumption in
such work is that if adopted children resemble biological rather than adoptive parents in some
important respects, then this is potentially evidence of a genetic influence*. Research by
Hutchings and Mednick found evidence that adoptees with criminal records had a higher
proportion of biological mothers and fathers with criminal records than adoptees with no
criminal records. Researchers concluded that there was an inherited characteristic element that
was transmitted from the criminal parents to their children that increased the likelihood of the
children developing criminal behavior. Compared to the classicism approach, positivism
argued that criminals did not willingly choose to commit a crime, but instead were determined
into crime by factors beyond the criminal's control. Therefore, behavior is determined within
individuals. Positivists called this the doctrine of determinism. As the approach of positivism
grew over time, the biological and heredity concepts were reduced, and psychological and
environmental factors grew more attention. 'Focus on the actor, not the act is another core
concept of positivism, as its beliefs were to focus on the criminal rather than the crime. Bradley
and Walters also acknowledged that "if the crime is the result of factors beyond the control of
the individual, then the criminal cannot be viewed as responsible but rather as irresponsible."
The positivist aspect was not to punish criminals but to rehabilitate them. The necessary steps
to be taken would be to identity the causes of crime committed by an individual, then address
these causes. "Thus, it was the job of the expert to both identify these factors and then designed
ways of treating them".
"Positivism was founded on the belief, that there were other factors either innate to the
individual or to be found in the immediate environment which could be identified, and which
would help determine the criminal from the non-criminal". Burke acknowledged how The
Italian Positivist School denied the concept of free will and the approach of equality that was
expressed by the classism approach. Positivists replaced this with the assumption of
determinism. Today, people consider Lombroso's work to have been condensed and somewhat
laughable. However, Lombroso and other key figures made some significant contributions to
the development of modern criminological theory. 'It should be remembered that these ideas
led to rather more liberal interpretations of punishment". Burke recognizes that Lombroso
demonstrated the significance of examining clinical and historical records. Most importantly,
he recognized the need for multi-factor explanations of crime that includes not only hereditary
but also social, cultural and economic factors*. Biological/ individual positivism has
significantly impacted the criminal justice system today. The theories and concepts previously
developed have contributed to the ending of cruel, inhumane treatment of criminals and to the
reformation of the death penalty. As Walklate says that these criminals may be different and
abnormal, but they were subjected to forces outside of their control. Therefore, imprisonment
might be a more appropriate punishment than execution*. The Positivist School of thought
made it possible to get the criminals the help they need to be rehabilitated.
This essay has been concerned with introducing the basic features of biological/ individual
positivism in criminology, and the importance of the historical development of biological
positivism. It has outlined the new ideas and practices it has introduced into today's society.
According to biological positivism, criminals are different to non-criminals. Criminals are
somehow impaired and are missing something that non-criminals have. This impairment was
manifested in biological and psychological factors. Therefore, individuals did not choose to
commit a crime, but factors beyond their control had driven them to commit a crime. Unlike
the classicism approach, positivism believed that it should not only be about punishment.
Positivism aimed to reform, rehabilitate or cure. The punishment should fit the criminal, not
the crime.
Biological/Individual Positivism was developed as a theoretical approach to criminology in the
late 18th and early 19th centuries and was established by key figures Cesare Lombroso, Enrico
Ferri, and Raffaele Garofalo. These criminological positivists were the first to concern
themselves with discovering and eliminating the causes of crime and criminality. To discover
and eliminate the causes of crime and criminality, positivists engaged the methods of scientific,
rather than philosophical analysis. The main argument of biological/ individual positivism is
that crime occurs because the offender has not been sufficiently or effectively socialized, or
educated of society's values. Core principles of positivism include, the doctrine of determinism,
focus on the actor not the act, and treatment not punishment. Other core concepts of individual
positivism include rejecting metaphysical or risky approaches and adopting scientific methods.
The innovation of biological/individual positivism introduced a collection of new ideas and
practices that have contributed significantly to the growth of criminology.
Biological Positivism represents the earliest manifestation of Individual Positivism and is
associated with the Italian School of Positivist Criminology inspired by the work of Cesare
Lombroso. Lombroso was famous in the 19th century because he claimed to have discovered
the causes of crime. Lombroso's theory suggested that "criminals are distinguished from non-
criminals by the manifestation of physical anomalies that represented atavistic or degenerative
origin". Atavism means the hereditary transmission from earlier generations and ancestors.
Atavism was a term Lombroso used to describe individuals who were not fully developed.
Lombroso believed that the criminal was almost a separate species demonstrating a variety of
mental and physical characteristics separating them from the rest of society. "Specifically, he
claimed that criminals have abnormal dimensions of the skull and jaw". Lombroso's theoretical
approach was to believe that becoming a criminal was somehow to be explained through
identifying specific characteristics of individuals. On the basis of Lombroso's arguments, he
constructed and classified criminals in four main categories. Firstly, born criminals who can be
distinguished by their physical atavistic characteristics. Secondly, insane criminals who are
labeled as idiots, imbeciles, and alcoholics. Thirdly, occasional criminals are those who were
pulled into crime by their environment or situation. Finally, criminals by passion are those
motivated to commit crimes by love, anger, honor or other emotional factors.
Lombroso argued that criminology should focus primarily on the scientific study of criminals
and criminal behavior. At the end of the 19th century, it was suggested that criminality is
inherited in the same way as physical characteristics. The attempt to locate proof of genetic
transmission for criminality was focused on three areas - family studies, twin studies, and
adoption studies. Goring conducted a study with 3000 prisoners that had a history of long and
frequent sentences, and a control group of non-criminals. According to the results, the
"prisoners were inferior to the control group in terms of physical size and mental ability, while
strong associations between the criminality of children and their parents and between brothers
were found*. Osborn and West also discovered that around 40% of the sons of criminal fathers
were criminals themselves, compared to a figure of 13% for sons of non-criminal fathers. The
twin study method was been widely used in seeking to determine the influence of hereditary
in, for example, intelligence, and also in disturbances such as alcoholism, depression, and
schizophrenia. Lange examined a group of 30 men, consisting of 13 identical twins and 17
fraternal twins who all had a prison record. Lange found that in 77% of the identical twin cases,
the other brother also had a record. This percentage relationship is referred to as a criminal
concordance, meaning both members of a pair have a particular attribute. According to the
findings from previous studies, identical twins generally showed a much higher degree of
criminal concordance than fraternal twins. However, the criminal concordance was found to be
higher for both categories where more serious offenses had been committed, for example,
murder.
An alternative strategy to the use of twins is to study adopted children. "The assumption in
such work is that if adopted children resemble biological rather than adoptive parents in some
important respects, then this is potentially evidence of a genetic influence*. Research by
Hutchings and Mednick found evidence that adoptees with criminal records had a higher
proportion of biological mothers and fathers with criminal records than adoptees with no
criminal records. Researchers concluded that there was an inherited characteristic element that
was transmitted from the criminal parents to their children that increased the likelihood of the
children developing criminal behavior. Compared to the classicism approach, positivism
argued that criminals did not willingly choose to commit a crime, but instead were determined
into crime by factors beyond the criminal's control. Therefore, behavior is determined within
individuals. Positivists called this the doctrine of determinism. As the approach of positivism
grew over time, the biological and heredity concepts were reduced, and psychological and
environmental factors grew more attention. 'Focus on the actor, not the act is another core
concept of positivism, as its beliefs were to focus on the criminal rather than the crime. Bradley
and Walters also acknowledged that "if the crime is the result of factors beyond the control of
the individual, then the criminal cannot be viewed as responsible but rather as irresponsible."
The positivist aspect was not to punish criminals but to rehabilitate them. The necessary steps
to be taken would be to identity the causes of crime committed by an individual, then address
these causes. "Thus, it was the job of the expert to both identify these factors and then designed
ways of treating them".
"Positivism was founded on the belief, that there were other factors either innate to the
individual or to be found in the immediate environment which could be identified, and which
would help determine the criminal from the non-criminal". Burke acknowledged how The
Italian Positivist School denied the concept of free will and the approach of equality that was
expressed by the classism approach. Positivists replaced this with the assumption of
determinism. Today, people consider Lombroso's work to have been condensed and somewhat
laughable. However, Lombroso and other key figures made some significant contributions to
the development of modern criminological theory. 'It should be remembered that these ideas
led to rather more liberal interpretations of punishment". Burke recognizes that Lombroso
demonstrated the significance of examining clinical and historical records. Most importantly,
he recognized the need for multi-factor explanations of crime that includes not only hereditary
but also social, cultural and economic factors*. Biological/ individual positivism has
significantly impacted the criminal justice system today. The theories and concepts previously
developed have contributed to the ending of cruel, inhumane treatment of criminals and to the
reformation of the death penalty. As Walklate says that these criminals may be different and
abnormal, but they were subjected to forces outside of their control. Therefore, imprisonment
might be a more appropriate punishment than execution*. The Positivist School of thought
made it possible to get the criminals the help they need to be rehabilitated.
This essay has been concerned with introducing the basic features of biological/ individual
positivism in criminology, and the importance of the historical development of biological
positivism. It has outlined the new ideas and practices it has introduced into today's society.
According to biological positivism, criminals are different to non-criminals. Criminals are
somehow impaired and are missing something that non-criminals have. This impairment was
manifested in biological and psychological factors. Therefore, individuals did not choose to
commit a crime, but factors beyond their control had driven them to commit a crime. Unlike
the classicism approach, positivism believed that it should not only be about punishment.
Positivism aimed to reform, rehabilitate or cure. The punishment should fit the criminal, not
the crime.
Biological/Individual Positivism was developed as a theoretical approach to criminology in the
late 18th and early 19th centuries and was established by key figures Cesare Lombroso, Enrico
Ferri, and Raffaele Garofalo. These criminological positivists were the first to concern
themselves with discovering and eliminating the causes of crime and criminality. To discover
and eliminate the causes of crime and criminality, positivists engaged the methods of scientific,
rather than philosophical analysis. The main argument of biological/ individual positivism is
that crime occurs because the offender has not been sufficiently or effectively socialized, or
educated of society's values. Core principles of positivism include, the doctrine of determinism,
focus on the actor not the act, and treatment not punishment. Other core concepts of individual
positivism include rejecting metaphysical or risky approaches and adopting scientific methods.
The innovation of biological/individual positivism introduced a collection of new ideas and
practices that have contributed significantly to the growth of criminology.
Biological Positivism represents the earliest manifestation of Individual Positivism and is
associated with the Italian School of Positivist Criminology inspired by the work of Cesare
Lombroso. Lombroso was famous in the 19th century because he claimed to have discovered
the causes of crime. Lombroso's theory suggested that "criminals are distinguished from non-
criminals by the manifestation of physical anomalies that represented atavistic or degenerative
origin". Atavism means the hereditary transmission from earlier generations and ancestors.
Atavism was a term Lombroso used to describe individuals who were not fully developed.
Lombroso believed that the criminal was almost a separate species demonstrating a variety of
mental and physical characteristics separating them from the rest of society. "Specifically, he
claimed that criminals have abnormal dimensions of the skull and jaw". Lombroso's theoretical
approach was to believe that becoming a criminal was somehow to be explained through
identifying specific characteristics of individuals. On the basis of Lombroso's arguments, he
constructed and classified criminals in four main categories. Firstly, born criminals who can be
distinguished by their physical atavistic characteristics. Secondly, insane criminals who are
labeled as idiots, imbeciles, and alcoholics. Thirdly, occasional criminals are those who were
pulled into crime by their environment or situation. Finally, criminals by passion are those
motivated to commit crimes by love, anger, honor or other emotional factors.
Lombroso argued that criminology should focus primarily on the scientific study of criminals
and criminal behavior. At the end of the 19th century, it was suggested that criminality is
inherited in the same way as physical characteristics. The attempt to locate proof of genetic
transmission for criminality was focused on three areas - family studies, twin studies, and
adoption studies. Goring conducted a study with 3000 prisoners that had a history of long and
frequent sentences, and a control group of non-criminals. According to the results, the
"prisoners were inferior to the control group in terms of physical size and mental ability, while
strong associations between the criminality of children and their parents and between brothers
were found*. Osborn and West also discovered that around 40% of the sons of criminal fathers
were criminals themselves, compared to a figure of 13% for sons of non-criminal fathers. The
twin study method was been widely used in seeking to determine the influence of hereditary
in, for example, intelligence, and also in disturbances such as alcoholism, depression, and
schizophrenia. Lange examined a group of 30 men, consisting of 13 identical twins and 17
fraternal twins who all had a prison record. Lange found that in 77% of the identical twin cases,
the other brother also had a record. This percentage relationship is referred to as a criminal
concordance, meaning both members of a pair have a particular attribute. According to the
findings from previous studies, identical twins generally showed a much higher degree of
criminal concordance than fraternal twins. However, the criminal concordance was found to be
higher for both categories where more serious offenses had been committed, for example,
murder.
An alternative strategy to the use of twins is to study adopted children. "The assumption in
such work is that if adopted children resemble biological rather than adoptive parents in some
important respects, then this is potentially evidence of a genetic influence*. Research by
Hutchings and Mednick found evidence that adoptees with criminal records had a higher
proportion of biological mothers and fathers with criminal records than adoptees with no
criminal records. Researchers concluded that there was an inherited characteristic element that
was transmitted from the criminal parents to their children that increased the likelihood of the
children developing criminal behavior. Compared to the classicism approach, positivism
argued that criminals did not willingly choose to commit a crime, but instead were determined
into crime by factors beyond the criminal's control. Therefore, behavior is determined within
individuals. Positivists called this the doctrine of determinism. As the approach of positivism
grew over time, the biological and heredity concepts were reduced, and psychological and
environmental factors grew more attention. 'Focus on the actor, not the act is another core
concept of positivism, as its beliefs were to focus on the criminal rather than the crime. Bradley
and Walters also acknowledged that "if the crime is the result of factors beyond the control of
the individual, then the criminal cannot be viewed as responsible but rather as irresponsible."
The positivist aspect was not to punish criminals but to rehabilitate them. The necessary steps
to be taken would be to identity the causes of crime committed by an individual, then address
these causes. "Thus, it was the job of the expert to both identify these factors and then designed
ways of treating them".
"Positivism was founded on the belief, that there were other factors either innate to the
individual or to be found in the immediate environment which could be identified, and which
would help determine the criminal from the non-criminal". Burke acknowledged how The
Italian Positivist School denied the concept of free will and the approach of equality that was
expressed by the classism approach. Positivists replaced this with the assumption of
determinism. Today, people consider Lombroso's work to have been condensed and somewhat
laughable. However, Lombroso and other key figures made some significant contributions to
the development of modern criminological theory. 'It should be remembered that these ideas
led to rather more liberal interpretations of punishment". Burke recognizes that Lombroso
demonstrated the significance of examining clinical and historical records. Most importantly,
he recognized the need for multi-factor explanations of crime that includes not only hereditary
but also social, cultural and economic factors*. Biological/ individual positivism has
significantly impacted the criminal justice system today. The theories and concepts previously
developed have contributed to the ending of cruel, inhumane treatment of criminals and to the
reformation of the death penalty. As Walklate says that these criminals may be different and
abnormal, but they were subjected to forces outside of their control. Therefore, imprisonment
might be a more appropriate punishment than execution*. The Positivist School of thought
made it possible to get the criminals the help they need to be rehabilitated.
This essay has been concerned with introducing the basic features of biological/ individual
positivism in criminology, and the importance of the historical development of biological
positivism. It has outlined the new ideas and practices it has introduced into today's society.
According to biological positivism, criminals are different to non-criminals. Criminals are
somehow impaired and are missing something that non-criminals have. This impairment was
manifested in biological and psychological factors. Therefore, individuals did not choose to
commit a crime, but factors beyond their control had driven them to commit a crime. Unlike
the classicism approach, positivism believed that it should not only be about punishment.
Positivism aimed to reform, rehabilitate or cure. The punishment should fit the criminal, not
the crime.
Biological/Individual Positivism was developed as a theoretical approach to criminology in the
late 18th and early 19th centuries and was established by key figures Cesare Lombroso, Enrico
Ferri, and Raffaele Garofalo. These criminological positivists were the first to concern
themselves with discovering and eliminating the causes of crime and criminality. To discover
and eliminate the causes of crime and criminality, positivists engaged the methods of scientific,
rather than philosophical analysis. The main argument of biological/ individual positivism is
that crime occurs because the offender has not been sufficiently or effectively socialized, or
educated of society's values. Core principles of positivism include, the doctrine of determinism,
focus on the actor not the act, and treatment not punishment. Other core concepts of individual
positivism include rejecting metaphysical or risky approaches and adopting scientific methods.
The innovation of biological/individual positivism introduced a collection of new ideas and
practices that have contributed significantly to the growth of criminology.
Biological Positivism represents the earliest manifestation of Individual Positivism and is
associated with the Italian School of Positivist Criminology inspired by the work of Cesare
Lombroso. Lombroso was famous in the 19th century because he claimed to have discovered
the causes of crime. Lombroso's theory suggested that "criminals are distinguished from non-
criminals by the manifestation of physical anomalies that represented atavistic or degenerative
origin". Atavism means the hereditary transmission from earlier generations and ancestors.
Atavism was a term Lombroso used to describe individuals who were not fully developed.
Lombroso believed that the criminal was almost a separate species demonstrating a variety of
mental and physical characteristics separating them from the rest of society. "Specifically, he
claimed that criminals have abnormal dimensions of the skull and jaw". Lombroso's theoretical
approach was to believe that becoming a criminal was somehow to be explained through
identifying specific characteristics of individuals. On the basis of Lombroso's arguments, he
constructed and classified criminals in four main categories. Firstly, born criminals who can be
distinguished by their physical atavistic characteristics. Secondly, insane criminals who are
labeled as idiots, imbeciles, and alcoholics. Thirdly, occasional criminals are those who were
pulled into crime by their environment or situation. Finally, criminals by passion are those
motivated to commit crimes by love, anger, honor or other emotional factors.
Lombroso argued that criminology should focus primarily on the scientific study of criminals
and criminal behavior. At the end of the 19th century, it was suggested that criminality is
inherited in the same way as physical characteristics. The attempt to locate proof of genetic
transmission for criminality was focused on three areas - family studies, twin studies, and
adoption studies. Goring conducted a study with 3000 prisoners that had a history of long and
frequent sentences, and a control group of non-criminals. According to the results, the
"prisoners were inferior to the control group in terms of physical size and mental ability, while
strong associations between the criminality of children and their parents and between brothers
were found*. Osborn and West also discovered that around 40% of the sons of criminal fathers
were criminals themselves, compared to a figure of 13% for sons of non-criminal fathers. The
twin study method was been widely used in seeking to determine the influence of hereditary
in, for example, intelligence, and also in disturbances such as alcoholism, depression, and
schizophrenia. Lange examined a group of 30 men, consisting of 13 identical twins and 17
fraternal twins who all had a prison record. Lange found that in 77% of the identical twin cases,
the other brother also had a record. This percentage relationship is referred to as a criminal
concordance, meaning both members of a pair have a particular attribute. According to the
findings from previous studies, identical twins generally showed a much higher degree of
criminal concordance than fraternal twins. However, the criminal concordance was found to be
higher for both categories where more serious offenses had been committed, for example,
murder.
An alternative strategy to the use of twins is to study adopted children. "The assumption in
such work is that if adopted children resemble biological rather than adoptive parents in some
important respects, then this is potentially evidence of a genetic influence*. Research by
Hutchings and Mednick found evidence that adoptees with criminal records had a higher
proportion of biological mothers and fathers with criminal records than adoptees with no
criminal records. Researchers concluded that there was an inherited characteristic element that
was transmitted from the criminal parents to their children that increased the likelihood of the
children developing criminal behavior. Compared to the classicism approach, positivism
argued that criminals did not willingly choose to commit a crime, but instead were determined
into crime by factors beyond the criminal's control. Therefore, behavior is determined within
individuals. Positivists called this the doctrine of determinism. As the approach of positivism
grew over time, the biological and heredity concepts were reduced, and psychological and
environmental factors grew more attention. 'Focus on the actor, not the act is another core
concept of positivism, as its beliefs were to focus on the criminal rather than the crime. Bradley
and Walters also acknowledged that "if the crime is the result of factors beyond the control of
the individual, then the criminal cannot be viewed as responsible but rather as irresponsible."
The positivist aspect was not to punish criminals but to rehabilitate them. The necessary steps
to be taken would be to identity the causes of crime committed by an individual, then address
these causes. "Thus, it was the job of the expert to both identify these factors and then designed
ways of treating them".
"Positivism was founded on the belief, that there were other factors either innate to the
individual or to be found in the immediate environment which could be identified, and which
would help determine the criminal from the non-criminal". Burke acknowledged how The
Italian Positivist School denied the concept of free will and the approach of equality that was
expressed by the classism approach. Positivists replaced this with the assumption of
determinism. Today, people consider Lombroso's work to have been condensed and somewhat
laughable. However, Lombroso and other key figures made some significant contributions to
the development of modern criminological theory. 'It should be remembered that these ideas
led to rather more liberal interpretations of punishment". Burke recognizes that Lombroso
demonstrated the significance of examining clinical and historical records. Most importantly,
he recognized the need for multi-factor explanations of crime that includes not only hereditary
but also social, cultural and economic factors*. Biological/ individual positivism has
significantly impacted the criminal justice system today. The theories and concepts previously
developed have contributed to the ending of cruel, inhumane treatment of criminals and to the
reformation of the death penalty. As Walklate says that these criminals may be different and
abnormal, but they were subjected to forces outside of their control. Therefore, imprisonment
might be a more appropriate punishment than execution*. The Positivist School of thought
made it possible to get the criminals the help they need to be rehabilitated.
This essay has been concerned with introducing the basic features of biological/ individual
positivism in criminology, and the importance of the historical development of biological
positivism. It has outlined the new ideas and practices it has introduced into today's society.
According to biological positivism, criminals are different to non-criminals. Criminals are
somehow impaired and are missing something that non-criminals have. This impairment was
manifested in biological and psychological factors. Therefore, individuals did not choose to
commit a crime, but factors beyond their control had driven them to commit a crime. Unlike
the classicism approach, positivism believed that it should not only be about punishment.
Positivism aimed to reform, rehabilitate or cure. The punishment should fit the criminal, not
the crime.
Biological/Individual Positivism was developed as a theoretical approach to criminology in the
late 18th and early 19th centuries and was established by key figures Cesare Lombroso, Enrico
Ferri, and Raffaele Garofalo. These criminological positivists were the first to concern
themselves with discovering and eliminating the causes of crime and criminality. To discover
and eliminate the causes of crime and criminality, positivists engaged the methods of scientific,
rather than philosophical analysis. The main argument of biological/ individual positivism is
that crime occurs because the offender has not been sufficiently or effectively socialized, or
educated of society's values. Core principles of positivism include, the doctrine of determinism,
focus on the actor not the act, and treatment not punishment. Other core concepts of individual
positivism include rejecting metaphysical or risky approaches and adopting scientific methods.
The innovation of biological/individual positivism introduced a collection of new ideas and
practices that have contributed significantly to the growth of criminology.
Biological Positivism represents the earliest manifestation of Individual Positivism and is
associated with the Italian School of Positivist Criminology inspired by the work of Cesare
Lombroso. Lombroso was famous in the 19th century because he claimed to have discovered
the causes of crime. Lombroso's theory suggested that "criminals are distinguished from non-
criminals by the manifestation of physical anomalies that represented atavistic or degenerative
origin". Atavism means the hereditary transmission from earlier generations and ancestors.
Atavism was a term Lombroso used to describe individuals who were not fully developed.
Lombroso believed that the criminal was almost a separate species demonstrating a variety of
mental and physical characteristics separating them from the rest of society. "Specifically, he
claimed that criminals have abnormal dimensions of the skull and jaw". Lombroso's theoretical
approach was to believe that becoming a criminal was somehow to be explained through
identifying specific characteristics of individuals. On the basis of Lombroso's arguments, he
constructed and classified criminals in four main categories. Firstly, born criminals who can be
distinguished by their physical atavistic characteristics. Secondly, insane criminals who are
labeled as idiots, imbeciles, and alcoholics. Thirdly, occasional criminals are those who were
pulled into crime by their environment or situation. Finally, criminals by passion are those
motivated to commit crimes by love, anger, honor or other emotional factors.
Lombroso argued that criminology should focus primarily on the scientific study of criminals
and criminal behavior. At the end of the 19th century, it was suggested that criminality is
inherited in the same way as physical characteristics. The attempt to locate proof of genetic
transmission for criminality was focused on three areas - family studies, twin studies, and
adoption studies. Goring conducted a study with 3000 prisoners that had a history of long and
frequent sentences, and a control group of non-criminals. According to the results, the
"prisoners were inferior to the control group in terms of physical size and mental ability, while
strong associations between the criminality of children and their parents and between brothers
were found*. Osborn and West also discovered that around 40% of the sons of criminal fathers
were criminals themselves, compared to a figure of 13% for sons of non-criminal fathers. The
twin study method was been widely used in seeking to determine the influence of hereditary
in, for example, intelligence, and also in disturbances such as alcoholism, depression, and
schizophrenia. Lange examined a group of 30 men, consisting of 13 identical twins and 17
fraternal twins who all had a prison record. Lange found that in 77% of the identical twin cases,
the other brother also had a record. This percentage relationship is referred to as a criminal
concordance, meaning both members of a pair have a particular attribute. According to the
findings from previous studies, identical twins generally showed a much higher degree of
criminal concordance than fraternal twins. However, the criminal concordance was found to be
higher for both categories where more serious offenses had been committed, for example,
murder.
An alternative strategy to the use of twins is to study adopted children. "The assumption in
such work is that if adopted children resemble biological rather than adoptive parents in some
important respects, then this is potentially evidence of a genetic influence*. Research by
Hutchings and Mednick found evidence that adoptees with criminal records had a higher
proportion of biological mothers and fathers with criminal records than adoptees with no
criminal records. Researchers concluded that there was an inherited characteristic element that
was transmitted from the criminal parents to their children that increased the likelihood of the
children developing criminal behavior. Compared to the classicism approach, positivism
argued that criminals did not willingly choose to commit a crime, but instead were determined
into crime by factors beyond the criminal's control. Therefore, behavior is determined within
individuals. Positivists called this the doctrine of determinism. As the approach of positivism
grew over time, the biological and heredity concepts were reduced, and psychological and
environmental factors grew more attention. 'Focus on the actor, not the act is another core
concept of positivism, as its beliefs were to focus on the criminal rather than the crime. Bradley
and Walters also acknowledged that "if the crime is the result of factors beyond the control of
the individual, then the criminal cannot be viewed as responsible but rather as irresponsible."
The positivist aspect was not to punish criminals but to rehabilitate them. The necessary steps
to be taken would be to identity the causes of crime committed by an individual, then address
these causes. "Thus, it was the job of the expert to both identify these factors and then designed
ways of treating them".
"Positivism was founded on the belief, that there were other factors either innate to the
individual or to be found in the immediate environment which could be identified, and which
would help determine the criminal from the non-criminal". Burke acknowledged how The
Italian Positivist School denied the concept of free will and the approach of equality that was
expressed by the classism approach. Positivists replaced this with the assumption of
determinism. Today, people consider Lombroso's work to have been condensed and somewhat
laughable. However, Lombroso and other key figures made some significant contributions to
the development of modern criminological theory. 'It should be remembered that these ideas
led to rather more liberal interpretations of punishment". Burke recognizes that Lombroso
demonstrated the significance of examining clinical and historical records. Most importantly,
he recognized the need for multi-factor explanations of crime that includes not only hereditary
but also social, cultural and economic factors*. Biological/ individual positivism has
significantly impacted the criminal justice system today. The theories and concepts previously
developed have contributed to the ending of cruel, inhumane treatment of criminals and to the
reformation of the death penalty. As Walklate says that these criminals may be different and
abnormal, but they were subjected to forces outside of their control. Therefore, imprisonment
might be a more appropriate punishment than execution*. The Positivist School of thought
made it possible to get the criminals the help they need to be rehabilitated.
This essay has been concerned with introducing the basic features of biological/ individual
positivism in criminology, and the importance of the historical development of biological
positivism. It has outlined the new ideas and practices it has introduced into today's society.
According to biological positivism, criminals are different to non-criminals. Criminals are
somehow impaired and are missing something that non-criminals have. This impairment was
manifested in biological and psychological factors. Therefore, individuals did not choose to
commit a crime, but factors beyond their control had driven them to commit a crime. Unlike
the classicism approach, positivism believed that it should not only be about punishment.
Positivism aimed to reform, rehabilitate or cure. The punishment should fit the criminal, not
the crime.
Biological/Individual Positivism was developed as a theoretical approach to criminology in the
late 18th and early 19th centuries and was established by key figures Cesare Lombroso, Enrico
Ferri, and Raffaele Garofalo. These criminological positivists were the first to concern
themselves with discovering and eliminating the causes of crime and criminality. To discover
and eliminate the causes of crime and criminality, positivists engaged the methods of scientific,
rather than philosophical analysis. The main argument of biological/ individual positivism is
that crime occurs because the offender has not been sufficiently or effectively socialized, or
educated of society's values. Core principles of positivism include, the doctrine of determinism,
focus on the actor not the act, and treatment not punishment. Other core concepts of individual
positivism include rejecting metaphysical or risky approaches and adopting scientific methods.
The innovation of biological/individual positivism introduced a collection of new ideas and
practices that have contributed significantly to the growth of criminology.
Biological Positivism represents the earliest manifestation of Individual Positivism and is
associated with the Italian School of Positivist Criminology inspired by the work of Cesare
Lombroso. Lombroso was famous in the 19th century because he claimed to have discovered
the causes of crime. Lombroso's theory suggested that "criminals are distinguished from non-
criminals by the manifestation of physical anomalies that represented atavistic or degenerative
origin". Atavism means the hereditary transmission from earlier generations and ancestors.
Atavism was a term Lombroso used to describe individuals who were not fully developed.
Lombroso believed that the criminal was almost a separate species demonstrating a variety of
mental and physical characteristics separating them from the rest of society. "Specifically, he
claimed that criminals have abnormal dimensions of the skull and jaw". Lombroso's theoretical
approach was to believe that becoming a criminal was somehow to be explained through
identifying specific characteristics of individuals. On the basis of Lombroso's arguments, he
constructed and classified criminals in four main categories. Firstly, born criminals who can be
distinguished by their physical atavistic characteristics. Secondly, insane criminals who are
labeled as idiots, imbeciles, and alcoholics. Thirdly, occasional criminals are those who were
pulled into crime by their environment or situation. Finally, criminals by passion are those
motivated to commit crimes by love, anger, honor or other emotional factors.
Lombroso argued that criminology should focus primarily on the scientific study of criminals
and criminal behavior. At the end of the 19th century, it was suggested that criminality is
inherited in the same way as physical characteristics. The attempt to locate proof of genetic
transmission for criminality was focused on three areas - family studies, twin studies, and
adoption studies. Goring conducted a study with 3000 prisoners that had a history of long and
frequent sentences, and a control group of non-criminals. According to the results, the
"prisoners were inferior to the control group in terms of physical size and mental ability, while
strong associations between the criminality of children and their parents and between brothers
were found*. Osborn and West also discovered that around 40% of the sons of criminal fathers
were criminals themselves, compared to a figure of 13% for sons of non-criminal fathers. The
twin study method was been widely used in seeking to determine the influence of hereditary
in, for example, intelligence, and also in disturbances such as alcoholism, depression, and
schizophrenia. Lange examined a group of 30 men, consisting of 13 identical twins and 17
fraternal twins who all had a prison record. Lange found that in 77% of the identical twin cases,
the other brother also had a record. This percentage relationship is referred to as a criminal
concordance, meaning both members of a pair have a particular attribute. According to the
findings from previous studies, identical twins generally showed a much higher degree of
criminal concordance than fraternal twins. However, the criminal concordance was found to be
higher for both categories where more serious offenses had been committed, for example,
murder.
An alternative strategy to the use of twins is to study adopted children. "The assumption in
such work is that if adopted children resemble biological rather than adoptive parents in some
important respects, then this is potentially evidence of a genetic influence*. Research by
Hutchings and Mednick found evidence that adoptees with criminal records had a higher
proportion of biological mothers and fathers with criminal records than adoptees with no
criminal records. Researchers concluded that there was an inherited characteristic element that
was transmitted from the criminal parents to their children that increased the likelihood of the
children developing criminal behavior. Compared to the classicism approach, positivism
argued that criminals did not willingly choose to commit a crime, but instead were determined
into crime by factors beyond the criminal's control. Therefore, behavior is determined within
individuals. Positivists called this the doctrine of determinism. As the approach of positivism
grew over time, the biological and heredity concepts were reduced, and psychological and
environmental factors grew more attention. 'Focus on the actor, not the act is another core
concept of positivism, as its beliefs were to focus on the criminal rather than the crime. Bradley
and Walters also acknowledged that "if the crime is the result of factors beyond the control of
the individual, then the criminal cannot be viewed as responsible but rather as irresponsible."
The positivist aspect was not to punish criminals but to rehabilitate them. The necessary steps
to be taken would be to identity the causes of crime committed by an individual, then address
these causes. "Thus, it was the job of the expert to both identify these factors and then designed
ways of treating them".
"Positivism was founded on the belief, that there were other factors either innate to the
individual or to be found in the immediate environment which could be identified, and which
would help determine the criminal from the non-criminal". Burke acknowledged how The
Italian Positivist School denied the concept of free will and the approach of equality that was
expressed by the classism approach. Positivists replaced this with the assumption of
determinism. Today, people consider Lombroso's work to have been condensed and somewhat
laughable. However, Lombroso and other key figures made some significant contributions to
the development of modern criminological theory. 'It should be remembered that these ideas
led to rather more liberal interpretations of punishment". Burke recognizes that Lombroso
demonstrated the significance of examining clinical and historical records. Most importantly,
he recognized the need for multi-factor explanations of crime that includes not only hereditary
but also social, cultural and economic factors*. Biological/ individual positivism has
significantly impacted the criminal justice system today. The theories and concepts previously
developed have contributed to the ending of cruel, inhumane treatment of criminals and to the
reformation of the death penalty. As Walklate says that these criminals may be different and
abnormal, but they were subjected to forces outside of their control. Therefore, imprisonment
might be a more appropriate punishment than execution*. The Positivist School of thought
made it possible to get the criminals the help they need to be rehabilitated.
This essay has been concerned with introducing the basic features of biological/ individual
positivism in criminology, and the importance of the historical development of biological
positivism. It has outlined the new ideas and practices it has introduced into today's society.
According to biological positivism, criminals are different to non-criminals. Criminals are
somehow impaired and are missing something that non-criminals have. This impairment was
manifested in biological and psychological factors. Therefore, individuals did not choose to
commit a crime, but factors beyond their control had driven them to commit a crime. Unlike
the classicism approach, positivism believed that it should not only be about punishment.
Positivism aimed to reform, rehabilitate or cure. The punishment should fit the criminal, not
the crime.
Biological/Individual Positivism was developed as a theoretical approach to criminology in the
late 18th and early 19th centuries and was established by key figures Cesare Lombroso, Enrico
Ferri, and Raffaele Garofalo. These criminological positivists were the first to concern
themselves with discovering and eliminating the causes of crime and criminality. To discover
and eliminate the causes of crime and criminality, positivists engaged the methods of scientific,
rather than philosophical analysis. The main argument of biological/ individual positivism is
that crime occurs because the offender has not been sufficiently or effectively socialized, or
educated of society's values. Core principles of positivism include, the doctrine of determinism,
focus on the actor not the act, and treatment not punishment. Other core concepts of individual
positivism include rejecting metaphysical or risky approaches and adopting scientific methods.
The innovation of biological/individual positivism introduced a collection of new ideas and
practices that have contributed significantly to the growth of criminology.
Biological Positivism represents the earliest manifestation of Individual Positivism and is
associated with the Italian School of Positivist Criminology inspired by the work of Cesare
Lombroso. Lombroso was famous in the 19th century because he claimed to have discovered
the causes of crime. Lombroso's theory suggested that "criminals are distinguished from non-
criminals by the manifestation of physical anomalies that represented atavistic or degenerative
origin". Atavism means the hereditary transmission from earlier generations and ancestors.
Atavism was a term Lombroso used to describe individuals who were not fully developed.
Lombroso believed that the criminal was almost a separate species demonstrating a variety of
mental and physical characteristics separating them from the rest of society. "Specifically, he
claimed that criminals have abnormal dimensions of the skull and jaw". Lombroso's theoretical
approach was to believe that becoming a criminal was somehow to be explained through
identifying specific characteristics of individuals. On the basis of Lombroso's arguments, he
constructed and classified criminals in four main categories. Firstly, born criminals who can be
distinguished by their physical atavistic characteristics. Secondly, insane criminals who are
labeled as idiots, imbeciles, and alcoholics. Thirdly, occasional criminals are those who were
pulled into crime by their environment or situation. Finally, criminals by passion are those
motivated to commit crimes by love, anger, honor or other emotional factors.
Lombroso argued that criminology should focus primarily on the scientific study of criminals
and criminal behavior. At the end of the 19th century, it was suggested that criminality is
inherited in the same way as physical characteristics. The attempt to locate proof of genetic
transmission for criminality was focused on three areas - family studies, twin studies, and
adoption studies. Goring conducted a study with 3000 prisoners that had a history of long and
frequent sentences, and a control group of non-criminals. According to the results, the
"prisoners were inferior to the control group in terms of physical size and mental ability, while
strong associations between the criminality of children and their parents and between brothers
were found*. Osborn and West also discovered that around 40% of the sons of criminal fathers
were criminals themselves, compared to a figure of 13% for sons of non-criminal fathers. The
twin study method was been widely used in seeking to determine the influence of hereditary
in, for example, intelligence, and also in disturbances such as alcoholism, depression, and
schizophrenia. Lange examined a group of 30 men, consisting of 13 identical twins and 17
fraternal twins who all had a prison record. Lange found that in 77% of the identical twin cases,
the other brother also had a record. This percentage relationship is referred to as a criminal
concordance, meaning both members of a pair have a particular attribute. According to the
findings from previous studies, identical twins generally showed a much higher degree of
criminal concordance than fraternal twins. However, the criminal concordance was found to be
higher for both categories where more serious offenses had been committed, for example,
murder.
An alternative strategy to the use of twins is to study adopted children. "The assumption in
such work is that if adopted children resemble biological rather than adoptive parents in some
important respects, then this is potentially evidence of a genetic influence*. Research by
Hutchings and Mednick found evidence that adoptees with criminal records had a higher
proportion of biological mothers and fathers with criminal records than adoptees with no
criminal records. Researchers concluded that there was an inherited characteristic element that
was transmitted from the criminal parents to their children that increased the likelihood of the
children developing criminal behavior. Compared to the classicism approach, positivism
argued that criminals did not willingly choose to commit a crime, but instead were determined
into crime by factors beyond the criminal's control. Therefore, behavior is determined within
individuals. Positivists called this the doctrine of determinism. As the approach of positivism
grew over time, the biological and heredity concepts were reduced, and psychological and
environmental factors grew more attention. 'Focus on the actor, not the act is another core
concept of positivism, as its beliefs were to focus on the criminal rather than the crime. Bradley
and Walters also acknowledged that "if the crime is the result of factors beyond the control of
the individual, then the criminal cannot be viewed as responsible but rather as irresponsible."
The positivist aspect was not to punish criminals but to rehabilitate them. The necessary steps
to be taken would be to identity the causes of crime committed by an individual, then address
these causes. "Thus, it was the job of the expert to both identify these factors and then designed
ways of treating them".
"Positivism was founded on the belief, that there were other factors either innate to the
individual or to be found in the immediate environment which could be identified, and which
would help determine the criminal from the non-criminal". Burke acknowledged how The
Italian Positivist School denied the concept of free will and the approach of equality that was
expressed by the classism approach. Positivists replaced this with the assumption of
determinism. Today, people consider Lombroso's work to have been condensed and somewhat
laughable. However, Lombroso and other key figures made some significant contributions to
the development of modern criminological theory. 'It should be remembered that these ideas
led to rather more liberal interpretations of punishment". Burke recognizes that Lombroso
demonstrated the significance of examining clinical and historical records. Most importantly,
he recognized the need for multi-factor explanations of crime that includes not only hereditary
but also social, cultural and economic factors*. Biological/ individual positivism has
significantly impacted the criminal justice system today. The theories and concepts previously
developed have contributed to the ending of cruel, inhumane treatment of criminals and to the
reformation of the death penalty. As Walklate says that these criminals may be different and
abnormal, but they were subjected to forces outside of their control. Therefore, imprisonment
might be a more appropriate punishment than execution*. The Positivist School of thought
made it possible to get the criminals the help they need to be rehabilitated.
This essay has been concerned with introducing the basic features of biological/ individual
positivism in criminology, and the importance of the historical development of biological
positivism. It has outlined the new ideas and practices it has introduced into today's society.
According to biological positivism, criminals are different to non-criminals. Criminals are
somehow impaired and are missing something that non-criminals have. This impairment was
manifested in biological and psychological factors. Therefore, individuals did not choose to
commit a crime, but factors beyond their control had driven them to commit a crime. Unlike
the classicism approach, positivism believed that it should not only be about punishment.
Positivism aimed to reform, rehabilitate or cure. The punishment should fit the criminal, not
the crime.
Biological/Individual Positivism was developed as a theoretical approach to criminology in the
late 18th and early 19th centuries and was established by key figures Cesare Lombroso, Enrico
Ferri, and Raffaele Garofalo. These criminological positivists were the first to concern
themselves with discovering and eliminating the causes of crime and criminality. To discover
and eliminate the causes of crime and criminality, positivists engaged the methods of scientific,
rather than philosophical analysis. The main argument of biological/ individual positivism is
that crime occurs because the offender has not been sufficiently or effectively socialized, or
educated of society's values. Core principles of positivism include, the doctrine of determinism,
focus on the actor not the act, and treatment not punishment. Other core concepts of individual
positivism include rejecting metaphysical or risky approaches and adopting scientific methods.
The innovation of biological/individual positivism introduced a collection of new ideas and
practices that have contributed significantly to the growth of criminology.
Biological Positivism represents the earliest manifestation of Individual Positivism and is
associated with the Italian School of Positivist Criminology inspired by the work of Cesare
Lombroso. Lombroso was famous in the 19th century because he claimed to have discovered
the causes of crime. Lombroso's theory suggested that "criminals are distinguished from non-
criminals by the manifestation of physical anomalies that represented atavistic or degenerative
origin". Atavism means the hereditary transmission from earlier generations and ancestors.
Atavism was a term Lombroso used to describe individuals who were not fully developed.
Lombroso believed that the criminal was almost a separate species demonstrating a variety of
mental and physical characteristics separating them from the rest of society. "Specifically, he
claimed that criminals have abnormal dimensions of the skull and jaw". Lombroso's theoretical
approach was to believe that becoming a criminal was somehow to be explained through
identifying specific characteristics of individuals. On the basis of Lombroso's arguments, he
constructed and classified criminals in four main categories. Firstly, born criminals who can be
distinguished by their physical atavistic characteristics. Secondly, insane criminals who are
labeled as idiots, imbeciles, and alcoholics. Thirdly, occasional criminals are those who were
pulled into crime by their environment or situation. Finally, criminals by passion are those
motivated to commit crimes by love, anger, honor or other emotional factors.
Lombroso argued that criminology should focus primarily on the scientific study of criminals
and criminal behavior. At the end of the 19th century, it was suggested that criminality is
inherited in the same way as physical characteristics. The attempt to locate proof of genetic
transmission for criminality was focused on three areas - family studies, twin studies, and
adoption studies. Goring conducted a study with 3000 prisoners that had a history of long and
frequent sentences, and a control group of non-criminals. According to the results, the
"prisoners were inferior to the control group in terms of physical size and mental ability, while
strong associations between the criminality of children and their parents and between brothers
were found*. Osborn and West also discovered that around 40% of the sons of criminal fathers
were criminals themselves, compared to a figure of 13% for sons of non-criminal fathers. The
twin study method was been widely used in seeking to determine the influence of hereditary
in, for example, intelligence, and also in disturbances such as alcoholism, depression, and
schizophrenia. Lange examined a group of 30 men, consisting of 13 identical twins and 17
fraternal twins who all had a prison record. Lange found that in 77% of the identical twin cases,
the other brother also had a record. This percentage relationship is referred to as a criminal
concordance, meaning both members of a pair have a particular attribute. According to the
findings from previous studies, identical twins generally showed a much higher degree of
criminal concordance than fraternal twins. However, the criminal concordance was found to be
higher for both categories where more serious offenses had been committed, for example,
murder.
An alternative strategy to the use of twins is to study adopted children. "The assumption in
such work is that if adopted children resemble biological rather than adoptive parents in some
important respects, then this is potentially evidence of a genetic influence*. Research by
Hutchings and Mednick found evidence that adoptees with criminal records had a higher
proportion of biological mothers and fathers with criminal records than adoptees with no
criminal records. Researchers concluded that there was an inherited characteristic element that
was transmitted from the criminal parents to their children that increased the likelihood of the
children developing criminal behavior. Compared to the classicism approach, positivism
argued that criminals did not willingly choose to commit a crime, but instead were determined
into crime by factors beyond the criminal's control. Therefore, behavior is determined within
individuals. Positivists called this the doctrine of determinism. As the approach of positivism
grew over time, the biological and heredity concepts were reduced, and psychological and
environmental factors grew more attention. 'Focus on the actor, not the act is another core
concept of positivism, as its beliefs were to focus on the criminal rather than the crime. Bradley
and Walters also acknowledged that "if the crime is the result of factors beyond the control of
the individual, then the criminal cannot be viewed as responsible but rather as irresponsible."
The positivist aspect was not to punish criminals but to rehabilitate them. The necessary steps
to be taken would be to identity the causes of crime committed by an individual, then address
these causes. "Thus, it was the job of the expert to both identify these factors and then designed
ways of treating them".
"Positivism was founded on the belief, that there were other factors either innate to the
individual or to be found in the immediate environment which could be identified, and which
would help determine the criminal from the non-criminal". Burke acknowledged how The
Italian Positivist School denied the concept of free will and the approach of equality that was
expressed by the classism approach. Positivists replaced this with the assumption of
determinism. Today, people consider Lombroso's work to have been condensed and somewhat
laughable. However, Lombroso and other key figures made some significant contributions to
the development of modern criminological theory. 'It should be remembered that these ideas
led to rather more liberal interpretations of punishment". Burke recognizes that Lombroso
demonstrated the significance of examining clinical and historical records. Most importantly,
he recognized the need for multi-factor explanations of crime that includes not only hereditary
but also social, cultural and economic factors*. Biological/ individual positivism has
significantly impacted the criminal justice system today. The theories and concepts previously
developed have contributed to the ending of cruel, inhumane treatment of criminals and to the
reformation of the death penalty. As Walklate says that these criminals may be different and
abnormal, but they were subjected to forces outside of their control. Therefore, imprisonment
might be a more appropriate punishment than execution*. The Positivist School of thought
made it possible to get the criminals the help they need to be rehabilitated.
This essay has been concerned with introducing the basic features of biological/ individual
positivism in criminology, and the importance of the historical development of biological
positivism. It has outlined the new ideas and practices it has introduced into today's society.
According to biological positivism, criminals are different to non-criminals. Criminals are
somehow impaired and are missing something that non-criminals have. This impairment was
manifested in biological and psychological factors. Therefore, individuals did not choose to
commit a crime, but factors beyond their control had driven them to commit a crime. Unlike
the classicism approach, positivism believed that it should not only be about punishment.
Positivism aimed to reform, rehabilitate or cure. The punishment should fit the criminal, not
the crime.
Biological/Individual Positivism was developed as a theoretical approach to criminology in the
late 18th and early 19th centuries and was established by key figures Cesare Lombroso, Enrico
Ferri, and Raffaele Garofalo. These criminological positivists were the first to concern
themselves with discovering and eliminating the causes of crime and criminality. To discover
and eliminate the causes of crime and criminality, positivists engaged the methods of scientific,
rather than philosophical analysis. The main argument of biological/ individual positivism is
that crime occurs because the offender has not been sufficiently or effectively socialized, or
educated of society's values. Core principles of positivism include, the doctrine of determinism,
focus on the actor not the act, and treatment not punishment. Other core concepts of individual
positivism include rejecting metaphysical or risky approaches and adopting scientific methods.
The innovation of biological/individual positivism introduced a collection of new ideas and
practices that have contributed significantly to the growth of criminology.
Biological Positivism represents the earliest manifestation of Individual Positivism and is
associated with the Italian School of Positivist Criminology inspired by the work of Cesare
Lombroso. Lombroso was famous in the 19th century because he claimed to have discovered
the causes of crime. Lombroso's theory suggested that "criminals are distinguished from non-
criminals by the manifestation of physical anomalies that represented atavistic or degenerative
origin". Atavism means the hereditary transmission from earlier generations and ancestors.
Atavism was a term Lombroso used to describe individuals who were not fully developed.
Lombroso believed that the criminal was almost a separate species demonstrating a variety of
mental and physical characteristics separating them from the rest of society. "Specifically, he
claimed that criminals have abnormal dimensions of the skull and jaw". Lombroso's theoretical
approach was to believe that becoming a criminal was somehow to be explained through
identifying specific characteristics of individuals. On the basis of Lombroso's arguments, he
constructed and classified criminals in four main categories. Firstly, born criminals who can be
distinguished by their physical atavistic characteristics. Secondly, insane criminals who are
labeled as idiots, imbeciles, and alcoholics. Thirdly, occasional criminals are those who were
pulled into crime by their environment or situation. Finally, criminals by passion are those
motivated to commit crimes by love, anger, honor or other emotional factors.
Lombroso argued that criminology should focus primarily on the scientific study of criminals
and criminal behavior. At the end of the 19th century, it was suggested that criminality is
inherited in the same way as physical characteristics. The attempt to locate proof of genetic
transmission for criminality was focused on three areas - family studies, twin studies, and
adoption studies. Goring conducted a study with 3000 prisoners that had a history of long and
frequent sentences, and a control group of non-criminals. According to the results, the
"prisoners were inferior to the control group in terms of physical size and mental ability, while
strong associations between the criminality of children and their parents and between brothers
were found*. Osborn and West also discovered that around 40% of the sons of criminal fathers
were criminals themselves, compared to a figure of 13% for sons of non-criminal fathers. The
twin study method was been widely used in seeking to determine the influence of hereditary
in, for example, intelligence, and also in disturbances such as alcoholism, depression, and
schizophrenia. Lange examined a group of 30 men, consisting of 13 identical twins and 17
fraternal twins who all had a prison record. Lange found that in 77% of the identical twin cases,
the other brother also had a record. This percentage relationship is referred to as a criminal
concordance, meaning both members of a pair have a particular attribute. According to the
findings from previous studies, identical twins generally showed a much higher degree of
criminal concordance than fraternal twins. However, the criminal concordance was found to be
higher for both categories where more serious offenses had been committed, for example,
murder.
An alternative strategy to the use of twins is to study adopted children. "The assumption in
such work is that if adopted children resemble biological rather than adoptive parents in some
important respects, then this is potentially evidence of a genetic influence*. Research by
Hutchings and Mednick found evidence that adoptees with criminal records had a higher
proportion of biological mothers and fathers with criminal records than adoptees with no
criminal records. Researchers concluded that there was an inherited characteristic element that
was transmitted from the criminal parents to their children that increased the likelihood of the
children developing criminal behavior. Compared to the classicism approach, positivism
argued that criminals did not willingly choose to commit a crime, but instead were determined
into crime by factors beyond the criminal's control. Therefore, behavior is determined within
individuals. Positivists called this the doctrine of determinism. As the approach of positivism
grew over time, the biological and heredity concepts were reduced, and psychological and
environmental factors grew more attention. 'Focus on the actor, not the act is another core
concept of positivism, as its beliefs were to focus on the criminal rather than the crime. Bradley
and Walters also acknowledged that "if the crime is the result of factors beyond the control of
the individual, then the criminal cannot be viewed as responsible but rather as irresponsible."
The positivist aspect was not to punish criminals but to rehabilitate them. The necessary steps
to be taken would be to identity the causes of crime committed by an individual, then address
these causes. "Thus, it was the job of the expert to both identify these factors and then designed
ways of treating them".
"Positivism was founded on the belief, that there were other factors either innate to the
individual or to be found in the immediate environment which could be identified, and which
would help determine the criminal from the non-criminal". Burke acknowledged how The
Italian Positivist School denied the concept of free will and the approach of equality that was
expressed by the classism approach. Positivists replaced this with the assumption of
determinism. Today, people consider Lombroso's work to have been condensed and somewhat
laughable. However, Lombroso and other key figures made some significant contributions to
the development of modern criminological theory. 'It should be remembered that these ideas
led to rather more liberal interpretations of punishment". Burke recognizes that Lombroso
demonstrated the significance of examining clinical and historical records. Most importantly,
he recognized the need for multi-factor explanations of crime that includes not only hereditary
but also social, cultural and economic factors*. Biological/ individual positivism has
significantly impacted the criminal justice system today. The theories and concepts previously
developed have contributed to the ending of cruel, inhumane treatment of criminals and to the
reformation of the death penalty. As Walklate says that these criminals may be different and
abnormal, but they were subjected to forces outside of their control. Therefore, imprisonment
might be a more appropriate punishment than execution*. The Positivist School of thought
made it possible to get the criminals the help they need to be rehabilitated.
This essay has been concerned with introducing the basic features of biological/ individual
positivism in criminology, and the importance of the historical development of biological
positivism. It has outlined the new ideas and practices it has introduced into today's society.
According to biological positivism, criminals are different to non-criminals. Criminals are
somehow impaired and are missing something that non-criminals have. This impairment was
manifested in biological and psychological factors. Therefore, individuals did not choose to
commit a crime, but factors beyond their control had driven them to commit a crime. Unlike
the classicism approach, positivism believed that it should not only be about punishment.
Positivism aimed to reform, rehabilitate or cure. The punishment should fit the criminal, not
the crime.
Biological/Individual Positivism was developed as a theoretical approach to criminology in the
late 18th and early 19th centuries and was established by key figures Cesare Lombroso, Enrico
Ferri, and Raffaele Garofalo. These criminological positivists were the first to concern
themselves with discovering and eliminating the causes of crime and criminality. To discover
and eliminate the causes of crime and criminality, positivists engaged the methods of scientific,
rather than philosophical analysis. The main argument of biological/ individual positivism is
that crime occurs because the offender has not been sufficiently or effectively socialized, or
educated of society's values. Core principles of positivism include, the doctrine of determinism,
focus on the actor not the act, and treatment not punishment. Other core concepts of individual
positivism include rejecting metaphysical or risky approaches and adopting scientific methods.
The innovation of biological/individual positivism introduced a collection of new ideas and
practices that have contributed significantly to the growth of criminology.
Biological Positivism represents the earliest manifestation of Individual Positivism and is
associated with the Italian School of Positivist Criminology inspired by the work of Cesare
Lombroso. Lombroso was famous in the 19th century because he claimed to have discovered
the causes of crime. Lombroso's theory suggested that "criminals are distinguished from non-
criminals by the manifestation of physical anomalies that represented atavistic or degenerative
origin". Atavism means the hereditary transmission from earlier generations and ancestors.
Atavism was a term Lombroso used to describe individuals who were not fully developed.
Lombroso believed that the criminal was almost a separate species demonstrating a variety of
mental and physical characteristics separating them from the rest of society. "Specifically, he
claimed that criminals have abnormal dimensions of the skull and jaw". Lombroso's theoretical
approach was to believe that becoming a criminal was somehow to be explained through
identifying specific characteristics of individuals. On the basis of Lombroso's arguments, he
constructed and classified criminals in four main categories. Firstly, born criminals who can be
distinguished by their physical atavistic characteristics. Secondly, insane criminals who are
labeled as idiots, imbeciles, and alcoholics. Thirdly, occasional criminals are those who were
pulled into crime by their environment or situation. Finally, criminals by passion are those
motivated to commit crimes by love, anger, honor or other emotional factors.
Lombroso argued that criminology should focus primarily on the scientific study of criminals
and criminal behavior. At the end of the 19th century, it was suggested that criminality is
inherited in the same way as physical characteristics. The attempt to locate proof of genetic
transmission for criminality was focused on three areas - family studies, twin studies, and
adoption studies. Goring conducted a study with 3000 prisoners that had a history of long and
frequent sentences, and a control group of non-criminals. According to the results, the
"prisoners were inferior to the control group in terms of physical size and mental ability, while
strong associations between the criminality of children and their parents and between brothers
were found*. Osborn and West also discovered that around 40% of the sons of criminal fathers
were criminals themselves, compared to a figure of 13% for sons of non-criminal fathers. The
twin study method was been widely used in seeking to determine the influence of hereditary
in, for example, intelligence, and also in disturbances such as alcoholism, depression, and
schizophrenia. Lange examined a group of 30 men, consisting of 13 identical twins and 17
fraternal twins who all had a prison record. Lange found that in 77% of the identical twin cases,
the other brother also had a record. This percentage relationship is referred to as a criminal
concordance, meaning both members of a pair have a particular attribute. According to the
findings from previous studies, identical twins generally showed a much higher degree of
criminal concordance than fraternal twins. However, the criminal concordance was found to be
higher for both categories where more serious offenses had been committed, for example,
murder.
An alternative strategy to the use of twins is to study adopted children. "The assumption in
such work is that if adopted children resemble biological rather than adoptive parents in some
important respects, then this is potentially evidence of a genetic influence*. Research by
Hutchings and Mednick found evidence that adoptees with criminal records had a higher
proportion of biological mothers and fathers with criminal records than adoptees with no
criminal records. Researchers concluded that there was an inherited characteristic element that
was transmitted from the criminal parents to their children that increased the likelihood of the
children developing criminal behavior. Compared to the classicism approach, positivism
argued that criminals did not willingly choose to commit a crime, but instead were determined
into crime by factors beyond the criminal's control. Therefore, behavior is determined within
individuals. Positivists called this the doctrine of determinism. As the approach of positivism
grew over time, the biological and heredity concepts were reduced, and psychological and
environmental factors grew more attention. 'Focus on the actor, not the act is another core
concept of positivism, as its beliefs were to focus on the criminal rather than the crime. Bradley
and Walters also acknowledged that "if the crime is the result of factors beyond the control of
the individual, then the criminal cannot be viewed as responsible but rather as irresponsible."
The positivist aspect was not to punish criminals but to rehabilitate them. The necessary steps
to be taken would be to identity the causes of crime committed by an individual, then address
these causes. "Thus, it was the job of the expert to both identify these factors and then designed
ways of treating them".
"Positivism was founded on the belief, that there were other factors either innate to the
individual or to be found in the immediate environment which could be identified, and which
would help determine the criminal from the non-criminal". Burke acknowledged how The
Italian Positivist School denied the concept of free will and the approach of equality that was
expressed by the classism approach. Positivists replaced this with the assumption of
determinism. Today, people consider Lombroso's work to have been condensed and somewhat
laughable. However, Lombroso and other key figures made some significant contributions to
the development of modern criminological theory. 'It should be remembered that these ideas
led to rather more liberal interpretations of punishment". Burke recognizes that Lombroso
demonstrated the significance of examining clinical and historical records. Most importantly,
he recognized the need for multi-factor explanations of crime that includes not only hereditary
but also social, cultural and economic factors*. Biological/ individual positivism has
significantly impacted the criminal justice system today. The theories and concepts previously
developed have contributed to the ending of cruel, inhumane treatment of criminals and to the
reformation of the death penalty. As Walklate says that these criminals may be different and
abnormal, but they were subjected to forces outside of their control. Therefore, imprisonment
might be a more appropriate punishment than execution*. The Positivist School of thought
made it possible to get the criminals the help they need to be rehabilitated.
This essay has been concerned with introducing the basic features of biological/ individual
positivism in criminology, and the importance of the historical development of biological
positivism. It has outlined the new ideas and practices it has introduced into today's society.
According to biological positivism, criminals are different to non-criminals. Criminals are
somehow impaired and are missing something that non-criminals have. This impairment was
manifested in biological and psychological factors. Therefore, individuals did not choose to
commit a crime, but factors beyond their control had driven them to commit a crime. Unlike
the classicism approach, positivism believed that it should not only be about punishment.
Positivism aimed to reform, rehabilitate or cure. The punishment should fit the criminal, not
the crime.
Biological/Individual Positivism was developed as a theoretical approach to criminology in the
late 18th and early 19th centuries and was established by key figures Cesare Lombroso, Enrico
Ferri, and Raffaele Garofalo. These criminological positivists were the first to concern
themselves with discovering and eliminating the causes of crime and criminality. To discover
and eliminate the causes of crime and criminality, positivists engaged the methods of scientific,
rather than philosophical analysis. The main argument of biological/ individual positivism is
that crime occurs because the offender has not been sufficiently or effectively socialized, or
educated of society's values. Core principles of positivism include, the doctrine of determinism,
focus on the actor not the act, and treatment not punishment. Other core concepts of individual
positivism include rejecting metaphysical or risky approaches and adopting scientific methods.
The innovation of biological/individual positivism introduced a collection of new ideas and
practices that have contributed significantly to the growth of criminology.
Biological Positivism represents the earliest manifestation of Individual Positivism and is
associated with the Italian School of Positivist Criminology inspired by the work of Cesare
Lombroso. Lombroso was famous in the 19th century because he claimed to have discovered
the causes of crime. Lombroso's theory suggested that "criminals are distinguished from non-
criminals by the manifestation of physical anomalies that represented atavistic or degenerative
origin". Atavism means the hereditary transmission from earlier generations and ancestors.
Atavism was a term Lombroso used to describe individuals who were not fully developed.
Lombroso believed that the criminal was almost a separate species demonstrating a variety of
mental and physical characteristics separating them from the rest of society. "Specifically, he
claimed that criminals have abnormal dimensions of the skull and jaw". Lombroso's theoretical
approach was to believe that becoming a criminal was somehow to be explained through
identifying specific characteristics of individuals. On the basis of Lombroso's arguments, he
constructed and classified criminals in four main categories. Firstly, born criminals who can be
distinguished by their physical atavistic characteristics. Secondly, insane criminals who are
labeled as idiots, imbeciles, and alcoholics. Thirdly, occasional criminals are those who were
pulled into crime by their environment or situation. Finally, criminals by passion are those
motivated to commit crimes by love, anger, honor or other emotional factors.
Lombroso argued that criminology should focus primarily on the scientific study of criminals
and criminal behavior. At the end of the 19th century, it was suggested that criminality is
inherited in the same way as physical characteristics. The attempt to locate proof of genetic
transmission for criminality was focused on three areas - family studies, twin studies, and
adoption studies. Goring conducted a study with 3000 prisoners that had a history of long and
frequent sentences, and a control group of non-criminals. According to the results, the
"prisoners were inferior to the control group in terms of physical size and mental ability, while
strong associations between the criminality of children and their parents and between brothers
were found*. Osborn and West also discovered that around 40% of the sons of criminal fathers
were criminals themselves, compared to a figure of 13% for sons of non-criminal fathers. The
twin study method was been widely used in seeking to determine the influence of hereditary
in, for example, intelligence, and also in disturbances such as alcoholism, depression, and
schizophrenia. Lange examined a group of 30 men, consisting of 13 identical twins and 17
fraternal twins who all had a prison record. Lange found that in 77% of the identical twin cases,
the other brother also had a record. This percentage relationship is referred to as a criminal
concordance, meaning both members of a pair have a particular attribute. According to the
findings from previous studies, identical twins generally showed a much higher degree of
criminal concordance than fraternal twins. However, the criminal concordance was found to be
higher for both categories where more serious offenses had been committed, for example,
murder.
An alternative strategy to the use of twins is to study adopted children. "The assumption in
such work is that if adopted children resemble biological rather than adoptive parents in some
important respects, then this is potentially evidence of a genetic influence*. Research by
Hutchings and Mednick found evidence that adoptees with criminal records had a higher
proportion of biological mothers and fathers with criminal records than adoptees with no
criminal records. Researchers concluded that there was an inherited characteristic element that
was transmitted from the criminal parents to their children that increased the likelihood of the
children developing criminal behavior. Compared to the classicism approach, positivism
argued that criminals did not willingly choose to commit a crime, but instead were determined
into crime by factors beyond the criminal's control. Therefore, behavior is determined within
individuals. Positivists called this the doctrine of determinism. As the approach of positivism
grew over time, the biological and heredity concepts were reduced, and psychological and
environmental factors grew more attention. 'Focus on the actor, not the act is another core
concept of positivism, as its beliefs were to focus on the criminal rather than the crime. Bradley
and Walters also acknowledged that "if the crime is the result of factors beyond the control of
the individual, then the criminal cannot be viewed as responsible but rather as irresponsible."
The positivist aspect was not to punish criminals but to rehabilitate them. The necessary steps
to be taken would be to identity the causes of crime committed by an individual, then address
these causes. "Thus, it was the job of the expert to both identify these factors and then designed
ways of treating them".
"Positivism was founded on the belief, that there were other factors either innate to the
individual or to be found in the immediate environment which could be identified, and which
would help determine the criminal from the non-criminal". Burke acknowledged how The
Italian Positivist School denied the concept of free will and the approach of equality that was
expressed by the classism approach. Positivists replaced this with the assumption of
determinism. Today, people consider Lombroso's work to have been condensed and somewhat
laughable. However, Lombroso and other key figures made some significant contributions to
the development of modern criminological theory. 'It should be remembered that these ideas
led to rather more liberal interpretations of punishment". Burke recognizes that Lombroso
demonstrated the significance of examining clinical and historical records. Most importantly,
he recognized the need for multi-factor explanations of crime that includes not only hereditary
but also social, cultural and economic factors*. Biological/ individual positivism has
significantly impacted the criminal justice system today. The theories and concepts previously
developed have contributed to the ending of cruel, inhumane treatment of criminals and to the
reformation of the death penalty. As Walklate says that these criminals may be different and
abnormal, but they were subjected to forces outside of their control. Therefore, imprisonment
might be a more appropriate punishment than execution*. The Positivist School of thought
made it possible to get the criminals the help they need to be rehabilitated.
This essay has been concerned with introducing the basic features of biological/ individual
positivism in criminology, and the importance of the historical development of biological
positivism. It has outlined the new ideas and practices it has introduced into today's society.
According to biological positivism, criminals are different to non-criminals. Criminals are
somehow impaired and are missing something that non-criminals have. This impairment was
manifested in biological and psychological factors. Therefore, individuals did not choose to
commit a crime, but factors beyond their control had driven them to commit a crime. Unlike
the classicism approach, positivism believed that it should not only be about punishment.
Positivism aimed to reform, rehabilitate or cure. The punishment should fit the criminal, not
the crime.
Biological/Individual Positivism was developed as a theoretical approach to criminology in the
late 18th and early 19th centuries and was established by key figures Cesare Lombroso, Enrico
Ferri, and Raffaele Garofalo. These criminological positivists were the first to concern
themselves with discovering and eliminating the causes of crime and criminality. To discover
and eliminate the causes of crime and criminality, positivists engaged the methods of scientific,
rather than philosophical analysis. The main argument of biological/ individual positivism is
that crime occurs because the offender has not been sufficiently or effectively socialized, or
educated of society's values. Core principles of positivism include, the doctrine of determinism,
focus on the actor not the act, and treatment not punishment. Other core concepts of individual
positivism include rejecting metaphysical or risky approaches and adopting scientific methods.
The innovation of biological/individual positivism introduced a collection of new ideas and
practices that have contributed significantly to the growth of criminology.
Biological Positivism represents the earliest manifestation of Individual Positivism and is
associated with the Italian School of Positivist Criminology inspired by the work of Cesare
Lombroso. Lombroso was famous in the 19th century because he claimed to have discovered
the causes of crime. Lombroso's theory suggested that "criminals are distinguished from non-
criminals by the manifestation of physical anomalies that represented atavistic or degenerative
origin". Atavism means the hereditary transmission from earlier generations and ancestors.
Atavism was a term Lombroso used to describe individuals who were not fully developed.
Lombroso believed that the criminal was almost a separate species demonstrating a variety of
mental and physical characteristics separating them from the rest of society. "Specifically, he
claimed that criminals have abnormal dimensions of the skull and jaw". Lombroso's theoretical
approach was to believe that becoming a criminal was somehow to be explained through
identifying specific characteristics of individuals. On the basis of Lombroso's arguments, he
constructed and classified criminals in four main categories. Firstly, born criminals who can be
distinguished by their physical atavistic characteristics. Secondly, insane criminals who are
labeled as idiots, imbeciles, and alcoholics. Thirdly, occasional criminals are those who were
pulled into crime by their environment or situation. Finally, criminals by passion are those
motivated to commit crimes by love, anger, honor or other emotional factors.
Lombroso argued that criminology should focus primarily on the scientific study of criminals
and criminal behavior. At the end of the 19th century, it was suggested that criminality is
inherited in the same way as physical characteristics. The attempt to locate proof of genetic
transmission for criminality was focused on three areas - family studies, twin studies, and
adoption studies. Goring conducted a study with 3000 prisoners that had a history of long and
frequent sentences, and a control group of non-criminals. According to the results, the
"prisoners were inferior to the control group in terms of physical size and mental ability, while
strong associations between the criminality of children and their parents and between brothers
were found*. Osborn and West also discovered that around 40% of the sons of criminal fathers
were criminals themselves, compared to a figure of 13% for sons of non-criminal fathers. The
twin study method was been widely used in seeking to determine the influence of hereditary
in, for example, intelligence, and also in disturbances such as alcoholism, depression, and
schizophrenia. Lange examined a group of 30 men, consisting of 13 identical twins and 17
fraternal twins who all had a prison record. Lange found that in 77% of the identical twin cases,
the other brother also had a record. This percentage relationship is referred to as a criminal
concordance, meaning both members of a pair have a particular attribute. According to the
findings from previous studies, identical twins generally showed a much higher degree of
criminal concordance than fraternal twins. However, the criminal concordance was found to be
higher for both categories where more serious offenses had been committed, for example,
murder.
An alternative strategy to the use of twins is to study adopted children. "The assumption in
such work is that if adopted children resemble biological rather than adoptive parents in some
important respects, then this is potentially evidence of a genetic influence*. Research by
Hutchings and Mednick found evidence that adoptees with criminal records had a higher
proportion of biological mothers and fathers with criminal records than adoptees with no
criminal records. Researchers concluded that there was an inherited characteristic element that
was transmitted from the criminal parents to their children that increased the likelihood of the
children developing criminal behavior. Compared to the classicism approach, positivism
argued that criminals did not willingly choose to commit a crime, but instead were determined
into crime by factors beyond the criminal's control. Therefore, behavior is determined within
individuals. Positivists called this the doctrine of determinism. As the approach of positivism
grew over time, the biological and heredity concepts were reduced, and psychological and
environmental factors grew more attention. 'Focus on the actor, not the act is another core
concept of positivism, as its beliefs were to focus on the criminal rather than the crime. Bradley
and Walters also acknowledged that "if the crime is the result of factors beyond the control of
the individual, then the criminal cannot be viewed as responsible but rather as irresponsible."
The positivist aspect was not to punish criminals but to rehabilitate them. The necessary steps
to be taken would be to identity the causes of crime committed by an individual, then address
these causes. "Thus, it was the job of the expert to both identify these factors and then designed
ways of treating them".
"Positivism was founded on the belief, that there were other factors either innate to the
individual or to be found in the immediate environment which could be identified, and which
would help determine the criminal from the non-criminal". Burke acknowledged how The
Italian Positivist School denied the concept of free will and the approach of equality that was
expressed by the classism approach. Positivists replaced this with the assumption of
determinism. Today, people consider Lombroso's work to have been condensed and somewhat
laughable. However, Lombroso and other key figures made some significant contributions to
the development of modern criminological theory. 'It should be remembered that these ideas
led to rather more liberal interpretations of punishment". Burke recognizes that Lombroso
demonstrated the significance of examining clinical and historical records. Most importantly,
he recognized the need for multi-factor explanations of crime that includes not only hereditary
but also social, cultural and economic factors*. Biological/ individual positivism has
significantly impacted the criminal justice system today. The theories and concepts previously
developed have contributed to the ending of cruel, inhumane treatment of criminals and to the
reformation of the death penalty. As Walklate says that these criminals may be different and
abnormal, but they were subjected to forces outside of their control. Therefore, imprisonment
might be a more appropriate punishment than execution*. The Positivist School of thought
made it possible to get the criminals the help they need to be rehabilitated.
This essay has been concerned with introducing the basic features of biological/ individual
positivism in criminology, and the importance of the historical development of biological
positivism. It has outlined the new ideas and practices it has introduced into today's society.
According to biological positivism, criminals are different to non-criminals. Criminals are
somehow impaired and are missing something that non-criminals have. This impairment was
manifested in biological and psychological factors. Therefore, individuals did not choose to
commit a crime, but factors beyond their control had driven them to commit a crime. Unlike
the classicism approach, positivism believed that it should not only be about punishment.
Positivism aimed to reform, rehabilitate or cure. The punishment should fit the criminal, not
the crime.
Biological/Individual Positivism was developed as a theoretical approach to criminology in the
late 18th and early 19th centuries and was established by key figures Cesare Lombroso, Enrico
Ferri, and Raffaele Garofalo. These criminological positivists were the first to concern
themselves with discovering and eliminating the causes of crime and criminality. To discover
and eliminate the causes of crime and criminality, positivists engaged the methods of scientific,
rather than philosophical analysis. The main argument of biological/ individual positivism is
that crime occurs because the offender has not been sufficiently or effectively socialized, or
educated of society's values. Core principles of positivism include, the doctrine of determinism,
focus on the actor not the act, and treatment not punishment. Other core concepts of individual
positivism include rejecting metaphysical or risky approaches and adopting scientific methods.
The innovation of biological/individual positivism introduced a collection of new ideas and
practices that have contributed significantly to the growth of criminology.
Biological Positivism represents the earliest manifestation of Individual Positivism and is
associated with the Italian School of Positivist Criminology inspired by the work of Cesare
Lombroso. Lombroso was famous in the 19th century because he claimed to have discovered
the causes of crime. Lombroso's theory suggested that "criminals are distinguished from non-
criminals by the manifestation of physical anomalies that represented atavistic or degenerative
origin". Atavism means the hereditary transmission from earlier generations and ancestors.
Atavism was a term Lombroso used to describe individuals who were not fully developed.
Lombroso believed that the criminal was almost a separate species demonstrating a variety of
mental and physical characteristics separating them from the rest of society. "Specifically, he
claimed that criminals have abnormal dimensions of the skull and jaw". Lombroso's theoretical
approach was to believe that becoming a criminal was somehow to be explained through
identifying specific characteristics of individuals. On the basis of Lombroso's arguments, he
constructed and classified criminals in four main categories. Firstly, born criminals who can be
distinguished by their physical atavistic characteristics. Secondly, insane criminals who are
labeled as idiots, imbeciles, and alcoholics. Thirdly, occasional criminals are those who were
pulled into crime by their environment or situation. Finally, criminals by passion are those
motivated to commit crimes by love, anger, honor or other emotional factors.
Lombroso argued that criminology should focus primarily on the scientific study of criminals
and criminal behavior. At the end of the 19th century, it was suggested that criminality is
inherited in the same way as physical characteristics. The attempt to locate proof of genetic
transmission for criminality was focused on three areas - family studies, twin studies, and
adoption studies. Goring conducted a study with 3000 prisoners that had a history of long and
frequent sentences, and a control group of non-criminals. According to the results, the
"prisoners were inferior to the control group in terms of physical size and mental ability, while
strong associations between the criminality of children and their parents and between brothers
were found*. Osborn and West also discovered that around 40% of the sons of criminal fathers
were criminals themselves, compared to a figure of 13% for sons of non-criminal fathers. The
twin study method was been widely used in seeking to determine the influence of hereditary
in, for example, intelligence, and also in disturbances such as alcoholism, depression, and
schizophrenia. Lange examined a group of 30 men, consisting of 13 identical twins and 17
fraternal twins who all had a prison record. Lange found that in 77% of the identical twin cases,
the other brother also had a record. This percentage relationship is referred to as a criminal
concordance, meaning both members of a pair have a particular attribute. According to the
findings from previous studies, identical twins generally showed a much higher degree of
criminal concordance than fraternal twins. However, the criminal concordance was found to be
higher for both categories where more serious offenses had been committed, for example,
murder.
An alternative strategy to the use of twins is to study adopted children. "The assumption in
such work is that if adopted children resemble biological rather than adoptive parents in some
important respects, then this is potentially evidence of a genetic influence*. Research by
Hutchings and Mednick found evidence that adoptees with criminal records had a higher
proportion of biological mothers and fathers with criminal records than adoptees with no
criminal records. Researchers concluded that there was an inherited characteristic element that
was transmitted from the criminal parents to their children that increased the likelihood of the
children developing criminal behavior. Compared to the classicism approach, positivism
argued that criminals did not willingly choose to commit a crime, but instead were determined
into crime by factors beyond the criminal's control. Therefore, behavior is determined within
individuals. Positivists called this the doctrine of determinism. As the approach of positivism
grew over time, the biological and heredity concepts were reduced, and psychological and
environmental factors grew more attention. 'Focus on the actor, not the act is another core
concept of positivism, as its beliefs were to focus on the criminal rather than the crime. Bradley
and Walters also acknowledged that "if the crime is the result of factors beyond the control of
the individual, then the criminal cannot be viewed as responsible but rather as irresponsible."
The positivist aspect was not to punish criminals but to rehabilitate them. The necessary steps
to be taken would be to identity the causes of crime committed by an individual, then address
these causes. "Thus, it was the job of the expert to both identify these factors and then designed
ways of treating them".
"Positivism was founded on the belief, that there were other factors either innate to the
individual or to be found in the immediate environment which could be identified, and which
would help determine the criminal from the non-criminal". Burke acknowledged how The
Italian Positivist School denied the concept of free will and the approach of equality that was
expressed by the classism approach. Positivists replaced this with the assumption of
determinism. Today, people consider Lombroso's work to have been condensed and somewhat
laughable. However, Lombroso and other key figures made some significant contributions to
the development of modern criminological theory. 'It should be remembered that these ideas
led to rather more liberal interpretations of punishment". Burke recognizes that Lombroso
demonstrated the significance of examining clinical and historical records. Most importantly,
he recognized the need for multi-factor explanations of crime that includes not only hereditary
but also social, cultural and economic factors*. Biological/ individual positivism has
significantly impacted the criminal justice system today. The theories and concepts previously
developed have contributed to the ending of cruel, inhumane treatment of criminals and to the
reformation of the death penalty. As Walklate says that these criminals may be different and
abnormal, but they were subjected to forces outside of their control. Therefore, imprisonment
might be a more appropriate punishment than execution*. The Positivist School of thought
made it possible to get the criminals the help they need to be rehabilitated.
This essay has been concerned with introducing the basic features of biological/ individual
positivism in criminology, and the importance of the historical development of biological
positivism. It has outlined the new ideas and practices it has introduced into today's society.
According to biological positivism, criminals are different to non-criminals. Criminals are
somehow impaired and are missing something that non-criminals have. This impairment was
manifested in biological and psychological factors. Therefore, individuals did not choose to
commit a crime, but factors beyond their control had driven them to commit a crime. Unlike
the classicism approach, positivism believed that it should not only be about punishment.
Positivism aimed to reform, rehabilitate or cure. The punishment should fit the criminal, not
the crime.
Biological/Individual Positivism was developed as a theoretical approach to criminology in the
late 18th and early 19th centuries and was established by key figures Cesare Lombroso, Enrico
Ferri, and Raffaele Garofalo. These criminological positivists were the first to concern
themselves with discovering and eliminating the causes of crime and criminality. To discover
and eliminate the causes of crime and criminality, positivists engaged the methods of scientific,
rather than philosophical analysis. The main argument of biological/ individual positivism is
that crime occurs because the offender has not been sufficiently or effectively socialized, or
educated of society's values. Core principles of positivism include, the doctrine of determinism,
focus on the actor not the act, and treatment not punishment. Other core concepts of individual
positivism include rejecting metaphysical or risky approaches and adopting scientific methods.
The innovation of biological/individual positivism introduced a collection of new ideas and
practices that have contributed significantly to the growth of criminology.
Biological Positivism represents the earliest manifestation of Individual Positivism and is
associated with the Italian School of Positivist Criminology inspired by the work of Cesare
Lombroso. Lombroso was famous in the 19th century because he claimed to have discovered
the causes of crime. Lombroso's theory suggested that "criminals are distinguished from non-
criminals by the manifestation of physical anomalies that represented atavistic or degenerative
origin". Atavism means the hereditary transmission from earlier generations and ancestors.
Atavism was a term Lombroso used to describe individuals who were not fully developed.
Lombroso believed that the criminal was almost a separate species demonstrating a variety of
mental and physical characteristics separating them from the rest of society. "Specifically, he
claimed that criminals have abnormal dimensions of the skull and jaw". Lombroso's theoretical
approach was to believe that becoming a criminal was somehow to be explained through
identifying specific characteristics of individuals. On the basis of Lombroso's arguments, he
constructed and classified criminals in four main categories. Firstly, born criminals who can be
distinguished by their physical atavistic characteristics. Secondly, insane criminals who are
labeled as idiots, imbeciles, and alcoholics. Thirdly, occasional criminals are those who were
pulled into crime by their environment or situation. Finally, criminals by passion are those
motivated to commit crimes by love, anger, honor or other emotional factors.
Lombroso argued that criminology should focus primarily on the scientific study of criminals
and criminal behavior. At the end of the 19th century, it was suggested that criminality is
inherited in the same way as physical characteristics. The attempt to locate proof of genetic
transmission for criminality was focused on three areas - family studies, twin studies, and
adoption studies. Goring conducted a study with 3000 prisoners that had a history of long and
frequent sentences, and a control group of non-criminals. According to the results, the
"prisoners were inferior to the control group in terms of physical size and mental ability, while
strong associations between the criminality of children and their parents and between brothers
were found*. Osborn and West also discovered that around 40% of the sons of criminal fathers
were criminals themselves, compared to a figure of 13% for sons of non-criminal fathers. The
twin study method was been widely used in seeking to determine the influence of hereditary
in, for example, intelligence, and also in disturbances such as alcoholism, depression, and
schizophrenia. Lange examined a group of 30 men, consisting of 13 identical twins and 17
fraternal twins who all had a prison record. Lange found that in 77% of the identical twin cases,
the other brother also had a record. This percentage relationship is referred to as a criminal
concordance, meaning both members of a pair have a particular attribute. According to the
findings from previous studies, identical twins generally showed a much higher degree of
criminal concordance than fraternal twins. However, the criminal concordance was found to be
higher for both categories where more serious offenses had been committed, for example,
murder.
An alternative strategy to the use of twins is to study adopted children. "The assumption in
such work is that if adopted children resemble biological rather than adoptive parents in some
important respects, then this is potentially evidence of a genetic influence*. Research by
Hutchings and Mednick found evidence that adoptees with criminal records had a higher
proportion of biological mothers and fathers with criminal records than adoptees with no
criminal records. Researchers concluded that there was an inherited characteristic element that
was transmitted from the criminal parents to their children that increased the likelihood of the
children developing criminal behavior. Compared to the classicism approach, positivism
argued that criminals did not willingly choose to commit a crime, but instead were determined
into crime by factors beyond the criminal's control. Therefore, behavior is determined within
individuals. Positivists called this the doctrine of determinism. As the approach of positivism
grew over time, the biological and heredity concepts were reduced, and psychological and
environmental factors grew more attention. 'Focus on the actor, not the act is another core
concept of positivism, as its beliefs were to focus on the criminal rather than the crime. Bradley
and Walters also acknowledged that "if the crime is the result of factors beyond the control of
the individual, then the criminal cannot be viewed as responsible but rather as irresponsible."
The positivist aspect was not to punish criminals but to rehabilitate them. The necessary steps
to be taken would be to identity the causes of crime committed by an individual, then address
these causes. "Thus, it was the job of the expert to both identify these factors and then designed
ways of treating them".
"Positivism was founded on the belief, that there were other factors either innate to the
individual or to be found in the immediate environment which could be identified, and which
would help determine the criminal from the non-criminal". Burke acknowledged how The
Italian Positivist School denied the concept of free will and the approach of equality that was
expressed by the classism approach. Positivists replaced this with the assumption of
determinism. Today, people consider Lombroso's work to have been condensed and somewhat
laughable. However, Lombroso and other key figures made some significant contributions to
the development of modern criminological theory. 'It should be remembered that these ideas
led to rather more liberal interpretations of punishment". Burke recognizes that Lombroso
demonstrated the significance of examining clinical and historical records. Most importantly,
he recognized the need for multi-factor explanations of crime that includes not only hereditary
but also social, cultural and economic factors*. Biological/ individual positivism has
significantly impacted the criminal justice system today. The theories and concepts previously
developed have contributed to the ending of cruel, inhumane treatment of criminals and to the
reformation of the death penalty. As Walklate says that these criminals may be different and
abnormal, but they were subjected to forces outside of their control. Therefore, imprisonment
might be a more appropriate punishment than execution*. The Positivist School of thought
made it possible to get the criminals the help they need to be rehabilitated.
This essay has been concerned with introducing the basic features of biological/ individual
positivism in criminology, and the importance of the historical development of biological
positivism. It has outlined the new ideas and practices it has introduced into today's society.
According to biological positivism, criminals are different to non-criminals. Criminals are
somehow impaired and are missing something that non-criminals have. This impairment was
manifested in biological and psychological factors. Therefore, individuals did not choose to
commit a crime, but factors beyond their control had driven them to commit a crime. Unlike
the classicism approach, positivism believed that it should not only be about punishment.
Positivism aimed to reform, rehabilitate or cure. The punishment should fit the criminal, not
the crime.
Biological/Individual Positivism was developed as a theoretical approach to criminology in the
late 18th and early 19th centuries and was established by key figures Cesare Lombroso, Enrico
Ferri, and Raffaele Garofalo. These criminological positivists were the first to concern
themselves with discovering and eliminating the causes of crime and criminality. To discover
and eliminate the causes of crime and criminality, positivists engaged the methods of scientific,
rather than philosophical analysis. The main argument of biological/ individual positivism is
that crime occurs because the offender has not been sufficiently or effectively socialized, or
educated of society's values. Core principles of positivism include, the doctrine of determinism,
focus on the actor not the act, and treatment not punishment. Other core concepts of individual
positivism include rejecting metaphysical or risky approaches and adopting scientific methods.
The innovation of biological/individual positivism introduced a collection of new ideas and
practices that have contributed significantly to the growth of criminology.
Biological Positivism represents the earliest manifestation of Individual Positivism and is
associated with the Italian School of Positivist Criminology inspired by the work of Cesare
Lombroso. Lombroso was famous in the 19th century because he claimed to have discovered
the causes of crime. Lombroso's theory suggested that "criminals are distinguished from non-
criminals by the manifestation of physical anomalies that represented atavistic or degenerative
origin". Atavism means the hereditary transmission from earlier generations and ancestors.
Atavism was a term Lombroso used to describe individuals who were not fully developed.
Lombroso believed that the criminal was almost a separate species demonstrating a variety of
mental and physical characteristics separating them from the rest of society. "Specifically, he
claimed that criminals have abnormal dimensions of the skull and jaw". Lombroso's theoretical
approach was to believe that becoming a criminal was somehow to be explained through
identifying specific characteristics of individuals. On the basis of Lombroso's arguments, he
constructed and classified criminals in four main categories. Firstly, born criminals who can be
distinguished by their physical atavistic characteristics. Secondly, insane criminals who are
labeled as idiots, imbeciles, and alcoholics. Thirdly, occasional criminals are those who were
pulled into crime by their environment or situation. Finally, criminals by passion are those
motivated to commit crimes by love, anger, honor or other emotional factors.
Lombroso argued that criminology should focus primarily on the scientific study of criminals
and criminal behavior. At the end of the 19th century, it was suggested that criminality is
inherited in the same way as physical characteristics. The attempt to locate proof of genetic
transmission for criminality was focused on three areas - family studies, twin studies, and
adoption studies. Goring conducted a study with 3000 prisoners that had a history of long and
frequent sentences, and a control group of non-criminals. According to the results, the
"prisoners were inferior to the control group in terms of physical size and mental ability, while
strong associations between the criminality of children and their parents and between brothers
were found*. Osborn and West also discovered that around 40% of the sons of criminal fathers
were criminals themselves, compared to a figure of 13% for sons of non-criminal fathers. The
twin study method was been widely used in seeking to determine the influence of hereditary
in, for example, intelligence, and also in disturbances such as alcoholism, depression, and
schizophrenia. Lange examined a group of 30 men, consisting of 13 identical twins and 17
fraternal twins who all had a prison record. Lange found that in 77% of the identical twin cases,
the other brother also had a record. This percentage relationship is referred to as a criminal
concordance, meaning both members of a pair have a particular attribute. According to the
findings from previous studies, identical twins generally showed a much higher degree of
criminal concordance than fraternal twins. However, the criminal concordance was found to be
higher for both categories where more serious offenses had been committed, for example,
murder.
An alternative strategy to the use of twins is to study adopted children. "The assumption in
such work is that if adopted children resemble biological rather than adoptive parents in some
important respects, then this is potentially evidence of a genetic influence*. Research by
Hutchings and Mednick found evidence that adoptees with criminal records had a higher
proportion of biological mothers and fathers with criminal records than adoptees with no
criminal records. Researchers concluded that there was an inherited characteristic element that
was transmitted from the criminal parents to their children that increased the likelihood of the
children developing criminal behavior. Compared to the classicism approach, positivism
argued that criminals did not willingly choose to commit a crime, but instead were determined
into crime by factors beyond the criminal's control. Therefore, behavior is determined within
individuals. Positivists called this the doctrine of determinism. As the approach of positivism
grew over time, the biological and heredity concepts were reduced, and psychological and
environmental factors grew more attention. 'Focus on the actor, not the act is another core
concept of positivism, as its beliefs were to focus on the criminal rather than the crime. Bradley
and Walters also acknowledged that "if the crime is the result of factors beyond the control of
the individual, then the criminal cannot be viewed as responsible but rather as irresponsible."
The positivist aspect was not to punish criminals but to rehabilitate them. The necessary steps
to be taken would be to identity the causes of crime committed by an individual, then address
these causes. "Thus, it was the job of the expert to both identify these factors and then designed
ways of treating them".
"Positivism was founded on the belief, that there were other factors either innate to the
individual or to be found in the immediate environment which could be identified, and which
would help determine the criminal from the non-criminal". Burke acknowledged how The
Italian Positivist School denied the concept of free will and the approach of equality that was
expressed by the classism approach. Positivists replaced this with the assumption of
determinism. Today, people consider Lombroso's work to have been condensed and somewhat
laughable. However, Lombroso and other key figures made some significant contributions to
the development of modern criminological theory. 'It should be remembered that these ideas
led to rather more liberal interpretations of punishment". Burke recognizes that Lombroso
demonstrated the significance of examining clinical and historical records. Most importantly,
he recognized the need for multi-factor explanations of crime that includes not only hereditary
but also social, cultural and economic factors*. Biological/ individual positivism has
significantly impacted the criminal justice system today. The theories and concepts previously
developed have contributed to the ending of cruel, inhumane treatment of criminals and to the
reformation of the death penalty. As Walklate says that these criminals may be different and
abnormal, but they were subjected to forces outside of their control. Therefore, imprisonment
might be a more appropriate punishment than execution*. The Positivist School of thought
made it possible to get the criminals the help they need to be rehabilitated.
This essay has been concerned with introducing the basic features of biological/ individual
positivism in criminology, and the importance of the historical development of biological
positivism. It has outlined the new ideas and practices it has introduced into today's society.
According to biological positivism, criminals are different to non-criminals. Criminals are
somehow impaired and are missing something that non-criminals have. This impairment was
manifested in biological and psychological factors. Therefore, individuals did not choose to
commit a crime, but factors beyond their control had driven them to commit a crime. Unlike
the classicism approach, positivism believed that it should not only be about punishment.
Positivism aimed to reform, rehabilitate or cure. The punishment should fit the criminal, not
the crime.
Biological/Individual Positivism was developed as a theoretical approach to criminology in the
late 18th and early 19th centuries and was established by key figures Cesare Lombroso, Enrico
Ferri, and Raffaele Garofalo. These criminological positivists were the first to concern
themselves with discovering and eliminating the causes of crime and criminality. To discover
and eliminate the causes of crime and criminality, positivists engaged the methods of scientific,
rather than philosophical analysis. The main argument of biological/ individual positivism is
that crime occurs because the offender has not been sufficiently or effectively socialized, or
educated of society's values. Core principles of positivism include, the doctrine of determinism,
focus on the actor not the act, and treatment not punishment. Other core concepts of individual
positivism include rejecting metaphysical or risky approaches and adopting scientific methods.
The innovation of biological/individual positivism introduced a collection of new ideas and
practices that have contributed significantly to the growth of criminology.
Biological Positivism represents the earliest manifestation of Individual Positivism and is
associated with the Italian School of Positivist Criminology inspired by the work of Cesare
Lombroso. Lombroso was famous in the 19th century because he claimed to have discovered
the causes of crime. Lombroso's theory suggested that "criminals are distinguished from non-
criminals by the manifestation of physical anomalies that represented atavistic or degenerative
origin". Atavism means the hereditary transmission from earlier generations and ancestors.
Atavism was a term Lombroso used to describe individuals who were not fully developed.
Lombroso believed that the criminal was almost a separate species demonstrating a variety of
mental and physical characteristics separating them from the rest of society. "Specifically, he
claimed that criminals have abnormal dimensions of the skull and jaw". Lombroso's theoretical
approach was to believe that becoming a criminal was somehow to be explained through
identifying specific characteristics of individuals. On the basis of Lombroso's arguments, he
constructed and classified criminals in four main categories. Firstly, born criminals who can be
distinguished by their physical atavistic characteristics. Secondly, insane criminals who are
labeled as idiots, imbeciles, and alcoholics. Thirdly, occasional criminals are those who were
pulled into crime by their environment or situation. Finally, criminals by passion are those
motivated to commit crimes by love, anger, honor or other emotional factors.
Lombroso argued that criminology should focus primarily on the scientific study of criminals
and criminal behavior. At the end of the 19th century, it was suggested that criminality is
inherited in the same way as physical characteristics. The attempt to locate proof of genetic
transmission for criminality was focused on three areas - family studies, twin studies, and
adoption studies. Goring conducted a study with 3000 prisoners that had a history of long and
frequent sentences, and a control group of non-criminals. According to the results, the
"prisoners were inferior to the control group in terms of physical size and mental ability, while
strong associations between the criminality of children and their parents and between brothers
were found*. Osborn and West also discovered that around 40% of the sons of criminal fathers
were criminals themselves, compared to a figure of 13% for sons of non-criminal fathers. The
twin study method was been widely used in seeking to determine the influence of hereditary
in, for example, intelligence, and also in disturbances such as alcoholism, depression, and
schizophrenia. Lange examined a group of 30 men, consisting of 13 identical twins and 17
fraternal twins who all had a prison record. Lange found that in 77% of the identical twin cases,
the other brother also had a record. This percentage relationship is referred to as a criminal
concordance, meaning both members of a pair have a particular attribute. According to the
findings from previous studies, identical twins generally showed a much higher degree of
criminal concordance than fraternal twins. However, the criminal concordance was found to be
higher for both categories where more serious offenses had been committed, for example,
murder.
An alternative strategy to the use of twins is to study adopted children. "The assumption in
such work is that if adopted children resemble biological rather than adoptive parents in some
important respects, then this is potentially evidence of a genetic influence*. Research by
Hutchings and Mednick found evidence that adoptees with criminal records had a higher
proportion of biological mothers and fathers with criminal records than adoptees with no
criminal records. Researchers concluded that there was an inherited characteristic element that
was transmitted from the criminal parents to their children that increased the likelihood of the
children developing criminal behavior. Compared to the classicism approach, positivism
argued that criminals did not willingly choose to commit a crime, but instead were determined
into crime by factors beyond the criminal's control. Therefore, behavior is determined within
individuals. Positivists called this the doctrine of determinism. As the approach of positivism
grew over time, the biological and heredity concepts were reduced, and psychological and
environmental factors grew more attention. 'Focus on the actor, not the act is another core
concept of positivism, as its beliefs were to focus on the criminal rather than the crime. Bradley
and Walters also acknowledged that "if the crime is the result of factors beyond the control of
the individual, then the criminal cannot be viewed as responsible but rather as irresponsible."
The positivist aspect was not to punish criminals but to rehabilitate them. The necessary steps
to be taken would be to identity the causes of crime committed by an individual, then address
these causes. "Thus, it was the job of the expert to both identify these factors and then designed
ways of treating them".
"Positivism was founded on the belief, that there were other factors either innate to the
individual or to be found in the immediate environment which could be identified, and which
would help determine the criminal from the non-criminal". Burke acknowledged how The
Italian Positivist School denied the concept of free will and the approach of equality that was
expressed by the classism approach. Positivists replaced this with the assumption of
determinism. Today, people consider Lombroso's work to have been condensed and somewhat
laughable. However, Lombroso and other key figures made some significant contributions to
the development of modern criminological theory. 'It should be remembered that these ideas
led to rather more liberal interpretations of punishment". Burke recognizes that Lombroso
demonstrated the significance of examining clinical and historical records. Most importantly,
he recognized the need for multi-factor explanations of crime that includes not only hereditary
but also social, cultural and economic factors*. Biological/ individual positivism has
significantly impacted the criminal justice system today. The theories and concepts previously
developed have contributed to the ending of cruel, inhumane treatment of criminals and to the
reformation of the death penalty. As Walklate says that these criminals may be different and
abnormal, but they were subjected to forces outside of their control. Therefore, imprisonment
might be a more appropriate punishment than execution*. The Positivist School of thought
made it possible to get the criminals the help they need to be rehabilitated.
This essay has been concerned with introducing the basic features of biological/ individual
positivism in criminology, and the importance of the historical development of biological
positivism. It has outlined the new ideas and practices it has introduced into today's society.
According to biological positivism, criminals are different to non-criminals. Criminals are
somehow impaired and are missing something that non-criminals have. This impairment was
manifested in biological and psychological factors. Therefore, individuals did not choose to
commit a crime, but factors beyond their control had driven them to commit a crime. Unlike
the classicism approach, positivism believed that it should not only be about punishment.
Positivism aimed to reform, rehabilitate or cure. The punishment should fit the criminal, not
the crime.
Biological/Individual Positivism was developed as a theoretical approach to criminology in the
late 18th and early 19th centuries and was established by key figures Cesare Lombroso, Enrico
Ferri, and Raffaele Garofalo. These criminological positivists were the first to concern
themselves with discovering and eliminating the causes of crime and criminality. To discover
and eliminate the causes of crime and criminality, positivists engaged the methods of scientific,
rather than philosophical analysis. The main argument of biological/ individual positivism is
that crime occurs because the offender has not been sufficiently or effectively socialized, or
educated of society's values. Core principles of positivism include, the doctrine of determinism,
focus on the actor not the act, and treatment not punishment. Other core concepts of individual
positivism include rejecting metaphysical or risky approaches and adopting scientific methods.
The innovation of biological/individual positivism introduced a collection of new ideas and
practices that have contributed significantly to the growth of criminology.
Biological Positivism represents the earliest manifestation of Individual Positivism and is
associated with the Italian School of Positivist Criminology inspired by the work of Cesare
Lombroso. Lombroso was famous in the 19th century because he claimed to have discovered
the causes of crime. Lombroso's theory suggested that "criminals are distinguished from non-
criminals by the manifestation of physical anomalies that represented atavistic or degenerative
origin". Atavism means the hereditary transmission from earlier generations and ancestors.
Atavism was a term Lombroso used to describe individuals who were not fully developed.
Lombroso believed that the criminal was almost a separate species demonstrating a variety of
mental and physical characteristics separating them from the rest of society. "Specifically, he
claimed that criminals have abnormal dimensions of the skull and jaw". Lombroso's theoretical
approach was to believe that becoming a criminal was somehow to be explained through
identifying specific characteristics of individuals. On the basis of Lombroso's arguments, he
constructed and classified criminals in four main categories. Firstly, born criminals who can be
distinguished by their physical atavistic characteristics. Secondly, insane criminals who are
labeled as idiots, imbeciles, and alcoholics. Thirdly, occasional criminals are those who were
pulled into crime by their environment or situation. Finally, criminals by passion are those
motivated to commit crimes by love, anger, honor or other emotional factors.
Lombroso argued that criminology should focus primarily on the scientific study of criminals
and criminal behavior. At the end of the 19th century, it was suggested that criminality is
inherited in the same way as physical characteristics. The attempt to locate proof of genetic
transmission for criminality was focused on three areas - family studies, twin studies, and
adoption studies. Goring conducted a study with 3000 prisoners that had a history of long and
frequent sentences, and a control group of non-criminals. According to the results, the
"prisoners were inferior to the control group in terms of physical size and mental ability, while
strong associations between the criminality of children and their parents and between brothers
were found*. Osborn and West also discovered that around 40% of the sons of criminal fathers
were criminals themselves, compared to a figure of 13% for sons of non-criminal fathers. The
twin study method was been widely used in seeking to determine the influence of hereditary
in, for example, intelligence, and also in disturbances such as alcoholism, depression, and
schizophrenia. Lange examined a group of 30 men, consisting of 13 identical twins and 17
fraternal twins who all had a prison record. Lange found that in 77% of the identical twin cases,
the other brother also had a record. This percentage relationship is referred to as a criminal
concordance, meaning both members of a pair have a particular attribute. According to the
findings from previous studies, identical twins generally showed a much higher degree of
criminal concordance than fraternal twins. However, the criminal concordance was found to be
higher for both categories where more serious offenses had been committed, for example,
murder.
An alternative strategy to the use of twins is to study adopted children. "The assumption in
such work is that if adopted children resemble biological rather than adoptive parents in some
important respects, then this is potentially evidence of a genetic influence*. Research by
Hutchings and Mednick found evidence that adoptees with criminal records had a higher
proportion of biological mothers and fathers with criminal records than adoptees with no
criminal records. Researchers concluded that there was an inherited characteristic element that
was transmitted from the criminal parents to their children that increased the likelihood of the
children developing criminal behavior. Compared to the classicism approach, positivism
argued that criminals did not willingly choose to commit a crime, but instead were determined
into crime by factors beyond the criminal's control. Therefore, behavior is determined within
individuals. Positivists called this the doctrine of determinism. As the approach of positivism
grew over time, the biological and heredity concepts were reduced, and psychological and
environmental factors grew more attention. 'Focus on the actor, not the act is another core
concept of positivism, as its beliefs were to focus on the criminal rather than the crime. Bradley
and Walters also acknowledged that "if the crime is the result of factors beyond the control of
the individual, then the criminal cannot be viewed as responsible but rather as irresponsible."
The positivist aspect was not to punish criminals but to rehabilitate them. The necessary steps
to be taken would be to identity the causes of crime committed by an individual, then address
these causes. "Thus, it was the job of the expert to both identify these factors and then designed
ways of treating them".
"Positivism was founded on the belief, that there were other factors either innate to the
individual or to be found in the immediate environment which could be identified, and which
would help determine the criminal from the non-criminal". Burke acknowledged how The
Italian Positivist School denied the concept of free will and the approach of equality that was
expressed by the classism approach. Positivists replaced this with the assumption of
determinism. Today, people consider Lombroso's work to have been condensed and somewhat
laughable. However, Lombroso and other key figures made some significant contributions to
the development of modern criminological theory. 'It should be remembered that these ideas
led to rather more liberal interpretations of punishment". Burke recognizes that Lombroso
demonstrated the significance of examining clinical and historical records. Most importantly,
he recognized the need for multi-factor explanations of crime that includes not only hereditary
but also social, cultural and economic factors*. Biological/ individual positivism has
significantly impacted the criminal justice system today. The theories and concepts previously
developed have contributed to the ending of cruel, inhumane treatment of criminals and to the
reformation of the death penalty. As Walklate says that these criminals may be different and
abnormal, but they were subjected to forces outside of their control. Therefore, imprisonment
might be a more appropriate punishment than execution*. The Positivist School of thought
made it possible to get the criminals the help they need to be rehabilitated.
This essay has been concerned with introducing the basic features of biological/ individual
positivism in criminology, and the importance of the historical development of biological
positivism. It has outlined the new ideas and practices it has introduced into today's society.
According to biological positivism, criminals are different to non-criminals. Criminals are
somehow impaired and are missing something that non-criminals have. This impairment was
manifested in biological and psychological factors. Therefore, individuals did not choose to
commit a crime, but factors beyond their control had driven them to commit a crime. Unlike
the classicism approach, positivism believed that it should not only be about punishment.
Positivism aimed to reform, rehabilitate or cure. The punishment should fit the criminal, not
the crime.
Biological/Individual Positivism was developed as a theoretical approach to criminology in the
late 18th and early 19th centuries and was established by key figures Cesare Lombroso, Enrico
Ferri, and Raffaele Garofalo. These criminological positivists were the first to concern
themselves with discovering and eliminating the causes of crime and criminality. To discover
and eliminate the causes of crime and criminality, positivists engaged the methods of scientific,
rather than philosophical analysis. The main argument of biological/ individual positivism is
that crime occurs because the offender has not been sufficiently or effectively socialized, or
educated of society's values. Core principles of positivism include, the doctrine of determinism,
focus on the actor not the act, and treatment not punishment. Other core concepts of individual
positivism include rejecting metaphysical or risky approaches and adopting scientific methods.
The innovation of biological/individual positivism introduced a collection of new ideas and
practices that have contributed significantly to the growth of criminology.
Biological Positivism represents the earliest manifestation of Individual Positivism and is
associated with the Italian School of Positivist Criminology inspired by the work of Cesare
Lombroso. Lombroso was famous in the 19th century because he claimed to have discovered
the causes of crime. Lombroso's theory suggested that "criminals are distinguished from non-
criminals by the manifestation of physical anomalies that represented atavistic or degenerative
origin". Atavism means the hereditary transmission from earlier generations and ancestors.
Atavism was a term Lombroso used to describe individuals who were not fully developed.
Lombroso believed that the criminal was almost a separate species demonstrating a variety of
mental and physical characteristics separating them from the rest of society. "Specifically, he
claimed that criminals have abnormal dimensions of the skull and jaw". Lombroso's theoretical
approach was to believe that becoming a criminal was somehow to be explained through
identifying specific characteristics of individuals. On the basis of Lombroso's arguments, he
constructed and classified criminals in four main categories. Firstly, born criminals who can be
distinguished by their physical atavistic characteristics. Secondly, insane criminals who are
labeled as idiots, imbeciles, and alcoholics. Thirdly, occasional criminals are those who were
pulled into crime by their environment or situation. Finally, criminals by passion are those
motivated to commit crimes by love, anger, honor or other emotional factors.
Lombroso argued that criminology should focus primarily on the scientific study of criminals
and criminal behavior. At the end of the 19th century, it was suggested that criminality is
inherited in the same way as physical characteristics. The attempt to locate proof of genetic
transmission for criminality was focused on three areas - family studies, twin studies, and
adoption studies. Goring conducted a study with 3000 prisoners that had a history of long and
frequent sentences, and a control group of non-criminals. According to the results, the
"prisoners were inferior to the control group in terms of physical size and mental ability, while
strong associations between the criminality of children and their parents and between brothers
were found*. Osborn and West also discovered that around 40% of the sons of criminal fathers
were criminals themselves, compared to a figure of 13% for sons of non-criminal fathers. The
twin study method was been widely used in seeking to determine the influence of hereditary
in, for example, intelligence, and also in disturbances such as alcoholism, depression, and
schizophrenia. Lange examined a group of 30 men, consisting of 13 identical twins and 17
fraternal twins who all had a prison record. Lange found that in 77% of the identical twin cases,
the other brother also had a record. This percentage relationship is referred to as a criminal
concordance, meaning both members of a pair have a particular attribute. According to the
findings from previous studies, identical twins generally showed a much higher degree of
criminal concordance than fraternal twins. However, the criminal concordance was found to be
higher for both categories where more serious offenses had been committed, for example,
murder.
An alternative strategy to the use of twins is to study adopted children. "The assumption in
such work is that if adopted children resemble biological rather than adoptive parents in some
important respects, then this is potentially evidence of a genetic influence*. Research by
Hutchings and Mednick found evidence that adoptees with criminal records had a higher
proportion of biological mothers and fathers with criminal records than adoptees with no
criminal records. Researchers concluded that there was an inherited characteristic element that
was transmitted from the criminal parents to their children that increased the likelihood of the
children developing criminal behavior. Compared to the classicism approach, positivism
argued that criminals did not willingly choose to commit a crime, but instead were determined
into crime by factors beyond the criminal's control. Therefore, behavior is determined within
individuals. Positivists called this the doctrine of determinism. As the approach of positivism
grew over time, the biological and heredity concepts were reduced, and psychological and
environmental factors grew more attention. 'Focus on the actor, not the act is another core
concept of positivism, as its beliefs were to focus on the criminal rather than the crime. Bradley
and Walters also acknowledged that "if the crime is the result of factors beyond the control of
the individual, then the criminal cannot be viewed as responsible but rather as irresponsible."
The positivist aspect was not to punish criminals but to rehabilitate them. The necessary steps
to be taken would be to identity the causes of crime committed by an individual, then address
these causes. "Thus, it was the job of the expert to both identify these factors and then designed
ways of treating them".
"Positivism was founded on the belief, that there were other factors either innate to the
individual or to be found in the immediate environment which could be identified, and which
would help determine the criminal from the non-criminal". Burke acknowledged how The
Italian Positivist School denied the concept of free will and the approach of equality that was
expressed by the classism approach. Positivists replaced this with the assumption of
determinism. Today, people consider Lombroso's work to have been condensed and somewhat
laughable. However, Lombroso and other key figures made some significant contributions to
the development of modern criminological theory. 'It should be remembered that these ideas
led to rather more liberal interpretations of punishment". Burke recognizes that Lombroso
demonstrated the significance of examining clinical and historical records. Most importantly,
he recognized the need for multi-factor explanations of crime that includes not only hereditary
but also social, cultural and economic factors*. Biological/ individual positivism has
significantly impacted the criminal justice system today. The theories and concepts previously
developed have contributed to the ending of cruel, inhumane treatment of criminals and to the
reformation of the death penalty. As Walklate says that these criminals may be different and
abnormal, but they were subjected to forces outside of their control. Therefore, imprisonment
might be a more appropriate punishment than execution*. The Positivist School of thought
made it possible to get the criminals the help they need to be rehabilitated.
This essay has been concerned with introducing the basic features of biological/ individual
positivism in criminology, and the importance of the historical development of biological
positivism. It has outlined the new ideas and practices it has introduced into today's society.
According to biological positivism, criminals are different to non-criminals. Criminals are
somehow impaired and are missing something that non-criminals have. This impairment was
manifested in biological and psychological factors. Therefore, individuals did not choose to
commit a crime, but factors beyond their control had driven them to commit a crime. Unlike
the classicism approach, positivism believed that it should not only be about punishment.
Positivism aimed to reform, rehabilitate or cure. The punishment should fit the criminal, not
the crime.
Biological/Individual Positivism was developed as a theoretical approach to criminology in the
late 18th and early 19th centuries and was established by key figures Cesare Lombroso, Enrico
Ferri, and Raffaele Garofalo. These criminological positivists were the first to concern
themselves with discovering and eliminating the causes of crime and criminality. To discover
and eliminate the causes of crime and criminality, positivists engaged the methods of scientific,
rather than philosophical analysis. The main argument of biological/ individual positivism is
that crime occurs because the offender has not been sufficiently or effectively socialized, or
educated of society's values. Core principles of positivism include, the doctrine of determinism,
focus on the actor not the act, and treatment not punishment. Other core concepts of individual
positivism include rejecting metaphysical or risky approaches and adopting scientific methods.
The innovation of biological/individual positivism introduced a collection of new ideas and
practices that have contributed significantly to the growth of criminology.
Biological Positivism represents the earliest manifestation of Individual Positivism and is
associated with the Italian School of Positivist Criminology inspired by the work of Cesare
Lombroso. Lombroso was famous in the 19th century because he claimed to have discovered
the causes of crime. Lombroso's theory suggested that "criminals are distinguished from non-
criminals by the manifestation of physical anomalies that represented atavistic or degenerative
origin". Atavism means the hereditary transmission from earlier generations and ancestors.
Atavism was a term Lombroso used to describe individuals who were not fully developed.
Lombroso believed that the criminal was almost a separate species demonstrating a variety of
mental and physical characteristics separating them from the rest of society. "Specifically, he
claimed that criminals have abnormal dimensions of the skull and jaw". Lombroso's theoretical
approach was to believe that becoming a criminal was somehow to be explained through
identifying specific characteristics of individuals. On the basis of Lombroso's arguments, he
constructed and classified criminals in four main categories. Firstly, born criminals who can be
distinguished by their physical atavistic characteristics. Secondly, insane criminals who are
labeled as idiots, imbeciles, and alcoholics. Thirdly, occasional criminals are those who were
pulled into crime by their environment or situation. Finally, criminals by passion are those
motivated to commit crimes by love, anger, honor or other emotional factors.
Lombroso argued that criminology should focus primarily on the scientific study of criminals
and criminal behavior. At the end of the 19th century, it was suggested that criminality is
inherited in the same way as physical characteristics. The attempt to locate proof of genetic
transmission for criminality was focused on three areas - family studies, twin studies, and
adoption studies. Goring conducted a study with 3000 prisoners that had a history of long and
frequent sentences, and a control group of non-criminals. According to the results, the
"prisoners were inferior to the control group in terms of physical size and mental ability, while
strong associations between the criminality of children and their parents and between brothers
were found*. Osborn and West also discovered that around 40% of the sons of criminal fathers
were criminals themselves, compared to a figure of 13% for sons of non-criminal fathers. The
twin study method was been widely used in seeking to determine the influence of hereditary
in, for example, intelligence, and also in disturbances such as alcoholism, depression, and
schizophrenia. Lange examined a group of 30 men, consisting of 13 identical twins and 17
fraternal twins who all had a prison record. Lange found that in 77% of the identical twin cases,
the other brother also had a record. This percentage relationship is referred to as a criminal
concordance, meaning both members of a pair have a particular attribute. According to the
findings from previous studies, identical twins generally showed a much higher degree of
criminal concordance than fraternal twins. However, the criminal concordance was found to be
higher for both categories where more serious offenses had been committed, for example,
murder.
An alternative strategy to the use of twins is to study adopted children. "The assumption in
such work is that if adopted children resemble biological rather than adoptive parents in some
important respects, then this is potentially evidence of a genetic influence*. Research by
Hutchings and Mednick found evidence that adoptees with criminal records had a higher
proportion of biological mothers and fathers with criminal records than adoptees with no
criminal records. Researchers concluded that there was an inherited characteristic element that
was transmitted from the criminal parents to their children that increased the likelihood of the
children developing criminal behavior. Compared to the classicism approach, positivism
argued that criminals did not willingly choose to commit a crime, but instead were determined
into crime by factors beyond the criminal's control. Therefore, behavior is determined within
individuals. Positivists called this the doctrine of determinism. As the approach of positivism
grew over time, the biological and heredity concepts were reduced, and psychological and
environmental factors grew more attention. 'Focus on the actor, not the act is another core
concept of positivism, as its beliefs were to focus on the criminal rather than the crime. Bradley
and Walters also acknowledged that "if the crime is the result of factors beyond the control of
the individual, then the criminal cannot be viewed as responsible but rather as irresponsible."
The positivist aspect was not to punish criminals but to rehabilitate them. The necessary steps
to be taken would be to identity the causes of crime committed by an individual, then address
these causes. "Thus, it was the job of the expert to both identify these factors and then designed
ways of treating them".
"Positivism was founded on the belief, that there were other factors either innate to the
individual or to be found in the immediate environment which could be identified, and which
would help determine the criminal from the non-criminal". Burke acknowledged how The
Italian Positivist School denied the concept of free will and the approach of equality that was
expressed by the classism approach. Positivists replaced this with the assumption of
determinism. Today, people consider Lombroso's work to have been condensed and somewhat
laughable. However, Lombroso and other key figures made some significant contributions to
the development of modern criminological theory. 'It should be remembered that these ideas
led to rather more liberal interpretations of punishment". Burke recognizes that Lombroso
demonstrated the significance of examining clinical and historical records. Most importantly,
he recognized the need for multi-factor explanations of crime that includes not only hereditary
but also social, cultural and economic factors*. Biological/ individual positivism has
significantly impacted the criminal justice system today. The theories and concepts previously
developed have contributed to the ending of cruel, inhumane treatment of criminals and to the
reformation of the death penalty. As Walklate says that these criminals may be different and
abnormal, but they were subjected to forces outside of their control. Therefore, imprisonment
might be a more appropriate punishment than execution*. The Positivist School of thought
made it possible to get the criminals the help they need to be rehabilitated.
This essay has been concerned with introducing the basic features of biological/ individual
positivism in criminology, and the importance of the historical development of biological
positivism. It has outlined the new ideas and practices it has introduced into today's society.
According to biological positivism, criminals are different to non-criminals. Criminals are
somehow impaired and are missing something that non-criminals have. This impairment was
manifested in biological and psychological factors. Therefore, individuals did not choose to
commit a crime, but factors beyond their control had driven them to commit a crime. Unlike
the classicism approach, positivism believed that it should not only be about punishment.
Positivism aimed to reform, rehabilitate or cure. The punishment should fit the criminal, not
the crime.
Biological/Individual Positivism was developed as a theoretical approach to criminology in the
late 18th and early 19th centuries and was established by key figures Cesare Lombroso, Enrico
Ferri, and Raffaele Garofalo. These criminological positivists were the first to concern
themselves with discovering and eliminating the causes of crime and criminality. To discover
and eliminate the causes of crime and criminality, positivists engaged the methods of scientific,
rather than philosophical analysis. The main argument of biological/ individual positivism is
that crime occurs because the offender has not been sufficiently or effectively socialized, or
educated of society's values. Core principles of positivism include, the doctrine of determinism,
focus on the actor not the act, and treatment not punishment. Other core concepts of individual
positivism include rejecting metaphysical or risky approaches and adopting scientific methods.
The innovation of biological/individual positivism introduced a collection of new ideas and
practices that have contributed significantly to the growth of criminology.
Biological Positivism represents the earliest manifestation of Individual Positivism and is
associated with the Italian School of Positivist Criminology inspired by the work of Cesare
Lombroso. Lombroso was famous in the 19th century because he claimed to have discovered
the causes of crime. Lombroso's theory suggested that "criminals are distinguished from non-
criminals by the manifestation of physical anomalies that represented atavistic or degenerative
origin". Atavism means the hereditary transmission from earlier generations and ancestors.
Atavism was a term Lombroso used to describe individuals who were not fully developed.
Lombroso believed that the criminal was almost a separate species demonstrating a variety of
mental and physical characteristics separating them from the rest of society. "Specifically, he
claimed that criminals have abnormal dimensions of the skull and jaw". Lombroso's theoretical
approach was to believe that becoming a criminal was somehow to be explained through
identifying specific characteristics of individuals. On the basis of Lombroso's arguments, he
constructed and classified criminals in four main categories. Firstly, born criminals who can be
distinguished by their physical atavistic characteristics. Secondly, insane criminals who are
labeled as idiots, imbeciles, and alcoholics. Thirdly, occasional criminals are those who were
pulled into crime by their environment or situation. Finally, criminals by passion are those
motivated to commit crimes by love, anger, honor or other emotional factors.
Lombroso argued that criminology should focus primarily on the scientific study of criminals
and criminal behavior. At the end of the 19th century, it was suggested that criminality is
inherited in the same way as physical characteristics. The attempt to locate proof of genetic
transmission for criminality was focused on three areas - family studies, twin studies, and
adoption studies. Goring conducted a study with 3000 prisoners that had a history of long and
frequent sentences, and a control group of non-criminals. According to the results, the
"prisoners were inferior to the control group in terms of physical size and mental ability, while
strong associations between the criminality of children and their parents and between brothers
were found*. Osborn and West also discovered that around 40% of the sons of criminal fathers
were criminals themselves, compared to a figure of 13% for sons of non-criminal fathers. The
twin study method was been widely used in seeking to determine the influence of hereditary
in, for example, intelligence, and also in disturbances such as alcoholism, depression, and
schizophrenia. Lange examined a group of 30 men, consisting of 13 identical twins and 17
fraternal twins who all had a prison record. Lange found that in 77% of the identical twin cases,
the other brother also had a record. This percentage relationship is referred to as a criminal
concordance, meaning both members of a pair have a particular attribute. According to the
findings from previous studies, identical twins generally showed a much higher degree of
criminal concordance than fraternal twins. However, the criminal concordance was found to be
higher for both categories where more serious offenses had been committed, for example,
murder.
An alternative strategy to the use of twins is to study adopted children. "The assumption in
such work is that if adopted children resemble biological rather than adoptive parents in some
important respects, then this is potentially evidence of a genetic influence*. Research by
Hutchings and Mednick found evidence that adoptees with criminal records had a higher
proportion of biological mothers and fathers with criminal records than adoptees with no
criminal records. Researchers concluded that there was an inherited characteristic element that
was transmitted from the criminal parents to their children that increased the likelihood of the
children developing criminal behavior. Compared to the classicism approach, positivism
argued that criminals did not willingly choose to commit a crime, but instead were determined
into crime by factors beyond the criminal's control. Therefore, behavior is determined within
individuals. Positivists called this the doctrine of determinism. As the approach of positivism
grew over time, the biological and heredity concepts were reduced, and psychological and
environmental factors grew more attention. 'Focus on the actor, not the act is another core
concept of positivism, as its beliefs were to focus on the criminal rather than the crime. Bradley
and Walters also acknowledged that "if the crime is the result of factors beyond the control of
the individual, then the criminal cannot be viewed as responsible but rather as irresponsible."
The positivist aspect was not to punish criminals but to rehabilitate them. The necessary steps
to be taken would be to identity the causes of crime committed by an individual, then address
these causes. "Thus, it was the job of the expert to both identify these factors and then designed
ways of treating them".
"Positivism was founded on the belief, that there were other factors either innate to the
individual or to be found in the immediate environment which could be identified, and which
would help determine the criminal from the non-criminal". Burke acknowledged how The
Italian Positivist School denied the concept of free will and the approach of equality that was
expressed by the classism approach. Positivists replaced this with the assumption of
determinism. Today, people consider Lombroso's work to have been condensed and somewhat
laughable. However, Lombroso and other key figures made some significant contributions to
the development of modern criminological theory. 'It should be remembered that these ideas
led to rather more liberal interpretations of punishment". Burke recognizes that Lombroso
demonstrated the significance of examining clinical and historical records. Most importantly,
he recognized the need for multi-factor explanations of crime that includes not only hereditary
but also social, cultural and economic factors*. Biological/ individual positivism has
significantly impacted the criminal justice system today. The theories and concepts previously
developed have contributed to the ending of cruel, inhumane treatment of criminals and to the
reformation of the death penalty. As Walklate says that these criminals may be different and
abnormal, but they were subjected to forces outside of their control. Therefore, imprisonment
might be a more appropriate punishment than execution*. The Positivist School of thought
made it possible to get the criminals the help they need to be rehabilitated.
This essay has been concerned with introducing the basic features of biological/ individual
positivism in criminology, and the importance of the historical development of biological
positivism. It has outlined the new ideas and practices it has introduced into today's society.
According to biological positivism, criminals are different to non-criminals. Criminals are
somehow impaired and are missing something that non-criminals have. This impairment was
manifested in biological and psychological factors. Therefore, individuals did not choose to
commit a crime, but factors beyond their control had driven them to commit a crime. Unlike
the classicism approach, positivism believed that it should not only be about punishment.
Positivism aimed to reform, rehabilitate or cure. The punishment should fit the criminal, not
the crime.
Biological/Individual Positivism was developed as a theoretical approach to criminology in the
late 18th and early 19th centuries and was established by key figures Cesare Lombroso, Enrico
Ferri, and Raffaele Garofalo. These criminological positivists were the first to concern
themselves with discovering and eliminating the causes of crime and criminality. To discover
and eliminate the causes of crime and criminality, positivists engaged the methods of scientific,
rather than philosophical analysis. The main argument of biological/ individual positivism is
that crime occurs because the offender has not been sufficiently or effectively socialized, or
educated of society's values. Core principles of positivism include, the doctrine of determinism,
focus on the actor not the act, and treatment not punishment. Other core concepts of individual
positivism include rejecting metaphysical or risky approaches and adopting scientific methods.
The innovation of biological/individual positivism introduced a collection of new ideas and
practices that have contributed significantly to the growth of criminology.
Biological Positivism represents the earliest manifestation of Individual Positivism and is
associated with the Italian School of Positivist Criminology inspired by the work of Cesare
Lombroso. Lombroso was famous in the 19th century because he claimed to have discovered
the causes of crime. Lombroso's theory suggested that "criminals are distinguished from non-
criminals by the manifestation of physical anomalies that represented atavistic or degenerative
origin". Atavism means the hereditary transmission from earlier generations and ancestors.
Atavism was a term Lombroso used to describe individuals who were not fully developed.
Lombroso believed that the criminal was almost a separate species demonstrating a variety of
mental and physical characteristics separating them from the rest of society. "Specifically, he
claimed that criminals have abnormal dimensions of the skull and jaw". Lombroso's theoretical
approach was to believe that becoming a criminal was somehow to be explained through
identifying specific characteristics of individuals. On the basis of Lombroso's arguments, he
constructed and classified criminals in four main categories. Firstly, born criminals who can be
distinguished by their physical atavistic characteristics. Secondly, insane criminals who are
labeled as idiots, imbeciles, and alcoholics. Thirdly, occasional criminals are those who were
pulled into crime by their environment or situation. Finally, criminals by passion are those
motivated to commit crimes by love, anger, honor or other emotional factors.
Lombroso argued that criminology should focus primarily on the scientific study of criminals
and criminal behavior. At the end of the 19th century, it was suggested that criminality is
inherited in the same way as physical characteristics. The attempt to locate proof of genetic
transmission for criminality was focused on three areas - family studies, twin studies, and
adoption studies. Goring conducted a study with 3000 prisoners that had a history of long and
frequent sentences, and a control group of non-criminals. According to the results, the
"prisoners were inferior to the control group in terms of physical size and mental ability, while
strong associations between the criminality of children and their parents and between brothers
were found*. Osborn and West also discovered that around 40% of the sons of criminal fathers
were criminals themselves, compared to a figure of 13% for sons of non-criminal fathers. The
twin study method was been widely used in seeking to determine the influence of hereditary
in, for example, intelligence, and also in disturbances such as alcoholism, depression, and
schizophrenia. Lange examined a group of 30 men, consisting of 13 identical twins and 17
fraternal twins who all had a prison record. Lange found that in 77% of the identical twin cases,
the other brother also had a record. This percentage relationship is referred to as a criminal
concordance, meaning both members of a pair have a particular attribute. According to the
findings from previous studies, identical twins generally showed a much higher degree of
criminal concordance than fraternal twins. However, the criminal concordance was found to be
higher for both categories where more serious offenses had been committed, for example,
murder.
An alternative strategy to the use of twins is to study adopted children. "The assumption in
such work is that if adopted children resemble biological rather than adoptive parents in some
important respects, then this is potentially evidence of a genetic influence*. Research by
Hutchings and Mednick found evidence that adoptees with criminal records had a higher
proportion of biological mothers and fathers with criminal records than adoptees with no
criminal records. Researchers concluded that there was an inherited characteristic element that
was transmitted from the criminal parents to their children that increased the likelihood of the
children developing criminal behavior. Compared to the classicism approach, positivism
argued that criminals did not willingly choose to commit a crime, but instead were determined
into crime by factors beyond the criminal's control. Therefore, behavior is determined within
individuals. Positivists called this the doctrine of determinism. As the approach of positivism
grew over time, the biological and heredity concepts were reduced, and psychological and
environmental factors grew more attention. 'Focus on the actor, not the act is another core
concept of positivism, as its beliefs were to focus on the criminal rather than the crime. Bradley
and Walters also acknowledged that "if the crime is the result of factors beyond the control of
the individual, then the criminal cannot be viewed as responsible but rather as irresponsible."
The positivist aspect was not to punish criminals but to rehabilitate them. The necessary steps
to be taken would be to identity the causes of crime committed by an individual, then address
these causes. "Thus, it was the job of the expert to both identify these factors and then designed
ways of treating them".
"Positivism was founded on the belief, that there were other factors either innate to the
individual or to be found in the immediate environment which could be identified, and which
would help determine the criminal from the non-criminal". Burke acknowledged how The
Italian Positivist School denied the concept of free will and the approach of equality that was
expressed by the classism approach. Positivists replaced this with the assumption of
determinism. Today, people consider Lombroso's work to have been condensed and somewhat
laughable. However, Lombroso and other key figures made some significant contributions to
the development of modern criminological theory. 'It should be remembered that these ideas
led to rather more liberal interpretations of punishment". Burke recognizes that Lombroso
demonstrated the significance of examining clinical and historical records. Most importantly,
he recognized the need for multi-factor explanations of crime that includes not only hereditary
but also social, cultural and economic factors*. Biological/ individual positivism has
significantly impacted the criminal justice system today. The theories and concepts previously
developed have contributed to the ending of cruel, inhumane treatment of criminals and to the
reformation of the death penalty. As Walklate says that these criminals may be different and
abnormal, but they were subjected to forces outside of their control. Therefore, imprisonment
might be a more appropriate punishment than execution*. The Positivist School of thought
made it possible to get the criminals the help they need to be rehabilitated.
This essay has been concerned with introducing the basic features of biological/ individual
positivism in criminology, and the importance of the historical development of biological
positivism. It has outlined the new ideas and practices it has introduced into today's society.
According to biological positivism, criminals are different to non-criminals. Criminals are
somehow impaired and are missing something that non-criminals have. This impairment was
manifested in biological and psychological factors. Therefore, individuals did not choose to
commit a crime, but factors beyond their control had driven them to commit a crime. Unlike
the classicism approach, positivism believed that it should not only be about punishment.
Positivism aimed to reform, rehabilitate or cure. The punishment should fit the criminal, not
the crime.
Biological/Individual Positivism was developed as a theoretical approach to criminology in the
late 18th and early 19th centuries and was established by key figures Cesare Lombroso, Enrico
Ferri, and Raffaele Garofalo. These criminological positivists were the first to concern
themselves with discovering and eliminating the causes of crime and criminality. To discover
and eliminate the causes of crime and criminality, positivists engaged the methods of scientific,
rather than philosophical analysis. The main argument of biological/ individual positivism is
that crime occurs because the offender has not been sufficiently or effectively socialized, or
educated of society's values. Core principles of positivism include, the doctrine of determinism,
focus on the actor not the act, and treatment not punishment. Other core concepts of individual
positivism include rejecting metaphysical or risky approaches and adopting scientific methods.
The innovation of biological/individual positivism introduced a collection of new ideas and
practices that have contributed significantly to the growth of criminology.
Biological Positivism represents the earliest manifestation of Individual Positivism and is
associated with the Italian School of Positivist Criminology inspired by the work of Cesare
Lombroso. Lombroso was famous in the 19th century because he claimed to have discovered
the causes of crime. Lombroso's theory suggested that "criminals are distinguished from non-
criminals by the manifestation of physical anomalies that represented atavistic or degenerative
origin". Atavism means the hereditary transmission from earlier generations and ancestors.
Atavism was a term Lombroso used to describe individuals who were not fully developed.
Lombroso believed that the criminal was almost a separate species demonstrating a variety of
mental and physical characteristics separating them from the rest of society. "Specifically, he
claimed that criminals have abnormal dimensions of the skull and jaw". Lombroso's theoretical
approach was to believe that becoming a criminal was somehow to be explained through
identifying specific characteristics of individuals. On the basis of Lombroso's arguments, he
constructed and classified criminals in four main categories. Firstly, born criminals who can be
distinguished by their physical atavistic characteristics. Secondly, insane criminals who are
labeled as idiots, imbeciles, and alcoholics. Thirdly, occasional criminals are those who were
pulled into crime by their environment or situation. Finally, criminals by passion are those
motivated to commit crimes by love, anger, honor or other emotional factors.
Lombroso argued that criminology should focus primarily on the scientific study of criminals
and criminal behavior. At the end of the 19th century, it was suggested that criminality is
inherited in the same way as physical characteristics. The attempt to locate proof of genetic
transmission for criminality was focused on three areas - family studies, twin studies, and
adoption studies. Goring conducted a study with 3000 prisoners that had a history of long and
frequent sentences, and a control group of non-criminals. According to the results, the
"prisoners were inferior to the control group in terms of physical size and mental ability, while
strong associations between the criminality of children and their parents and between brothers
were found*. Osborn and West also discovered that around 40% of the sons of criminal fathers
were criminals themselves, compared to a figure of 13% for sons of non-criminal fathers. The
twin study method was been widely used in seeking to determine the influence of hereditary
in, for example, intelligence, and also in disturbances such as alcoholism, depression, and
schizophrenia. Lange examined a group of 30 men, consisting of 13 identical twins and 17
fraternal twins who all had a prison record. Lange found that in 77% of the identical twin cases,
the other brother also had a record. This percentage relationship is referred to as a criminal
concordance, meaning both members of a pair have a particular attribute. According to the
findings from previous studies, identical twins generally showed a much higher degree of
criminal concordance than fraternal twins. However, the criminal concordance was found to be
higher for both categories where more serious offenses had been committed, for example,
murder.
An alternative strategy to the use of twins is to study adopted children. "The assumption in
such work is that if adopted children resemble biological rather than adoptive parents in some
important respects, then this is potentially evidence of a genetic influence*. Research by
Hutchings and Mednick found evidence that adoptees with criminal records had a higher
proportion of biological mothers and fathers with criminal records than adoptees with no
criminal records. Researchers concluded that there was an inherited characteristic element that
was transmitted from the criminal parents to their children that increased the likelihood of the
children developing criminal behavior. Compared to the classicism approach, positivism
argued that criminals did not willingly choose to commit a crime, but instead were determined
into crime by factors beyond the criminal's control. Therefore, behavior is determined within
individuals. Positivists called this the doctrine of determinism. As the approach of positivism
grew over time, the biological and heredity concepts were reduced, and psychological and
environmental factors grew more attention. 'Focus on the actor, not the act is another core
concept of positivism, as its beliefs were to focus on the criminal rather than the crime. Bradley
and Walters also acknowledged that "if the crime is the result of factors beyond the control of
the individual, then the criminal cannot be viewed as responsible but rather as irresponsible."
The positivist aspect was not to punish criminals but to rehabilitate them. The necessary steps
to be taken would be to identity the causes of crime committed by an individual, then address
these causes. "Thus, it was the job of the expert to both identify these factors and then designed
ways of treating them".
"Positivism was founded on the belief, that there were other factors either innate to the
individual or to be found in the immediate environment which could be identified, and which
would help determine the criminal from the non-criminal". Burke acknowledged how The
Italian Positivist School denied the concept of free will and the approach of equality that was
expressed by the classism approach. Positivists replaced this with the assumption of
determinism. Today, people consider Lombroso's work to have been condensed and somewhat
laughable. However, Lombroso and other key figures made some significant contributions to
the development of modern criminological theory. 'It should be remembered that these ideas
led to rather more liberal interpretations of punishment". Burke recognizes that Lombroso
demonstrated the significance of examining clinical and historical records. Most importantly,
he recognized the need for multi-factor explanations of crime that includes not only hereditary
but also social, cultural and economic factors*. Biological/ individual positivism has
significantly impacted the criminal justice system today. The theories and concepts previously
developed have contributed to the ending of cruel, inhumane treatment of criminals and to the
reformation of the death penalty. As Walklate says that these criminals may be different and
abnormal, but they were subjected to forces outside of their control. Therefore, imprisonment
might be a more appropriate punishment than execution*. The Positivist School of thought
made it possible to get the criminals the help they need to be rehabilitated.
This essay has been concerned with introducing the basic features of biological/ individual
positivism in criminology, and the importance of the historical development of biological
positivism. It has outlined the new ideas and practices it has introduced into today's society.
According to biological positivism, criminals are different to non-criminals. Criminals are
somehow impaired and are missing something that non-criminals have. This impairment was
manifested in biological and psychological factors. Therefore, individuals did not choose to
commit a crime, but factors beyond their control had driven them to commit a crime. Unlike
the classicism approach, positivism believed that it should not only be about punishment.
Positivism aimed to reform, rehabilitate or cure. The punishment should fit the criminal, not
the crime.
Biological/Individual Positivism was developed as a theoretical approach to criminology in the
late 18th and early 19th centuries and was established by key figures Cesare Lombroso, Enrico
Ferri, and Raffaele Garofalo. These criminological positivists were the first to concern
themselves with discovering and eliminating the causes of crime and criminality. To discover
and eliminate the causes of crime and criminality, positivists engaged the methods of scientific,
rather than philosophical analysis. The main argument of biological/ individual positivism is
that crime occurs because the offender has not been sufficiently or effectively socialized, or
educated of society's values. Core principles of positivism include, the doctrine of determinism,
focus on the actor not the act, and treatment not punishment. Other core concepts of individual
positivism include rejecting metaphysical or risky approaches and adopting scientific methods.
The innovation of biological/individual positivism introduced a collection of new ideas and
practices that have contributed significantly to the growth of criminology.
Biological Positivism represents the earliest manifestation of Individual Positivism and is
associated with the Italian School of Positivist Criminology inspired by the work of Cesare
Lombroso. Lombroso was famous in the 19th century because he claimed to have discovered
the causes of crime. Lombroso's theory suggested that "criminals are distinguished from non-
criminals by the manifestation of physical anomalies that represented atavistic or degenerative
origin". Atavism means the hereditary transmission from earlier generations and ancestors.
Atavism was a term Lombroso used to describe individuals who were not fully developed.
Lombroso believed that the criminal was almost a separate species demonstrating a variety of
mental and physical characteristics separating them from the rest of society. "Specifically, he
claimed that criminals have abnormal dimensions of the skull and jaw". Lombroso's theoretical
approach was to believe that becoming a criminal was somehow to be explained through
identifying specific characteristics of individuals. On the basis of Lombroso's arguments, he
constructed and classified criminals in four main categories. Firstly, born criminals who can be
distinguished by their physical atavistic characteristics. Secondly, insane criminals who are
labeled as idiots, imbeciles, and alcoholics. Thirdly, occasional criminals are those who were
pulled into crime by their environment or situation. Finally, criminals by passion are those
motivated to commit crimes by love, anger, honor or other emotional factors.
Lombroso argued that criminology should focus primarily on the scientific study of criminals
and criminal behavior. At the end of the 19th century, it was suggested that criminality is
inherited in the same way as physical characteristics. The attempt to locate proof of genetic
transmission for criminality was focused on three areas - family studies, twin studies, and
adoption studies. Goring conducted a study with 3000 prisoners that had a history of long and
frequent sentences, and a control group of non-criminals. According to the results, the
"prisoners were inferior to the control group in terms of physical size and mental ability, while
strong associations between the criminality of children and their parents and between brothers
were found*. Osborn and West also discovered that around 40% of the sons of criminal fathers
were criminals themselves, compared to a figure of 13% for sons of non-criminal fathers. The
twin study method was been widely used in seeking to determine the influence of hereditary
in, for example, intelligence, and also in disturbances such as alcoholism, depression, and
schizophrenia. Lange examined a group of 30 men, consisting of 13 identical twins and 17
fraternal twins who all had a prison record. Lange found that in 77% of the identical twin cases,
the other brother also had a record. This percentage relationship is referred to as a criminal
concordance, meaning both members of a pair have a particular attribute. According to the
findings from previous studies, identical twins generally showed a much higher degree of
criminal concordance than fraternal twins. However, the criminal concordance was found to be
higher for both categories where more serious offenses had been committed, for example,
murder.
An alternative strategy to the use of twins is to study adopted children. "The assumption in
such work is that if adopted children resemble biological rather than adoptive parents in some
important respects, then this is potentially evidence of a genetic influence*. Research by
Hutchings and Mednick found evidence that adoptees with criminal records had a higher
proportion of biological mothers and fathers with criminal records than adoptees with no
criminal records. Researchers concluded that there was an inherited characteristic element that
was transmitted from the criminal parents to their children that increased the likelihood of the
children developing criminal behavior. Compared to the classicism approach, positivism
argued that criminals did not willingly choose to commit a crime, but instead were determined
into crime by factors beyond the criminal's control. Therefore, behavior is determined within
individuals. Positivists called this the doctrine of determinism. As the approach of positivism
grew over time, the biological and heredity concepts were reduced, and psychological and
environmental factors grew more attention. 'Focus on the actor, not the act is another core
concept of positivism, as its beliefs were to focus on the criminal rather than the crime. Bradley
and Walters also acknowledged that "if the crime is the result of factors beyond the control of
the individual, then the criminal cannot be viewed as responsible but rather as irresponsible."
The positivist aspect was not to punish criminals but to rehabilitate them. The necessary steps
to be taken would be to identity the causes of crime committed by an individual, then address
these causes. "Thus, it was the job of the expert to both identify these factors and then designed
ways of treating them".
"Positivism was founded on the belief, that there were other factors either innate to the
individual or to be found in the immediate environment which could be identified, and which
would help determine the criminal from the non-criminal". Burke acknowledged how The
Italian Positivist School denied the concept of free will and the approach of equality that was
expressed by the classism approach. Positivists replaced this with the assumption of
determinism. Today, people consider Lombroso's work to have been condensed and somewhat
laughable. However, Lombroso and other key figures made some significant contributions to
the development of modern criminological theory. 'It should be remembered that these ideas
led to rather more liberal interpretations of punishment". Burke recognizes that Lombroso
demonstrated the significance of examining clinical and historical records. Most importantly,
he recognized the need for multi-factor explanations of crime that includes not only hereditary
but also social, cultural and economic factors*. Biological/ individual positivism has
significantly impacted the criminal justice system today. The theories and concepts previously
developed have contributed to the ending of cruel, inhumane treatment of criminals and to the
reformation of the death penalty. As Walklate says that these criminals may be different and
abnormal, but they were subjected to forces outside of their control. Therefore, imprisonment
might be a more appropriate punishment than execution*. The Positivist School of thought
made it possible to get the criminals the help they need to be rehabilitated.
This essay has been concerned with introducing the basic features of biological/ individual
positivism in criminology, and the importance of the historical development of biological
positivism. It has outlined the new ideas and practices it has introduced into today's society.
According to biological positivism, criminals are different to non-criminals. Criminals are
somehow impaired and are missing something that non-criminals have. This impairment was
manifested in biological and psychological factors. Therefore, individuals did not choose to
commit a crime, but factors beyond their control had driven them to commit a crime. Unlike
the classicism approach, positivism believed that it should not only be about punishment.
Positivism aimed to reform, rehabilitate or cure. The punishment should fit the criminal, not
the crime.
Biological/Individual Positivism was developed as a theoretical approach to criminology in the
late 18th and early 19th centuries and was established by key figures Cesare Lombroso, Enrico
Ferri, and Raffaele Garofalo. These criminological positivists were the first to concern
themselves with discovering and eliminating the causes of crime and criminality. To discover
and eliminate the causes of crime and criminality, positivists engaged the methods of scientific,
rather than philosophical analysis. The main argument of biological/ individual positivism is
that crime occurs because the offender has not been sufficiently or effectively socialized, or
educated of society's values. Core principles of positivism include, the doctrine of determinism,
focus on the actor not the act, and treatment not punishment. Other core concepts of individual
positivism include rejecting metaphysical or risky approaches and adopting scientific methods.
The innovation of biological/individual positivism introduced a collection of new ideas and
practices that have contributed significantly to the growth of criminology.
Biological Positivism represents the earliest manifestation of Individual Positivism and is
associated with the Italian School of Positivist Criminology inspired by the work of Cesare
Lombroso. Lombroso was famous in the 19th century because he claimed to have discovered
the causes of crime. Lombroso's theory suggested that "criminals are distinguished from non-
criminals by the manifestation of physical anomalies that represented atavistic or degenerative
origin". Atavism means the hereditary transmission from earlier generations and ancestors.
Atavism was a term Lombroso used to describe individuals who were not fully developed.
Lombroso believed that the criminal was almost a separate species demonstrating a variety of
mental and physical characteristics separating them from the rest of society. "Specifically, he
claimed that criminals have abnormal dimensions of the skull and jaw". Lombroso's theoretical
approach was to believe that becoming a criminal was somehow to be explained through
identifying specific characteristics of individuals. On the basis of Lombroso's arguments, he
constructed and classified criminals in four main categories. Firstly, born criminals who can be
distinguished by their physical atavistic characteristics. Secondly, insane criminals who are
labeled as idiots, imbeciles, and alcoholics. Thirdly, occasional criminals are those who were
pulled into crime by their environment or situation. Finally, criminals by passion are those
motivated to commit crimes by love, anger, honor or other emotional factors.
Lombroso argued that criminology should focus primarily on the scientific study of criminals
and criminal behavior. At the end of the 19th century, it was suggested that criminality is
inherited in the same way as physical characteristics. The attempt to locate proof of genetic
transmission for criminality was focused on three areas - family studies, twin studies, and
adoption studies. Goring conducted a study with 3000 prisoners that had a history of long and
frequent sentences, and a control group of non-criminals. According to the results, the
"prisoners were inferior to the control group in terms of physical size and mental ability, while
strong associations between the criminality of children and their parents and between brothers
were found*. Osborn and West also discovered that around 40% of the sons of criminal fathers
were criminals themselves, compared to a figure of 13% for sons of non-criminal fathers. The
twin study method was been widely used in seeking to determine the influence of hereditary
in, for example, intelligence, and also in disturbances such as alcoholism, depression, and
schizophrenia. Lange examined a group of 30 men, consisting of 13 identical twins and 17
fraternal twins who all had a prison record. Lange found that in 77% of the identical twin cases,
the other brother also had a record. This percentage relationship is referred to as a criminal
concordance, meaning both members of a pair have a particular attribute. According to the
findings from previous studies, identical twins generally showed a much higher degree of
criminal concordance than fraternal twins. However, the criminal concordance was found to be
higher for both categories where more serious offenses had been committed, for example,
murder.
An alternative strategy to the use of twins is to study adopted children. "The assumption in
such work is that if adopted children resemble biological rather than adoptive parents in some
important respects, then this is potentially evidence of a genetic influence*. Research by
Hutchings and Mednick found evidence that adoptees with criminal records had a higher
proportion of biological mothers and fathers with criminal records than adoptees with no
criminal records. Researchers concluded that there was an inherited characteristic element that
was transmitted from the criminal parents to their children that increased the likelihood of the
children developing criminal behavior. Compared to the classicism approach, positivism
argued that criminals did not willingly choose to commit a crime, but instead were determined
into crime by factors beyond the criminal's control. Therefore, behavior is determined within
individuals. Positivists called this the doctrine of determinism. As the approach of positivism
grew over time, the biological and heredity concepts were reduced, and psychological and
environmental factors grew more attention. 'Focus on the actor, not the act is another core
concept of positivism, as its beliefs were to focus on the criminal rather than the crime. Bradley
and Walters also acknowledged that "if the crime is the result of factors beyond the control of
the individual, then the criminal cannot be viewed as responsible but rather as irresponsible."
The positivist aspect was not to punish criminals but to rehabilitate them. The necessary steps
to be taken would be to identity the causes of crime committed by an individual, then address
these causes. "Thus, it was the job of the expert to both identify these factors and then designed
ways of treating them".
"Positivism was founded on the belief, that there were other factors either innate to the
individual or to be found in the immediate environment which could be identified, and which
would help determine the criminal from the non-criminal". Burke acknowledged how The
Italian Positivist School denied the concept of free will and the approach of equality that was
expressed by the classism approach. Positivists replaced this with the assumption of
determinism. Today, people consider Lombroso's work to have been condensed and somewhat
laughable. However, Lombroso and other key figures made some significant contributions to
the development of modern criminological theory. 'It should be remembered that these ideas
led to rather more liberal interpretations of punishment". Burke recognizes that Lombroso
demonstrated the significance of examining clinical and historical records. Most importantly,
he recognized the need for multi-factor explanations of crime that includes not only hereditary
but also social, cultural and economic factors*. Biological/ individual positivism has
significantly impacted the criminal justice system today. The theories and concepts previously
developed have contributed to the ending of cruel, inhumane treatment of criminals and to the
reformation of the death penalty. As Walklate says that these criminals may be different and
abnormal, but they were subjected to forces outside of their control. Therefore, imprisonment
might be a more appropriate punishment than execution*. The Positivist School of thought
made it possible to get the criminals the help they need to be rehabilitated.
This essay has been concerned with introducing the basic features of biological/ individual
positivism in criminology, and the importance of the historical development of biological
positivism. It has outlined the new ideas and practices it has introduced into today's society.
According to biological positivism, criminals are different to non-criminals. Criminals are
somehow impaired and are missing something that non-criminals have. This impairment was
manifested in biological and psychological factors. Therefore, individuals did not choose to
commit a crime, but factors beyond their control had driven them to commit a crime. Unlike
the classicism approach, positivism believed that it should not only be about punishment.
Positivism aimed to reform, rehabilitate or cure. The punishment should fit the criminal, not
the crime.
Biological/Individual Positivism was developed as a theoretical approach to criminology in the
late 18th and early 19th centuries and was established by key figures Cesare Lombroso, Enrico
Ferri, and Raffaele Garofalo. These criminological positivists were the first to concern
themselves with discovering and eliminating the causes of crime and criminality. To discover
and eliminate the causes of crime and criminality, positivists engaged the methods of scientific,
rather than philosophical analysis. The main argument of biological/ individual positivism is
that crime occurs because the offender has not been sufficiently or effectively socialized, or
educated of society's values. Core principles of positivism include, the doctrine of determinism,
focus on the actor not the act, and treatment not punishment. Other core concepts of individual
positivism include rejecting metaphysical or risky approaches and adopting scientific methods.
The innovation of biological/individual positivism introduced a collection of new ideas and
practices that have contributed significantly to the growth of criminology.
Biological Positivism represents the earliest manifestation of Individual Positivism and is
associated with the Italian School of Positivist Criminology inspired by the work of Cesare
Lombroso. Lombroso was famous in the 19th century because he claimed to have discovered
the causes of crime. Lombroso's theory suggested that "criminals are distinguished from non-
criminals by the manifestation of physical anomalies that represented atavistic or degenerative
origin". Atavism means the hereditary transmission from earlier generations and ancestors.
Atavism was a term Lombroso used to describe individuals who were not fully developed.
Lombroso believed that the criminal was almost a separate species demonstrating a variety of
mental and physical characteristics separating them from the rest of society. "Specifically, he
claimed that criminals have abnormal dimensions of the skull and jaw". Lombroso's theoretical
approach was to believe that becoming a criminal was somehow to be explained through
identifying specific characteristics of individuals. On the basis of Lombroso's arguments, he
constructed and classified criminals in four main categories. Firstly, born criminals who can be
distinguished by their physical atavistic characteristics. Secondly, insane criminals who are
labeled as idiots, imbeciles, and alcoholics. Thirdly, occasional criminals are those who were
pulled into crime by their environment or situation. Finally, criminals by passion are those
motivated to commit crimes by love, anger, honor or other emotional factors.
Lombroso argued that criminology should focus primarily on the scientific study of criminals
and criminal behavior. At the end of the 19th century, it was suggested that criminality is
inherited in the same way as physical characteristics. The attempt to locate proof of genetic
transmission for criminality was focused on three areas - family studies, twin studies, and
adoption studies. Goring conducted a study with 3000 prisoners that had a history of long and
frequent sentences, and a control group of non-criminals. According to the results, the
"prisoners were inferior to the control group in terms of physical size and mental ability, while
strong associations between the criminality of children and their parents and between brothers
were found*. Osborn and West also discovered that around 40% of the sons of criminal fathers
were criminals themselves, compared to a figure of 13% for sons of non-criminal fathers. The
twin study method was been widely used in seeking to determine the influence of hereditary
in, for example, intelligence, and also in disturbances such as alcoholism, depression, and
schizophrenia. Lange examined a group of 30 men, consisting of 13 identical twins and 17
fraternal twins who all had a prison record. Lange found that in 77% of the identical twin cases,
the other brother also had a record. This percentage relationship is referred to as a criminal
concordance, meaning both members of a pair have a particular attribute. According to the
findings from previous studies, identical twins generally showed a much higher degree of
criminal concordance than fraternal twins. However, the criminal concordance was found to be
higher for both categories where more serious offenses had been committed, for example,
murder.
An alternative strategy to the use of twins is to study adopted children. "The assumption in
such work is that if adopted children resemble biological rather than adoptive parents in some
important respects, then this is potentially evidence of a genetic influence*. Research by
Hutchings and Mednick found evidence that adoptees with criminal records had a higher
proportion of biological mothers and fathers with criminal records than adoptees with no
criminal records. Researchers concluded that there was an inherited characteristic element that
was transmitted from the criminal parents to their children that increased the likelihood of the
children developing criminal behavior. Compared to the classicism approach, positivism
argued that criminals did not willingly choose to commit a crime, but instead were determined
into crime by factors beyond the criminal's control. Therefore, behavior is determined within
individuals. Positivists called this the doctrine of determinism. As the approach of positivism
grew over time, the biological and heredity concepts were reduced, and psychological and
environmental factors grew more attention. 'Focus on the actor, not the act is another core
concept of positivism, as its beliefs were to focus on the criminal rather than the crime. Bradley
and Walters also acknowledged that "if the crime is the result of factors beyond the control of
the individual, then the criminal cannot be viewed as responsible but rather as irresponsible."
The positivist aspect was not to punish criminals but to rehabilitate them. The necessary steps
to be taken would be to identity the causes of crime committed by an individual, then address
these causes. "Thus, it was the job of the expert to both identify these factors and then designed
ways of treating them".
"Positivism was founded on the belief, that there were other factors either innate to the
individual or to be found in the immediate environment which could be identified, and which
would help determine the criminal from the non-criminal". Burke acknowledged how The
Italian Positivist School denied the concept of free will and the approach of equality that was
expressed by the classism approach. Positivists replaced this with the assumption of
determinism. Today, people consider Lombroso's work to have been condensed and somewhat
laughable. However, Lombroso and other key figures made some significant contributions to
the development of modern criminological theory. 'It should be remembered that these ideas
led to rather more liberal interpretations of punishment". Burke recognizes that Lombroso
demonstrated the significance of examining clinical and historical records. Most importantly,
he recognized the need for multi-factor explanations of crime that includes not only hereditary
but also social, cultural and economic factors*. Biological/ individual positivism has
significantly impacted the criminal justice system today. The theories and concepts previously
developed have contributed to the ending of cruel, inhumane treatment of criminals and to the
reformation of the death penalty. As Walklate says that these criminals may be different and
abnormal, but they were subjected to forces outside of their control. Therefore, imprisonment
might be a more appropriate punishment than execution*. The Positivist School of thought
made it possible to get the criminals the help they need to be rehabilitated.
This essay has been concerned with introducing the basic features of biological/ individual
positivism in criminology, and the importance of the historical development of biological
positivism. It has outlined the new ideas and practices it has introduced into today's society.
According to biological positivism, criminals are different to non-criminals. Criminals are
somehow impaired and are missing something that non-criminals have. This impairment was
manifested in biological and psychological factors. Therefore, individuals did not choose to
commit a crime, but factors beyond their control had driven them to commit a crime. Unlike
the classicism approach, positivism believed that it should not only be about punishment.
Positivism aimed to reform, rehabilitate or cure. The punishment should fit the criminal, not
the crime.
Biological/Individual Positivism was developed as a theoretical approach to criminology in the
late 18th and early 19th centuries and was established by key figures Cesare Lombroso, Enrico
Ferri, and Raffaele Garofalo. These criminological positivists were the first to concern
themselves with discovering and eliminating the causes of crime and criminality. To discover
and eliminate the causes of crime and criminality, positivists engaged the methods of scientific,
rather than philosophical analysis. The main argument of biological/ individual positivism is
that crime occurs because the offender has not been sufficiently or effectively socialized, or
educated of society's values. Core principles of positivism include, the doctrine of determinism,
focus on the actor not the act, and treatment not punishment. Other core concepts of individual
positivism include rejecting metaphysical or risky approaches and adopting scientific methods.
The innovation of biological/individual positivism introduced a collection of new ideas and
practices that have contributed significantly to the growth of criminology.
Biological Positivism represents the earliest manifestation of Individual Positivism and is
associated with the Italian School of Positivist Criminology inspired by the work of Cesare
Lombroso. Lombroso was famous in the 19th century because he claimed to have discovered
the causes of crime. Lombroso's theory suggested that "criminals are distinguished from non-
criminals by the manifestation of physical anomalies that represented atavistic or degenerative
origin". Atavism means the hereditary transmission from earlier generations and ancestors.
Atavism was a term Lombroso used to describe individuals who were not fully developed.
Lombroso believed that the criminal was almost a separate species demonstrating a variety of
mental and physical characteristics separating them from the rest of society. "Specifically, he
claimed that criminals have abnormal dimensions of the skull and jaw". Lombroso's theoretical
approach was to believe that becoming a criminal was somehow to be explained through
identifying specific characteristics of individuals. On the basis of Lombroso's arguments, he
constructed and classified criminals in four main categories. Firstly, born criminals who can be
distinguished by their physical atavistic characteristics. Secondly, insane criminals who are
labeled as idiots, imbeciles, and alcoholics. Thirdly, occasional criminals are those who were
pulled into crime by their environment or situation. Finally, criminals by passion are those
motivated to commit crimes by love, anger, honor or other emotional factors.
Lombroso argued that criminology should focus primarily on the scientific study of criminals
and criminal behavior. At the end of the 19th century, it was suggested that criminality is
inherited in the same way as physical characteristics. The attempt to locate proof of genetic
transmission for criminality was focused on three areas - family studies, twin studies, and
adoption studies. Goring conducted a study with 3000 prisoners that had a history of long and
frequent sentences, and a control group of non-criminals. According to the results, the
"prisoners were inferior to the control group in terms of physical size and mental ability, while
strong associations between the criminality of children and their parents and between brothers
were found*. Osborn and West also discovered that around 40% of the sons of criminal fathers
were criminals themselves, compared to a figure of 13% for sons of non-criminal fathers. The
twin study method was been widely used in seeking to determine the influence of hereditary
in, for example, intelligence, and also in disturbances such as alcoholism, depression, and
schizophrenia. Lange examined a group of 30 men, consisting of 13 identical twins and 17
fraternal twins who all had a prison record. Lange found that in 77% of the identical twin cases,
the other brother also had a record. This percentage relationship is referred to as a criminal
concordance, meaning both members of a pair have a particular attribute. According to the
findings from previous studies, identical twins generally showed a much higher degree of
criminal concordance than fraternal twins. However, the criminal concordance was found to be
higher for both categories where more serious offenses had been committed, for example,
murder.
An alternative strategy to the use of twins is to study adopted children. "The assumption in
such work is that if adopted children resemble biological rather than adoptive parents in some
important respects, then this is potentially evidence of a genetic influence*. Research by
Hutchings and Mednick found evidence that adoptees with criminal records had a higher
proportion of biological mothers and fathers with criminal records than adoptees with no
criminal records. Researchers concluded that there was an inherited characteristic element that
was transmitted from the criminal parents to their children that increased the likelihood of the
children developing criminal behavior. Compared to the classicism approach, positivism
argued that criminals did not willingly choose to commit a crime, but instead were determined
into crime by factors beyond the criminal's control. Therefore, behavior is determined within
individuals. Positivists called this the doctrine of determinism. As the approach of positivism
grew over time, the biological and heredity concepts were reduced, and psychological and
environmental factors grew more attention. 'Focus on the actor, not the act is another core
concept of positivism, as its beliefs were to focus on the criminal rather than the crime. Bradley
and Walters also acknowledged that "if the crime is the result of factors beyond the control of
the individual, then the criminal cannot be viewed as responsible but rather as irresponsible."
The positivist aspect was not to punish criminals but to rehabilitate them. The necessary steps
to be taken would be to identity the causes of crime committed by an individual, then address
these causes. "Thus, it was the job of the expert to both identify these factors and then designed
ways of treating them".
"Positivism was founded on the belief, that there were other factors either innate to the
individual or to be found in the immediate environment which could be identified, and which
would help determine the criminal from the non-criminal". Burke acknowledged how The
Italian Positivist School denied the concept of free will and the approach of equality that was
expressed by the classism approach. Positivists replaced this with the assumption of
determinism. Today, people consider Lombroso's work to have been condensed and somewhat
laughable. However, Lombroso and other key figures made some significant contributions to
the development of modern criminological theory. 'It should be remembered that these ideas
led to rather more liberal interpretations of punishment". Burke recognizes that Lombroso
demonstrated the significance of examining clinical and historical records. Most importantly,
he recognized the need for multi-factor explanations of crime that includes not only hereditary
but also social, cultural and economic factors*. Biological/ individual positivism has
significantly impacted the criminal justice system today. The theories and concepts previously
developed have contributed to the ending of cruel, inhumane treatment of criminals and to the
reformation of the death penalty. As Walklate says that these criminals may be different and
abnormal, but they were subjected to forces outside of their control. Therefore, imprisonment
might be a more appropriate punishment than execution*. The Positivist School of thought
made it possible to get the criminals the help they need to be rehabilitated.
This essay has been concerned with introducing the basic features of biological/ individual
positivism in criminology, and the importance of the historical development of biological
positivism. It has outlined the new ideas and practices it has introduced into today's society.
According to biological positivism, criminals are different to non-criminals. Criminals are
somehow impaired and are missing something that non-criminals have. This impairment was
manifested in biological and psychological factors. Therefore, individuals did not choose to
commit a crime, but factors beyond their control had driven them to commit a crime. Unlike
the classicism approach, positivism believed that it should not only be about punishment.
Positivism aimed to reform, rehabilitate or cure. The punishment should fit the criminal, not
the crime.
Biological/Individual Positivism was developed as a theoretical approach to criminology in the
late 18th and early 19th centuries and was established by key figures Cesare Lombroso, Enrico
Ferri, and Raffaele Garofalo. These criminological positivists were the first to concern
themselves with discovering and eliminating the causes of crime and criminality. To discover
and eliminate the causes of crime and criminality, positivists engaged the methods of scientific,
rather than philosophical analysis. The main argument of biological/ individual positivism is
that crime occurs because the offender has not been sufficiently or effectively socialized, or
educated of society's values. Core principles of positivism include, the doctrine of determinism,
focus on the actor not the act, and treatment not punishment. Other core concepts of individual
positivism include rejecting metaphysical or risky approaches and adopting scientific methods.
The innovation of biological/individual positivism introduced a collection of new ideas and
practices that have contributed significantly to the growth of criminology.
Biological Positivism represents the earliest manifestation of Individual Positivism and is
associated with the Italian School of Positivist Criminology inspired by the work of Cesare
Lombroso. Lombroso was famous in the 19th century because he claimed to have discovered
the causes of crime. Lombroso's theory suggested that "criminals are distinguished from non-
criminals by the manifestation of physical anomalies that represented atavistic or degenerative
origin". Atavism means the hereditary transmission from earlier generations and ancestors.
Atavism was a term Lombroso used to describe individuals who were not fully developed.
Lombroso believed that the criminal was almost a separate species demonstrating a variety of
mental and physical characteristics separating them from the rest of society. "Specifically, he
claimed that criminals have abnormal dimensions of the skull and jaw". Lombroso's theoretical
approach was to believe that becoming a criminal was somehow to be explained through
identifying specific characteristics of individuals. On the basis of Lombroso's arguments, he
constructed and classified criminals in four main categories. Firstly, born criminals who can be
distinguished by their physical atavistic characteristics. Secondly, insane criminals who are
labeled as idiots, imbeciles, and alcoholics. Thirdly, occasional criminals are those who were
pulled into crime by their environment or situation. Finally, criminals by passion are those
motivated to commit crimes by love, anger, honor or other emotional factors.
Lombroso argued that criminology should focus primarily on the scientific study of criminals
and criminal behavior. At the end of the 19th century, it was suggested that criminality is
inherited in the same way as physical characteristics. The attempt to locate proof of genetic
transmission for criminality was focused on three areas - family studies, twin studies, and
adoption studies. Goring conducted a study with 3000 prisoners that had a history of long and
frequent sentences, and a control group of non-criminals. According to the results, the
"prisoners were inferior to the control group in terms of physical size and mental ability, while
strong associations between the criminality of children and their parents and between brothers
were found*. Osborn and West also discovered that around 40% of the sons of criminal fathers
were criminals themselves, compared to a figure of 13% for sons of non-criminal fathers. The
twin study method was been widely used in seeking to determine the influence of hereditary
in, for example, intelligence, and also in disturbances such as alcoholism, depression, and
schizophrenia. Lange examined a group of 30 men, consisting of 13 identical twins and 17
fraternal twins who all had a prison record. Lange found that in 77% of the identical twin cases,
the other brother also had a record. This percentage relationship is referred to as a criminal
concordance, meaning both members of a pair have a particular attribute. According to the
findings from previous studies, identical twins generally showed a much higher degree of
criminal concordance than fraternal twins. However, the criminal concordance was found to be
higher for both categories where more serious offenses had been committed, for example,
murder.
An alternative strategy to the use of twins is to study adopted children. "The assumption in
such work is that if adopted children resemble biological rather than adoptive parents in some
important respects, then this is potentially evidence of a genetic influence*. Research by
Hutchings and Mednick found evidence that adoptees with criminal records had a higher
proportion of biological mothers and fathers with criminal records than adoptees with no
criminal records. Researchers concluded that there was an inherited characteristic element that
was transmitted from the criminal parents to their children that increased the likelihood of the
children developing criminal behavior. Compared to the classicism approach, positivism
argued that criminals did not willingly choose to commit a crime, but instead were determined
into crime by factors beyond the criminal's control. Therefore, behavior is determined within
individuals. Positivists called this the doctrine of determinism. As the approach of positivism
grew over time, the biological and heredity concepts were reduced, and psychological and
environmental factors grew more attention. 'Focus on the actor, not the act is another core
concept of positivism, as its beliefs were to focus on the criminal rather than the crime. Bradley
and Walters also acknowledged that "if the crime is the result of factors beyond the control of
the individual, then the criminal cannot be viewed as responsible but rather as irresponsible."
The positivist aspect was not to punish criminals but to rehabilitate them. The necessary steps
to be taken would be to identity the causes of crime committed by an individual, then address
these causes. "Thus, it was the job of the expert to both identify these factors and then designed
ways of treating them".
"Positivism was founded on the belief, that there were other factors either innate to the
individual or to be found in the immediate environment which could be identified, and which
would help determine the criminal from the non-criminal". Burke acknowledged how The
Italian Positivist School denied the concept of free will and the approach of equality that was
expressed by the classism approach. Positivists replaced this with the assumption of
determinism. Today, people consider Lombroso's work to have been condensed and somewhat
laughable. However, Lombroso and other key figures made some significant contributions to
the development of modern criminological theory. 'It should be remembered that these ideas
led to rather more liberal interpretations of punishment". Burke recognizes that Lombroso
demonstrated the significance of examining clinical and historical records. Most importantly,
he recognized the need for multi-factor explanations of crime that includes not only hereditary
but also social, cultural and economic factors*. Biological/ individual positivism has
significantly impacted the criminal justice system today. The theories and concepts previously
developed have contributed to the ending of cruel, inhumane treatment of criminals and to the
reformation of the death penalty. As Walklate says that these criminals may be different and
abnormal, but they were subjected to forces outside of their control. Therefore, imprisonment
might be a more appropriate punishment than execution*. The Positivist School of thought
made it possible to get the criminals the help they need to be rehabilitated.
This essay has been concerned with introducing the basic features of biological/ individual
positivism in criminology, and the importance of the historical development of biological
positivism. It has outlined the new ideas and practices it has introduced into today's society.
According to biological positivism, criminals are different to non-criminals. Criminals are
somehow impaired and are missing something that non-criminals have. This impairment was
manifested in biological and psychological factors. Therefore, individuals did not choose to
commit a crime, but factors beyond their control had driven them to commit a crime. Unlike
the classicism approach, positivism believed that it should not only be about punishment.
Positivism aimed to reform, rehabilitate or cure. The punishment should fit the criminal, not
the crime.
Biological/Individual Positivism was developed as a theoretical approach to criminology in the
late 18th and early 19th centuries and was established by key figures Cesare Lombroso, Enrico
Ferri, and Raffaele Garofalo. These criminological positivists were the first to concern
themselves with discovering and eliminating the causes of crime and criminality. To discover
and eliminate the causes of crime and criminality, positivists engaged the methods of scientific,
rather than philosophical analysis. The main argument of biological/ individual positivism is
that crime occurs because the offender has not been sufficiently or effectively socialized, or
educated of society's values. Core principles of positivism include, the doctrine of determinism,
focus on the actor not the act, and treatment not punishment. Other core concepts of individual
positivism include rejecting metaphysical or risky approaches and adopting scientific methods.
The innovation of biological/individual positivism introduced a collection of new ideas and
practices that have contributed significantly to the growth of criminology.
Biological Positivism represents the earliest manifestation of Individual Positivism and is
associated with the Italian School of Positivist Criminology inspired by the work of Cesare
Lombroso. Lombroso was famous in the 19th century because he claimed to have discovered
the causes of crime. Lombroso's theory suggested that "criminals are distinguished from non-
criminals by the manifestation of physical anomalies that represented atavistic or degenerative
origin". Atavism means the hereditary transmission from earlier generations and ancestors.
Atavism was a term Lombroso used to describe individuals who were not fully developed.
Lombroso believed that the criminal was almost a separate species demonstrating a variety of
mental and physical characteristics separating them from the rest of society. "Specifically, he
claimed that criminals have abnormal dimensions of the skull and jaw". Lombroso's theoretical
approach was to believe that becoming a criminal was somehow to be explained through
identifying specific characteristics of individuals. On the basis of Lombroso's arguments, he
constructed and classified criminals in four main categories. Firstly, born criminals who can be
distinguished by their physical atavistic characteristics. Secondly, insane criminals who are
labeled as idiots, imbeciles, and alcoholics. Thirdly, occasional criminals are those who were
pulled into crime by their environment or situation. Finally, criminals by passion are those
motivated to commit crimes by love, anger, honor or other emotional factors.
Lombroso argued that criminology should focus primarily on the scientific study of criminals
and criminal behavior. At the end of the 19th century, it was suggested that criminality is
inherited in the same way as physical characteristics. The attempt to locate proof of genetic
transmission for criminality was focused on three areas - family studies, twin studies, and
adoption studies. Goring conducted a study with 3000 prisoners that had a history of long and
frequent sentences, and a control group of non-criminals. According to the results, the
"prisoners were inferior to the control group in terms of physical size and mental ability, while
strong associations between the criminality of children and their parents and between brothers
were found*. Osborn and West also discovered that around 40% of the sons of criminal fathers
were criminals themselves, compared to a figure of 13% for sons of non-criminal fathers. The
twin study method was been widely used in seeking to determine the influence of hereditary
in, for example, intelligence, and also in disturbances such as alcoholism, depression, and
schizophrenia. Lange examined a group of 30 men, consisting of 13 identical twins and 17
fraternal twins who all had a prison record. Lange found that in 77% of the identical twin cases,
the other brother also had a record. This percentage relationship is referred to as a criminal
concordance, meaning both members of a pair have a particular attribute. According to the
findings from previous studies, identical twins generally showed a much higher degree of
criminal concordance than fraternal twins. However, the criminal concordance was found to be
higher for both categories where more serious offenses had been committed, for example,
murder.
An alternative strategy to the use of twins is to study adopted children. "The assumption in
such work is that if adopted children resemble biological rather than adoptive parents in some
important respects, then this is potentially evidence of a genetic influence*. Research by
Hutchings and Mednick found evidence that adoptees with criminal records had a higher
proportion of biological mothers and fathers with criminal records than adoptees with no
criminal records. Researchers concluded that there was an inherited characteristic element that
was transmitted from the criminal parents to their children that increased the likelihood of the
children developing criminal behavior. Compared to the classicism approach, positivism
argued that criminals did not willingly choose to commit a crime, but instead were determined
into crime by factors beyond the criminal's control. Therefore, behavior is determined within
individuals. Positivists called this the doctrine of determinism. As the approach of positivism
grew over time, the biological and heredity concepts were reduced, and psychological and
environmental factors grew more attention. 'Focus on the actor, not the act is another core
concept of positivism, as its beliefs were to focus on the criminal rather than the crime. Bradley
and Walters also acknowledged that "if the crime is the result of factors beyond the control of
the individual, then the criminal cannot be viewed as responsible but rather as irresponsible."
The positivist aspect was not to punish criminals but to rehabilitate them. The necessary steps
to be taken would be to identity the causes of crime committed by an individual, then address
these causes. "Thus, it was the job of the expert to both identify these factors and then designed
ways of treating them".
"Positivism was founded on the belief, that there were other factors either innate to the
individual or to be found in the immediate environment which could be identified, and which
would help determine the criminal from the non-criminal". Burke acknowledged how The
Italian Positivist School denied the concept of free will and the approach of equality that was
expressed by the classism approach. Positivists replaced this with the assumption of
determinism. Today, people consider Lombroso's work to have been condensed and somewhat
laughable. However, Lombroso and other key figures made some significant contributions to
the development of modern criminological theory. 'It should be remembered that these ideas
led to rather more liberal interpretations of punishment". Burke recognizes that Lombroso
demonstrated the significance of examining clinical and historical records. Most importantly,
he recognized the need for multi-factor explanations of crime that includes not only hereditary
but also social, cultural and economic factors*. Biological/ individual positivism has
significantly impacted the criminal justice system today. The theories and concepts previously
developed have contributed to the ending of cruel, inhumane treatment of criminals and to the
reformation of the death penalty. As Walklate says that these criminals may be different and
abnormal, but they were subjected to forces outside of their control. Therefore, imprisonment
might be a more appropriate punishment than execution*. The Positivist School of thought
made it possible to get the criminals the help they need to be rehabilitated.
This essay has been concerned with introducing the basic features of biological/ individual
positivism in criminology, and the importance of the historical development of biological
positivism. It has outlined the new ideas and practices it has introduced into today's society.
According to biological positivism, criminals are different to non-criminals. Criminals are
somehow impaired and are missing something that non-criminals have. This impairment was
manifested in biological and psychological factors. Therefore, individuals did not choose to
commit a crime, but factors beyond their control had driven them to commit a crime. Unlike
the classicism approach, positivism believed that it should not only be about punishment.
Positivism aimed to reform, rehabilitate or cure. The punishment should fit the criminal, not
the crime.
Biological/Individual Positivism was developed as a theoretical approach to criminology in the
late 18th and early 19th centuries and was established by key figures Cesare Lombroso, Enrico
Ferri, and Raffaele Garofalo. These criminological positivists were the first to concern
themselves with discovering and eliminating the causes of crime and criminality. To discover
and eliminate the causes of crime and criminality, positivists engaged the methods of scientific,
rather than philosophical analysis. The main argument of biological/ individual positivism is
that crime occurs because the offender has not been sufficiently or effectively socialized, or
educated of society's values. Core principles of positivism include, the doctrine of determinism,
focus on the actor not the act, and treatment not punishment. Other core concepts of individual
positivism include rejecting metaphysical or risky approaches and adopting scientific methods.
The innovation of biological/individual positivism introduced a collection of new ideas and
practices that have contributed significantly to the growth of criminology.
Biological Positivism represents the earliest manifestation of Individual Positivism and is
associated with the Italian School of Positivist Criminology inspired by the work of Cesare
Lombroso. Lombroso was famous in the 19th century because he claimed to have discovered
the causes of crime. Lombroso's theory suggested that "criminals are distinguished from non-
criminals by the manifestation of physical anomalies that represented atavistic or degenerative
origin". Atavism means the hereditary transmission from earlier generations and ancestors.
Atavism was a term Lombroso used to describe individuals who were not fully developed.
Lombroso believed that the criminal was almost a separate species demonstrating a variety of
mental and physical characteristics separating them from the rest of society. "Specifically, he
claimed that criminals have abnormal dimensions of the skull and jaw". Lombroso's theoretical
approach was to believe that becoming a criminal was somehow to be explained through
identifying specific characteristics of individuals. On the basis of Lombroso's arguments, he
constructed and classified criminals in four main categories. Firstly, born criminals who can be
distinguished by their physical atavistic characteristics. Secondly, insane criminals who are
labeled as idiots, imbeciles, and alcoholics. Thirdly, occasional criminals are those who were
pulled into crime by their environment or situation. Finally, criminals by passion are those
motivated to commit crimes by love, anger, honor or other emotional factors.
Lombroso argued that criminology should focus primarily on the scientific study of criminals
and criminal behavior. At the end of the 19th century, it was suggested that criminality is
inherited in the same way as physical characteristics. The attempt to locate proof of genetic
transmission for criminality was focused on three areas - family studies, twin studies, and
adoption studies. Goring conducted a study with 3000 prisoners that had a history of long and
frequent sentences, and a control group of non-criminals. According to the results, the
"prisoners were inferior to the control group in terms of physical size and mental ability, while
strong associations between the criminality of children and their parents and between brothers
were found*. Osborn and West also discovered that around 40% of the sons of criminal fathers
were criminals themselves, compared to a figure of 13% for sons of non-criminal fathers. The
twin study method was been widely used in seeking to determine the influence of hereditary
in, for example, intelligence, and also in disturbances such as alcoholism, depression, and
schizophrenia. Lange examined a group of 30 men, consisting of 13 identical twins and 17
fraternal twins who all had a prison record. Lange found that in 77% of the identical twin cases,
the other brother also had a record. This percentage relationship is referred to as a criminal
concordance, meaning both members of a pair have a particular attribute. According to the
findings from previous studies, identical twins generally showed a much higher degree of
criminal concordance than fraternal twins. However, the criminal concordance was found to be
higher for both categories where more serious offenses had been committed, for example,
murder.
An alternative strategy to the use of twins is to study adopted children. "The assumption in
such work is that if adopted children resemble biological rather than adoptive parents in some
important respects, then this is potentially evidence of a genetic influence*. Research by
Hutchings and Mednick found evidence that adoptees with criminal records had a higher
proportion of biological mothers and fathers with criminal records than adoptees with no
criminal records. Researchers concluded that there was an inherited characteristic element that
was transmitted from the criminal parents to their children that increased the likelihood of the
children developing criminal behavior. Compared to the classicism approach, positivism
argued that criminals did not willingly choose to commit a crime, but instead were determined
into crime by factors beyond the criminal's control. Therefore, behavior is determined within
individuals. Positivists called this the doctrine of determinism. As the approach of positivism
grew over time, the biological and heredity concepts were reduced, and psychological and
environmental factors grew more attention. 'Focus on the actor, not the act is another core
concept of positivism, as its beliefs were to focus on the criminal rather than the crime. Bradley
and Walters also acknowledged that "if the crime is the result of factors beyond the control of
the individual, then the criminal cannot be viewed as responsible but rather as irresponsible."
The positivist aspect was not to punish criminals but to rehabilitate them. The necessary steps
to be taken would be to identity the causes of crime committed by an individual, then address
these causes. "Thus, it was the job of the expert to both identify these factors and then designed
ways of treating them".
"Positivism was founded on the belief, that there were other factors either innate to the
individual or to be found in the immediate environment which could be identified, and which
would help determine the criminal from the non-criminal". Burke acknowledged how The
Italian Positivist School denied the concept of free will and the approach of equality that was
expressed by the classism approach. Positivists replaced this with the assumption of
determinism. Today, people consider Lombroso's work to have been condensed and somewhat
laughable. However, Lombroso and other key figures made some significant contributions to
the development of modern criminological theory. 'It should be remembered that these ideas
led to rather more liberal interpretations of punishment". Burke recognizes that Lombroso
demonstrated the significance of examining clinical and historical records. Most importantly,
he recognized the need for multi-factor explanations of crime that includes not only hereditary
but also social, cultural and economic factors*. Biological/ individual positivism has
significantly impacted the criminal justice system today. The theories and concepts previously
developed have contributed to the ending of cruel, inhumane treatment of criminals and to the
reformation of the death penalty. As Walklate says that these criminals may be different and
abnormal, but they were subjected to forces outside of their control. Therefore, imprisonment
might be a more appropriate punishment than execution*. The Positivist School of thought
made it possible to get the criminals the help they need to be rehabilitated.
This essay has been concerned with introducing the basic features of biological/ individual
positivism in criminology, and the importance of the historical development of biological
positivism. It has outlined the new ideas and practices it has introduced into today's society.
According to biological positivism, criminals are different to non-criminals. Criminals are
somehow impaired and are missing something that non-criminals have. This impairment was
manifested in biological and psychological factors. Therefore, individuals did not choose to
commit a crime, but factors beyond their control had driven them to commit a crime. Unlike
the classicism approach, positivism believed that it should not only be about punishment.
Positivism aimed to reform, rehabilitate or cure. The punishment should fit the criminal, not
the crime.
Biological/Individual Positivism was developed as a theoretical approach to criminology in the
late 18th and early 19th centuries and was established by key figures Cesare Lombroso, Enrico
Ferri, and Raffaele Garofalo. These criminological positivists were the first to concern
themselves with discovering and eliminating the causes of crime and criminality. To discover
and eliminate the causes of crime and criminality, positivists engaged the methods of scientific,
rather than philosophical analysis. The main argument of biological/ individual positivism is
that crime occurs because the offender has not been sufficiently or effectively socialized, or
educated of society's values. Core principles of positivism include, the doctrine of determinism,
focus on the actor not the act, and treatment not punishment. Other core concepts of individual
positivism include rejecting metaphysical or risky approaches and adopting scientific methods.
The innovation of biological/individual positivism introduced a collection of new ideas and
practices that have contributed significantly to the growth of criminology.
Biological Positivism represents the earliest manifestation of Individual Positivism and is
associated with the Italian School of Positivist Criminology inspired by the work of Cesare
Lombroso. Lombroso was famous in the 19th century because he claimed to have discovered
the causes of crime. Lombroso's theory suggested that "criminals are distinguished from non-
criminals by the manifestation of physical anomalies that represented atavistic or degenerative
origin". Atavism means the hereditary transmission from earlier generations and ancestors.
Atavism was a term Lombroso used to describe individuals who were not fully developed.
Lombroso believed that the criminal was almost a separate species demonstrating a variety of
mental and physical characteristics separating them from the rest of society. "Specifically, he
claimed that criminals have abnormal dimensions of the skull and jaw". Lombroso's theoretical
approach was to believe that becoming a criminal was somehow to be explained through
identifying specific characteristics of individuals. On the basis of Lombroso's arguments, he
constructed and classified criminals in four main categories. Firstly, born criminals who can be
distinguished by their physical atavistic characteristics. Secondly, insane criminals who are
labeled as idiots, imbeciles, and alcoholics. Thirdly, occasional criminals are those who were
pulled into crime by their environment or situation. Finally, criminals by passion are those
motivated to commit crimes by love, anger, honor or other emotional factors.
Lombroso argued that criminology should focus primarily on the scientific study of criminals
and criminal behavior. At the end of the 19th century, it was suggested that criminality is
inherited in the same way as physical characteristics. The attempt to locate proof of genetic
transmission for criminality was focused on three areas - family studies, twin studies, and
adoption studies. Goring conducted a study with 3000 prisoners that had a history of long and
frequent sentences, and a control group of non-criminals. According to the results, the
"prisoners were inferior to the control group in terms of physical size and mental ability, while
strong associations between the criminality of children and their parents and between brothers
were found*. Osborn and West also discovered that around 40% of the sons of criminal fathers
were criminals themselves, compared to a figure of 13% for sons of non-criminal fathers. The
twin study method was been widely used in seeking to determine the influence of hereditary
in, for example, intelligence, and also in disturbances such as alcoholism, depression, and
schizophrenia. Lange examined a group of 30 men, consisting of 13 identical twins and 17
fraternal twins who all had a prison record. Lange found that in 77% of the identical twin cases,
the other brother also had a record. This percentage relationship is referred to as a criminal
concordance, meaning both members of a pair have a particular attribute. According to the
findings from previous studies, identical twins generally showed a much higher degree of
criminal concordance than fraternal twins. However, the criminal concordance was found to be
higher for both categories where more serious offenses had been committed, for example,
murder.
An alternative strategy to the use of twins is to study adopted children. "The assumption in
such work is that if adopted children resemble biological rather than adoptive parents in some
important respects, then this is potentially evidence of a genetic influence*. Research by
Hutchings and Mednick found evidence that adoptees with criminal records had a higher
proportion of biological mothers and fathers with criminal records than adoptees with no
criminal records. Researchers concluded that there was an inherited characteristic element that
was transmitted from the criminal parents to their children that increased the likelihood of the
children developing criminal behavior. Compared to the classicism approach, positivism
argued that criminals did not willingly choose to commit a crime, but instead were determined
into crime by factors beyond the criminal's control. Therefore, behavior is determined within
individuals. Positivists called this the doctrine of determinism. As the approach of positivism
grew over time, the biological and heredity concepts were reduced, and psychological and
environmental factors grew more attention. 'Focus on the actor, not the act is another core
concept of positivism, as its beliefs were to focus on the criminal rather than the crime. Bradley
and Walters also acknowledged that "if the crime is the result of factors beyond the control of
the individual, then the criminal cannot be viewed as responsible but rather as irresponsible."
The positivist aspect was not to punish criminals but to rehabilitate them. The necessary steps
to be taken would be to identity the causes of crime committed by an individual, then address
these causes. "Thus, it was the job of the expert to both identify these factors and then designed
ways of treating them".
"Positivism was founded on the belief, that there were other factors either innate to the
individual or to be found in the immediate environment which could be identified, and which
would help determine the criminal from the non-criminal". Burke acknowledged how The
Italian Positivist School denied the concept of free will and the approach of equality that was
expressed by the classism approach. Positivists replaced this with the assumption of
determinism. Today, people consider Lombroso's work to have been condensed and somewhat
laughable. However, Lombroso and other key figures made some significant contributions to
the development of modern criminological theory. 'It should be remembered that these ideas
led to rather more liberal interpretations of punishment". Burke recognizes that Lombroso
demonstrated the significance of examining clinical and historical records. Most importantly,
he recognized the need for multi-factor explanations of crime that includes not only hereditary
but also social, cultural and economic factors*. Biological/ individual positivism has
significantly impacted the criminal justice system today. The theories and concepts previously
developed have contributed to the ending of cruel, inhumane treatment of criminals and to the
reformation of the death penalty. As Walklate says that these criminals may be different and
abnormal, but they were subjected to forces outside of their control. Therefore, imprisonment
might be a more appropriate punishment than execution*. The Positivist School of thought
made it possible to get the criminals the help they need to be rehabilitated.
This essay has been concerned with introducing the basic features of biological/ individual
positivism in criminology, and the importance of the historical development of biological
positivism. It has outlined the new ideas and practices it has introduced into today's society.
According to biological positivism, criminals are different to non-criminals. Criminals are
somehow impaired and are missing something that non-criminals have. This impairment was
manifested in biological and psychological factors. Therefore, individuals did not choose to
commit a crime, but factors beyond their control had driven them to commit a crime. Unlike
the classicism approach, positivism believed that it should not only be about punishment.
Positivism aimed to reform, rehabilitate or cure. The punishment should fit the criminal, not
the crime.
Biological/Individual Positivism was developed as a theoretical approach to criminology in the
late 18th and early 19th centuries and was established by key figures Cesare Lombroso, Enrico
Ferri, and Raffaele Garofalo. These criminological positivists were the first to concern
themselves with discovering and eliminating the causes of crime and criminality. To discover
and eliminate the causes of crime and criminality, positivists engaged the methods of scientific,
rather than philosophical analysis. The main argument of biological/ individual positivism is
that crime occurs because the offender has not been sufficiently or effectively socialized, or
educated of society's values. Core principles of positivism include, the doctrine of determinism,
focus on the actor not the act, and treatment not punishment. Other core concepts of individual
positivism include rejecting metaphysical or risky approaches and adopting scientific methods.
The innovation of biological/individual positivism introduced a collection of new ideas and
practices that have contributed significantly to the growth of criminology.
Biological Positivism represents the earliest manifestation of Individual Positivism and is
associated with the Italian School of Positivist Criminology inspired by the work of Cesare
Lombroso. Lombroso was famous in the 19th century because he claimed to have discovered
the causes of crime. Lombroso's theory suggested that "criminals are distinguished from non-
criminals by the manifestation of physical anomalies that represented atavistic or degenerative
origin". Atavism means the hereditary transmission from earlier generations and ancestors.
Atavism was a term Lombroso used to describe individuals who were not fully developed.
Lombroso believed that the criminal was almost a separate species demonstrating a variety of
mental and physical characteristics separating them from the rest of society. "Specifically, he
claimed that criminals have abnormal dimensions of the skull and jaw". Lombroso's theoretical
approach was to believe that becoming a criminal was somehow to be explained through
identifying specific characteristics of individuals. On the basis of Lombroso's arguments, he
constructed and classified criminals in four main categories. Firstly, born criminals who can be
distinguished by their physical atavistic characteristics. Secondly, insane criminals who are
labeled as idiots, imbeciles, and alcoholics. Thirdly, occasional criminals are those who were
pulled into crime by their environment or situation. Finally, criminals by passion are those
motivated to commit crimes by love, anger, honor or other emotional factors.
Lombroso argued that criminology should focus primarily on the scientific study of criminals
and criminal behavior. At the end of the 19th century, it was suggested that criminality is
inherited in the same way as physical characteristics. The attempt to locate proof of genetic
transmission for criminality was focused on three areas - family studies, twin studies, and
adoption studies. Goring conducted a study with 3000 prisoners that had a history of long and
frequent sentences, and a control group of non-criminals. According to the results, the
"prisoners were inferior to the control group in terms of physical size and mental ability, while
strong associations between the criminality of children and their parents and between brothers
were found*. Osborn and West also discovered that around 40% of the sons of criminal fathers
were criminals themselves, compared to a figure of 13% for sons of non-criminal fathers. The
twin study method was been widely used in seeking to determine the influence of hereditary
in, for example, intelligence, and also in disturbances such as alcoholism, depression, and
schizophrenia. Lange examined a group of 30 men, consisting of 13 identical twins and 17
fraternal twins who all had a prison record. Lange found that in 77% of the identical twin cases,
the other brother also had a record. This percentage relationship is referred to as a criminal
concordance, meaning both members of a pair have a particular attribute. According to the
findings from previous studies, identical twins generally showed a much higher degree of
criminal concordance than fraternal twins. However, the criminal concordance was found to be
higher for both categories where more serious offenses had been committed, for example,
murder.
An alternative strategy to the use of twins is to study adopted children. "The assumption in
such work is that if adopted children resemble biological rather than adoptive parents in some
important respects, then this is potentially evidence of a genetic influence*. Research by
Hutchings and Mednick found evidence that adoptees with criminal records had a higher
proportion of biological mothers and fathers with criminal records than adoptees with no
criminal records. Researchers concluded that there was an inherited characteristic element that
was transmitted from the criminal parents to their children that increased the likelihood of the
children developing criminal behavior. Compared to the classicism approach, positivism
argued that criminals did not willingly choose to commit a crime, but instead were determined
into crime by factors beyond the criminal's control. Therefore, behavior is determined within
individuals. Positivists called this the doctrine of determinism. As the approach of positivism
grew over time, the biological and heredity concepts were reduced, and psychological and
environmental factors grew more attention. 'Focus on the actor, not the act is another core
concept of positivism, as its beliefs were to focus on the criminal rather than the crime. Bradley
and Walters also acknowledged that "if the crime is the result of factors beyond the control of
the individual, then the criminal cannot be viewed as responsible but rather as irresponsible."
The positivist aspect was not to punish criminals but to rehabilitate them. The necessary steps
to be taken would be to identity the causes of crime committed by an individual, then address
these causes. "Thus, it was the job of the expert to both identify these factors and then designed
ways of treating them".
"Positivism was founded on the belief, that there were other factors either innate to the
individual or to be found in the immediate environment which could be identified, and which
would help determine the criminal from the non-criminal". Burke acknowledged how The
Italian Positivist School denied the concept of free will and the approach of equality that was
expressed by the classism approach. Positivists replaced this with the assumption of
determinism. Today, people consider Lombroso's work to have been condensed and somewhat
laughable. However, Lombroso and other key figures made some significant contributions to
the development of modern criminological theory. 'It should be remembered that these ideas
led to rather more liberal interpretations of punishment". Burke recognizes that Lombroso
demonstrated the significance of examining clinical and historical records. Most importantly,
he recognized the need for multi-factor explanations of crime that includes not only hereditary
but also social, cultural and economic factors*. Biological/ individual positivism has
significantly impacted the criminal justice system today. The theories and concepts previously
developed have contributed to the ending of cruel, inhumane treatment of criminals and to the
reformation of the death penalty. As Walklate says that these criminals may be different and
abnormal, but they were subjected to forces outside of their control. Therefore, imprisonment
might be a more appropriate punishment than execution*. The Positivist School of thought
made it possible to get the criminals the help they need to be rehabilitated.
This essay has been concerned with introducing the basic features of biological/ individual
positivism in criminology, and the importance of the historical development of biological
positivism. It has outlined the new ideas and practices it has introduced into today's society.
According to biological positivism, criminals are different to non-criminals. Criminals are
somehow impaired and are missing something that non-criminals have. This impairment was
manifested in biological and psychological factors. Therefore, individuals did not choose to
commit a crime, but factors beyond their control had driven them to commit a crime. Unlike
the classicism approach, positivism believed that it should not only be about punishment.
Positivism aimed to reform, rehabilitate or cure. The punishment should fit the criminal, not
the crime.
Biological/Individual Positivism was developed as a theoretical approach to criminology in the
late 18th and early 19th centuries and was established by key figures Cesare Lombroso, Enrico
Ferri, and Raffaele Garofalo. These criminological positivists were the first to concern
themselves with discovering and eliminating the causes of crime and criminality. To discover
and eliminate the causes of crime and criminality, positivists engaged the methods of scientific,
rather than philosophical analysis. The main argument of biological/ individual positivism is
that crime occurs because the offender has not been sufficiently or effectively socialized, or
educated of society's values. Core principles of positivism include, the doctrine of determinism,
focus on the actor not the act, and treatment not punishment. Other core concepts of individual
positivism include rejecting metaphysical or risky approaches and adopting scientific methods.
The innovation of biological/individual positivism introduced a collection of new ideas and
practices that have contributed significantly to the growth of criminology.
Biological Positivism represents the earliest manifestation of Individual Positivism and is
associated with the Italian School of Positivist Criminology inspired by the work of Cesare
Lombroso. Lombroso was famous in the 19th century because he claimed to have discovered
the causes of crime. Lombroso's theory suggested that "criminals are distinguished from non-
criminals by the manifestation of physical anomalies that represented atavistic or degenerative
origin". Atavism means the hereditary transmission from earlier generations and ancestors.
Atavism was a term Lombroso used to describe individuals who were not fully developed.
Lombroso believed that the criminal was almost a separate species demonstrating a variety of
mental and physical characteristics separating them from the rest of society. "Specifically, he
claimed that criminals have abnormal dimensions of the skull and jaw". Lombroso's theoretical
approach was to believe that becoming a criminal was somehow to be explained through
identifying specific characteristics of individuals. On the basis of Lombroso's arguments, he
constructed and classified criminals in four main categories. Firstly, born criminals who can be
distinguished by their physical atavistic characteristics. Secondly, insane criminals who are
labeled as idiots, imbeciles, and alcoholics. Thirdly, occasional criminals are those who were
pulled into crime by their environment or situation. Finally, criminals by passion are those
motivated to commit crimes by love, anger, honor or other emotional factors.
Lombroso argued that criminology should focus primarily on the scientific study of criminals
and criminal behavior. At the end of the 19th century, it was suggested that criminality is
inherited in the same way as physical characteristics. The attempt to locate proof of genetic
transmission for criminality was focused on three areas - family studies, twin studies, and
adoption studies. Goring conducted a study with 3000 prisoners that had a history of long and
frequent sentences, and a control group of non-criminals. According to the results, the
"prisoners were inferior to the control group in terms of physical size and mental ability, while
strong associations between the criminality of children and their parents and between brothers
were found*. Osborn and West also discovered that around 40% of the sons of criminal fathers
were criminals themselves, compared to a figure of 13% for sons of non-criminal fathers. The
twin study method was been widely used in seeking to determine the influence of hereditary
in, for example, intelligence, and also in disturbances such as alcoholism, depression, and
schizophrenia. Lange examined a group of 30 men, consisting of 13 identical twins and 17
fraternal twins who all had a prison record. Lange found that in 77% of the identical twin cases,
the other brother also had a record. This percentage relationship is referred to as a criminal
concordance, meaning both members of a pair have a particular attribute. According to the
findings from previous studies, identical twins generally showed a much higher degree of
criminal concordance than fraternal twins. However, the criminal concordance was found to be
higher for both categories where more serious offenses had been committed, for example,
murder.
An alternative strategy to the use of twins is to study adopted children. "The assumption in
such work is that if adopted children resemble biological rather than adoptive parents in some
important respects, then this is potentially evidence of a genetic influence*. Research by
Hutchings and Mednick found evidence that adoptees with criminal records had a higher
proportion of biological mothers and fathers with criminal records than adoptees with no
criminal records. Researchers concluded that there was an inherited characteristic element that
was transmitted from the criminal parents to their children that increased the likelihood of the
children developing criminal behavior. Compared to the classicism approach, positivism
argued that criminals did not willingly choose to commit a crime, but instead were determined
into crime by factors beyond the criminal's control. Therefore, behavior is determined within
individuals. Positivists called this the doctrine of determinism. As the approach of positivism
grew over time, the biological and heredity concepts were reduced, and psychological and
environmental factors grew more attention. 'Focus on the actor, not the act is another core
concept of positivism, as its beliefs were to focus on the criminal rather than the crime. Bradley
and Walters also acknowledged that "if the crime is the result of factors beyond the control of
the individual, then the criminal cannot be viewed as responsible but rather as irresponsible."
The positivist aspect was not to punish criminals but to rehabilitate them. The necessary steps
to be taken would be to identity the causes of crime committed by an individual, then address
these causes. "Thus, it was the job of the expert to both identify these factors and then designed
ways of treating them".
"Positivism was founded on the belief, that there were other factors either innate to the
individual or to be found in the immediate environment which could be identified, and which
would help determine the criminal from the non-criminal". Burke acknowledged how The
Italian Positivist School denied the concept of free will and the approach of equality that was
expressed by the classism approach. Positivists replaced this with the assumption of
determinism. Today, people consider Lombroso's work to have been condensed and somewhat
laughable. However, Lombroso and other key figures made some significant contributions to
the development of modern criminological theory. 'It should be remembered that these ideas
led to rather more liberal interpretations of punishment". Burke recognizes that Lombroso
demonstrated the significance of examining clinical and historical records. Most importantly,
he recognized the need for multi-factor explanations of crime that includes not only hereditary
but also social, cultural and economic factors*. Biological/ individual positivism has
significantly impacted the criminal justice system today. The theories and concepts previously
developed have contributed to the ending of cruel, inhumane treatment of criminals and to the
reformation of the death penalty. As Walklate says that these criminals may be different and
abnormal, but they were subjected to forces outside of their control. Therefore, imprisonment
might be a more appropriate punishment than execution*. The Positivist School of thought
made it possible to get the criminals the help they need to be rehabilitated.
This essay has been concerned with introducing the basic features of biological/ individual
positivism in criminology, and the importance of the historical development of biological
positivism. It has outlined the new ideas and practices it has introduced into today's society.
According to biological positivism, criminals are different to non-criminals. Criminals are
somehow impaired and are missing something that non-criminals have. This impairment was
manifested in biological and psychological factors. Therefore, individuals did not choose to
commit a crime, but factors beyond their control had driven them to commit a crime. Unlike
the classicism approach, positivism believed that it should not only be about punishment.
Positivism aimed to reform, rehabilitate or cure. The punishment should fit the criminal, not
the crime.
Biological/Individual Positivism was developed as a theoretical approach to criminology in the
late 18th and early 19th centuries and was established by key figures Cesare Lombroso, Enrico
Ferri, and Raffaele Garofalo. These criminological positivists were the first to concern
themselves with discovering and eliminating the causes of crime and criminality. To discover
and eliminate the causes of crime and criminality, positivists engaged the methods of scientific,
rather than philosophical analysis. The main argument of biological/ individual positivism is
that crime occurs because the offender has not been sufficiently or effectively socialized, or
educated of society's values. Core principles of positivism include, the doctrine of determinism,
focus on the actor not the act, and treatment not punishment. Other core concepts of individual
positivism include rejecting metaphysical or risky approaches and adopting scientific methods.
The innovation of biological/individual positivism introduced a collection of new ideas and
practices that have contributed significantly to the growth of criminology.
Biological Positivism represents the earliest manifestation of Individual Positivism and is
associated with the Italian School of Positivist Criminology inspired by the work of Cesare
Lombroso. Lombroso was famous in the 19th century because he claimed to have discovered
the causes of crime. Lombroso's theory suggested that "criminals are distinguished from non-
criminals by the manifestation of physical anomalies that represented atavistic or degenerative
origin". Atavism means the hereditary transmission from earlier generations and ancestors.
Atavism was a term Lombroso used to describe individuals who were not fully developed.
Lombroso believed that the criminal was almost a separate species demonstrating a variety of
mental and physical characteristics separating them from the rest of society. "Specifically, he
claimed that criminals have abnormal dimensions of the skull and jaw". Lombroso's theoretical
approach was to believe that becoming a criminal was somehow to be explained through
identifying specific characteristics of individuals. On the basis of Lombroso's arguments, he
constructed and classified criminals in four main categories. Firstly, born criminals who can be
distinguished by their physical atavistic characteristics. Secondly, insane criminals who are
labeled as idiots, imbeciles, and alcoholics. Thirdly, occasional criminals are those who were
pulled into crime by their environment or situation. Finally, criminals by passion are those
motivated to commit crimes by love, anger, honor or other emotional factors.
Lombroso argued that criminology should focus primarily on the scientific study of criminals
and criminal behavior. At the end of the 19th century, it was suggested that criminality is
inherited in the same way as physical characteristics. The attempt to locate proof of genetic
transmission for criminality was focused on three areas - family studies, twin studies, and
adoption studies. Goring conducted a study with 3000 prisoners that had a history of long and
frequent sentences, and a control group of non-criminals. According to the results, the
"prisoners were inferior to the control group in terms of physical size and mental ability, while
strong associations between the criminality of children and their parents and between brothers
were found*. Osborn and West also discovered that around 40% of the sons of criminal fathers
were criminals themselves, compared to a figure of 13% for sons of non-criminal fathers. The
twin study method was been widely used in seeking to determine the influence of hereditary
in, for example, intelligence, and also in disturbances such as alcoholism, depression, and
schizophrenia. Lange examined a group of 30 men, consisting of 13 identical twins and 17
fraternal twins who all had a prison record. Lange found that in 77% of the identical twin cases,
the other brother also had a record. This percentage relationship is referred to as a criminal
concordance, meaning both members of a pair have a particular attribute. According to the
findings from previous studies, identical twins generally showed a much higher degree of
criminal concordance than fraternal twins. However, the criminal concordance was found to be
higher for both categories where more serious offenses had been committed, for example,
murder.
An alternative strategy to the use of twins is to study adopted children. "The assumption in
such work is that if adopted children resemble biological rather than adoptive parents in some
important respects, then this is potentially evidence of a genetic influence*. Research by
Hutchings and Mednick found evidence that adoptees with criminal records had a higher
proportion of biological mothers and fathers with criminal records than adoptees with no
criminal records. Researchers concluded that there was an inherited characteristic element that
was transmitted from the criminal parents to their children that increased the likelihood of the
children developing criminal behavior. Compared to the classicism approach, positivism
argued that criminals did not willingly choose to commit a crime, but instead were determined
into crime by factors beyond the criminal's control. Therefore, behavior is determined within
individuals. Positivists called this the doctrine of determinism. As the approach of positivism
grew over time, the biological and heredity concepts were reduced, and psychological and
environmental factors grew more attention. 'Focus on the actor, not the act is another core
concept of positivism, as its beliefs were to focus on the criminal rather than the crime. Bradley
and Walters also acknowledged that "if the crime is the result of factors beyond the control of
the individual, then the criminal cannot be viewed as responsible but rather as irresponsible."
The positivist aspect was not to punish criminals but to rehabilitate them. The necessary steps
to be taken would be to identity the causes of crime committed by an individual, then address
these causes. "Thus, it was the job of the expert to both identify these factors and then designed
ways of treating them".
"Positivism was founded on the belief, that there were other factors either innate to the
individual or to be found in the immediate environment which could be identified, and which
would help determine the criminal from the non-criminal". Burke acknowledged how The
Italian Positivist School denied the concept of free will and the approach of equality that was
expressed by the classism approach. Positivists replaced this with the assumption of
determinism. Today, people consider Lombroso's work to have been condensed and somewhat
laughable. However, Lombroso and other key figures made some significant contributions to
the development of modern criminological theory. 'It should be remembered that these ideas
led to rather more liberal interpretations of punishment". Burke recognizes that Lombroso
demonstrated the significance of examining clinical and historical records. Most importantly,
he recognized the need for multi-factor explanations of crime that includes not only hereditary
but also social, cultural and economic factors*. Biological/ individual positivism has
significantly impacted the criminal justice system today. The theories and concepts previously
developed have contributed to the ending of cruel, inhumane treatment of criminals and to the
reformation of the death penalty. As Walklate says that these criminals may be different and
abnormal, but they were subjected to forces outside of their control. Therefore, imprisonment
might be a more appropriate punishment than execution*. The Positivist School of thought
made it possible to get the criminals the help they need to be rehabilitated.
This essay has been concerned with introducing the basic features of biological/ individual
positivism in criminology, and the importance of the historical development of biological
positivism. It has outlined the new ideas and practices it has introduced into today's society.
According to biological positivism, criminals are different to non-criminals. Criminals are
somehow impaired and are missing something that non-criminals have. This impairment was
manifested in biological and psychological factors. Therefore, individuals did not choose to
commit a crime, but factors beyond their control had driven them to commit a crime. Unlike
the classicism approach, positivism believed that it should not only be about punishment.
Positivism aimed to reform, rehabilitate or cure. The punishment should fit the criminal, not
the crime.
Biological/Individual Positivism was developed as a theoretical approach to criminology in the
late 18th and early 19th centuries and was established by key figures Cesare Lombroso, Enrico
Ferri, and Raffaele Garofalo. These criminological positivists were the first to concern
themselves with discovering and eliminating the causes of crime and criminality. To discover
and eliminate the causes of crime and criminality, positivists engaged the methods of scientific,
rather than philosophical analysis. The main argument of biological/ individual positivism is
that crime occurs because the offender has not been sufficiently or effectively socialized, or
educated of society's values. Core principles of positivism include, the doctrine of determinism,
focus on the actor not the act, and treatment not punishment. Other core concepts of individual
positivism include rejecting metaphysical or risky approaches and adopting scientific methods.
The innovation of biological/individual positivism introduced a collection of new ideas and
practices that have contributed significantly to the growth of criminology.
Biological Positivism represents the earliest manifestation of Individual Positivism and is
associated with the Italian School of Positivist Criminology inspired by the work of Cesare
Lombroso. Lombroso was famous in the 19th century because he claimed to have discovered
the causes of crime. Lombroso's theory suggested that "criminals are distinguished from non-
criminals by the manifestation of physical anomalies that represented atavistic or degenerative
origin". Atavism means the hereditary transmission from earlier generations and ancestors.
Atavism was a term Lombroso used to describe individuals who were not fully developed.
Lombroso believed that the criminal was almost a separate species demonstrating a variety of
mental and physical characteristics separating them from the rest of society. "Specifically, he
claimed that criminals have abnormal dimensions of the skull and jaw". Lombroso's theoretical
approach was to believe that becoming a criminal was somehow to be explained through
identifying specific characteristics of individuals. On the basis of Lombroso's arguments, he
constructed and classified criminals in four main categories. Firstly, born criminals who can be
distinguished by their physical atavistic characteristics. Secondly, insane criminals who are
labeled as idiots, imbeciles, and alcoholics. Thirdly, occasional criminals are those who were
pulled into crime by their environment or situation. Finally, criminals by passion are those
motivated to commit crimes by love, anger, honor or other emotional factors.
Lombroso argued that criminology should focus primarily on the scientific study of criminals
and criminal behavior. At the end of the 19th century, it was suggested that criminality is
inherited in the same way as physical characteristics. The attempt to locate proof of genetic
transmission for criminality was focused on three areas - family studies, twin studies, and
adoption studies. Goring conducted a study with 3000 prisoners that had a history of long and
frequent sentences, and a control group of non-criminals. According to the results, the
"prisoners were inferior to the control group in terms of physical size and mental ability, while
strong associations between the criminality of children and their parents and between brothers
were found*. Osborn and West also discovered that around 40% of the sons of criminal fathers
were criminals themselves, compared to a figure of 13% for sons of non-criminal fathers. The
twin study method was been widely used in seeking to determine the influence of hereditary
in, for example, intelligence, and also in disturbances such as alcoholism, depression, and
schizophrenia. Lange examined a group of 30 men, consisting of 13 identical twins and 17
fraternal twins who all had a prison record. Lange found that in 77% of the identical twin cases,
the other brother also had a record. This percentage relationship is referred to as a criminal
concordance, meaning both members of a pair have a particular attribute. According to the
findings from previous studies, identical twins generally showed a much higher degree of
criminal concordance than fraternal twins. However, the criminal concordance was found to be
higher for both categories where more serious offenses had been committed, for example,
murder.
An alternative strategy to the use of twins is to study adopted children. "The assumption in
such work is that if adopted children resemble biological rather than adoptive parents in some
important respects, then this is potentially evidence of a genetic influence*. Research by
Hutchings and Mednick found evidence that adoptees with criminal records had a higher
proportion of biological mothers and fathers with criminal records than adoptees with no
criminal records. Researchers concluded that there was an inherited characteristic element that
was transmitted from the criminal parents to their children that increased the likelihood of the
children developing criminal behavior. Compared to the classicism approach, positivism
argued that criminals did not willingly choose to commit a crime, but instead were determined
into crime by factors beyond the criminal's control. Therefore, behavior is determined within
individuals. Positivists called this the doctrine of determinism. As the approach of positivism
grew over time, the biological and heredity concepts were reduced, and psychological and
environmental factors grew more attention. 'Focus on the actor, not the act is another core
concept of positivism, as its beliefs were to focus on the criminal rather than the crime. Bradley
and Walters also acknowledged that "if the crime is the result of factors beyond the control of
the individual, then the criminal cannot be viewed as responsible but rather as irresponsible."
The positivist aspect was not to punish criminals but to rehabilitate them. The necessary steps
to be taken would be to identity the causes of crime committed by an individual, then address
these causes. "Thus, it was the job of the expert to both identify these factors and then designed
ways of treating them".
"Positivism was founded on the belief, that there were other factors either innate to the
individual or to be found in the immediate environment which could be identified, and which
would help determine the criminal from the non-criminal". Burke acknowledged how The
Italian Positivist School denied the concept of free will and the approach of equality that was
expressed by the classism approach. Positivists replaced this with the assumption of
determinism. Today, people consider Lombroso's work to have been condensed and somewhat
laughable. However, Lombroso and other key figures made some significant contributions to
the development of modern criminological theory. 'It should be remembered that these ideas
led to rather more liberal interpretations of punishment". Burke recognizes that Lombroso
demonstrated the significance of examining clinical and historical records. Most importantly,
he recognized the need for multi-factor explanations of crime that includes not only hereditary
but also social, cultural and economic factors*. Biological/ individual positivism has
significantly impacted the criminal justice system today. The theories and concepts previously
developed have contributed to the ending of cruel, inhumane treatment of criminals and to the
reformation of the death penalty. As Walklate says that these criminals may be different and
abnormal, but they were subjected to forces outside of their control. Therefore, imprisonment
might be a more appropriate punishment than execution*. The Positivist School of thought
made it possible to get the criminals the help they need to be rehabilitated.
This essay has been concerned with introducing the basic features of biological/ individual
positivism in criminology, and the importance of the historical development of biological
positivism. It has outlined the new ideas and practices it has introduced into today's society.
According to biological positivism, criminals are different to non-criminals. Criminals are
somehow impaired and are missing something that non-criminals have. This impairment was
manifested in biological and psychological factors. Therefore, individuals did not choose to
commit a crime, but factors beyond their control had driven them to commit a crime. Unlike
the classicism approach, positivism believed that it should not only be about punishment.
Positivism aimed to reform, rehabilitate or cure. The punishment should fit the criminal, not
the crime.
Biological/Individual Positivism was developed as a theoretical approach to criminology in the
late 18th and early 19th centuries and was established by key figures Cesare Lombroso, Enrico
Ferri, and Raffaele Garofalo. These criminological positivists were the first to concern
themselves with discovering and eliminating the causes of crime and criminality. To discover
and eliminate the causes of crime and criminality, positivists engaged the methods of scientific,
rather than philosophical analysis. The main argument of biological/ individual positivism is
that crime occurs because the offender has not been sufficiently or effectively socialized, or
educated of society's values. Core principles of positivism include, the doctrine of determinism,
focus on the actor not the act, and treatment not punishment. Other core concepts of individual
positivism include rejecting metaphysical or risky approaches and adopting scientific methods.
The innovation of biological/individual positivism introduced a collection of new ideas and
practices that have contributed significantly to the growth of criminology.
Biological Positivism represents the earliest manifestation of Individual Positivism and is
associated with the Italian School of Positivist Criminology inspired by the work of Cesare
Lombroso. Lombroso was famous in the 19th century because he claimed to have discovered
the causes of crime. Lombroso's theory suggested that "criminals are distinguished from non-
criminals by the manifestation of physical anomalies that represented atavistic or degenerative
origin". Atavism means the hereditary transmission from earlier generations and ancestors.
Atavism was a term Lombroso used to describe individuals who were not fully developed.
Lombroso believed that the criminal was almost a separate species demonstrating a variety of
mental and physical characteristics separating them from the rest of society. "Specifically, he
claimed that criminals have abnormal dimensions of the skull and jaw". Lombroso's theoretical
approach was to believe that becoming a criminal was somehow to be explained through
identifying specific characteristics of individuals. On the basis of Lombroso's arguments, he
constructed and classified criminals in four main categories. Firstly, born criminals who can be
distinguished by their physical atavistic characteristics. Secondly, insane criminals who are
labeled as idiots, imbeciles, and alcoholics. Thirdly, occasional criminals are those who were
pulled into crime by their environment or situation. Finally, criminals by passion are those
motivated to commit crimes by love, anger, honor or other emotional factors.
Lombroso argued that criminology should focus primarily on the scientific study of criminals
and criminal behavior. At the end of the 19th century, it was suggested that criminality is
inherited in the same way as physical characteristics. The attempt to locate proof of genetic
transmission for criminality was focused on three areas - family studies, twin studies, and
adoption studies. Goring conducted a study with 3000 prisoners that had a history of long and
frequent sentences, and a control group of non-criminals. According to the results, the
"prisoners were inferior to the control group in terms of physical size and mental ability, while
strong associations between the criminality of children and their parents and between brothers
were found*. Osborn and West also discovered that around 40% of the sons of criminal fathers
were criminals themselves, compared to a figure of 13% for sons of non-criminal fathers. The
twin study method was been widely used in seeking to determine the influence of hereditary
in, for example, intelligence, and also in disturbances such as alcoholism, depression, and
schizophrenia. Lange examined a group of 30 men, consisting of 13 identical twins and 17
fraternal twins who all had a prison record. Lange found that in 77% of the identical twin cases,
the other brother also had a record. This percentage relationship is referred to as a criminal
concordance, meaning both members of a pair have a particular attribute. According to the
findings from previous studies, identical twins generally showed a much higher degree of
criminal concordance than fraternal twins. However, the criminal concordance was found to be
higher for both categories where more serious offenses had been committed, for example,
murder.
An alternative strategy to the use of twins is to study adopted children. "The assumption in
such work is that if adopted children resemble biological rather than adoptive parents in some
important respects, then this is potentially evidence of a genetic influence*. Research by
Hutchings and Mednick found evidence that adoptees with criminal records had a higher
proportion of biological mothers and fathers with criminal records than adoptees with no
criminal records. Researchers concluded that there was an inherited characteristic element that
was transmitted from the criminal parents to their children that increased the likelihood of the
children developing criminal behavior. Compared to the classicism approach, positivism
argued that criminals did not willingly choose to commit a crime, but instead were determined
into crime by factors beyond the criminal's control. Therefore, behavior is determined within
individuals. Positivists called this the doctrine of determinism. As the approach of positivism
grew over time, the biological and heredity concepts were reduced, and psychological and
environmental factors grew more attention. 'Focus on the actor, not the act is another core
concept of positivism, as its beliefs were to focus on the criminal rather than the crime. Bradley
and Walters also acknowledged that "if the crime is the result of factors beyond the control of
the individual, then the criminal cannot be viewed as responsible but rather as irresponsible."
The positivist aspect was not to punish criminals but to rehabilitate them. The necessary steps
to be taken would be to identity the causes of crime committed by an individual, then address
these causes. "Thus, it was the job of the expert to both identify these factors and then designed
ways of treating them".
"Positivism was founded on the belief, that there were other factors either innate to the
individual or to be found in the immediate environment which could be identified, and which
would help determine the criminal from the non-criminal". Burke acknowledged how The
Italian Positivist School denied the concept of free will and the approach of equality that was
expressed by the classism approach. Positivists replaced this with the assumption of
determinism. Today, people consider Lombroso's work to have been condensed and somewhat
laughable. However, Lombroso and other key figures made some significant contributions to
the development of modern criminological theory. 'It should be remembered that these ideas
led to rather more liberal interpretations of punishment". Burke recognizes that Lombroso
demonstrated the significance of examining clinical and historical records. Most importantly,
he recognized the need for multi-factor explanations of crime that includes not only hereditary
but also social, cultural and economic factors*. Biological/ individual positivism has
significantly impacted the criminal justice system today. The theories and concepts previously
developed have contributed to the ending of cruel, inhumane treatment of criminals and to the
reformation of the death penalty. As Walklate says that these criminals may be different and
abnormal, but they were subjected to forces outside of their control. Therefore, imprisonment
might be a more appropriate punishment than execution*. The Positivist School of thought
made it possible to get the criminals the help they need to be rehabilitated.
This essay has been concerned with introducing the basic features of biological/ individual
positivism in criminology, and the importance of the historical development of biological
positivism. It has outlined the new ideas and practices it has introduced into today's society.
According to biological positivism, criminals are different to non-criminals. Criminals are
somehow impaired and are missing something that non-criminals have. This impairment was
manifested in biological and psychological factors. Therefore, individuals did not choose to
commit a crime, but factors beyond their control had driven them to commit a crime. Unlike
the classicism approach, positivism believed that it should not only be about punishment.
Positivism aimed to reform, rehabilitate or cure. The punishment should fit the criminal, not
the crime.
Biological/Individual Positivism was developed as a theoretical approach to criminology in the
late 18th and early 19th centuries and was established by key figures Cesare Lombroso, Enrico
Ferri, and Raffaele Garofalo. These criminological positivists were the first to concern
themselves with discovering and eliminating the causes of crime and criminality. To discover
and eliminate the causes of crime and criminality, positivists engaged the methods of scientific,
rather than philosophical analysis. The main argument of biological/ individual positivism is
that crime occurs because the offender has not been sufficiently or effectively socialized, or
educated of society's values. Core principles of positivism include, the doctrine of determinism,
focus on the actor not the act, and treatment not punishment. Other core concepts of individual
positivism include rejecting metaphysical or risky approaches and adopting scientific methods.
The innovation of biological/individual positivism introduced a collection of new ideas and
practices that have contributed significantly to the growth of criminology.
Biological Positivism represents the earliest manifestation of Individual Positivism and is
associated with the Italian School of Positivist Criminology inspired by the work of Cesare
Lombroso. Lombroso was famous in the 19th century because he claimed to have discovered
the causes of crime. Lombroso's theory suggested that "criminals are distinguished from non-
criminals by the manifestation of physical anomalies that represented atavistic or degenerative
origin". Atavism means the hereditary transmission from earlier generations and ancestors.
Atavism was a term Lombroso used to describe individuals who were not fully developed.
Lombroso believed that the criminal was almost a separate species demonstrating a variety of
mental and physical characteristics separating them from the rest of society. "Specifically, he
claimed that criminals have abnormal dimensions of the skull and jaw". Lombroso's theoretical
approach was to believe that becoming a criminal was somehow to be explained through
identifying specific characteristics of individuals. On the basis of Lombroso's arguments, he
constructed and classified criminals in four main categories. Firstly, born criminals who can be
distinguished by their physical atavistic characteristics. Secondly, insane criminals who are
labeled as idiots, imbeciles, and alcoholics. Thirdly, occasional criminals are those who were
pulled into crime by their environment or situation. Finally, criminals by passion are those
motivated to commit crimes by love, anger, honor or other emotional factors.
Lombroso argued that criminology should focus primarily on the scientific study of criminals
and criminal behavior. At the end of the 19th century, it was suggested that criminality is
inherited in the same way as physical characteristics. The attempt to locate proof of genetic
transmission for criminality was focused on three areas - family studies, twin studies, and
adoption studies. Goring conducted a study with 3000 prisoners that had a history of long and
frequent sentences, and a control group of non-criminals. According to the results, the
"prisoners were inferior to the control group in terms of physical size and mental ability, while
strong associations between the criminality of children and their parents and between brothers
were found*. Osborn and West also discovered that around 40% of the sons of criminal fathers
were criminals themselves, compared to a figure of 13% for sons of non-criminal fathers. The
twin study method was been widely used in seeking to determine the influence of hereditary
in, for example, intelligence, and also in disturbances such as alcoholism, depression, and
schizophrenia. Lange examined a group of 30 men, consisting of 13 identical twins and 17
fraternal twins who all had a prison record. Lange found that in 77% of the identical twin cases,
the other brother also had a record. This percentage relationship is referred to as a criminal
concordance, meaning both members of a pair have a particular attribute. According to the
findings from previous studies, identical twins generally showed a much higher degree of
criminal concordance than fraternal twins. However, the criminal concordance was found to be
higher for both categories where more serious offenses had been committed, for example,
murder.
An alternative strategy to the use of twins is to study adopted children. "The assumption in
such work is that if adopted children resemble biological rather than adoptive parents in some
important respects, then this is potentially evidence of a genetic influence*. Research by
Hutchings and Mednick found evidence that adoptees with criminal records had a higher
proportion of biological mothers and fathers with criminal records than adoptees with no
criminal records. Researchers concluded that there was an inherited characteristic element that
was transmitted from the criminal parents to their children that increased the likelihood of the
children developing criminal behavior. Compared to the classicism approach, positivism
argued that criminals did not willingly choose to commit a crime, but instead were determined
into crime by factors beyond the criminal's control. Therefore, behavior is determined within
individuals. Positivists called this the doctrine of determinism. As the approach of positivism
grew over time, the biological and heredity concepts were reduced, and psychological and
environmental factors grew more attention. 'Focus on the actor, not the act is another core
concept of positivism, as its beliefs were to focus on the criminal rather than the crime. Bradley
and Walters also acknowledged that "if the crime is the result of factors beyond the control of
the individual, then the criminal cannot be viewed as responsible but rather as irresponsible."
The positivist aspect was not to punish criminals but to rehabilitate them. The necessary steps
to be taken would be to identity the causes of crime committed by an individual, then address
these causes. "Thus, it was the job of the expert to both identify these factors and then designed
ways of treating them".
"Positivism was founded on the belief, that there were other factors either innate to the
individual or to be found in the immediate environment which could be identified, and which
would help determine the criminal from the non-criminal". Burke acknowledged how The
Italian Positivist School denied the concept of free will and the approach of equality that was
expressed by the classism approach. Positivists replaced this with the assumption of
determinism. Today, people consider Lombroso's work to have been condensed and somewhat
laughable. However, Lombroso and other key figures made some significant contributions to
the development of modern criminological theory. 'It should be remembered that these ideas
led to rather more liberal interpretations of punishment". Burke recognizes that Lombroso
demonstrated the significance of examining clinical and historical records. Most importantly,
he recognized the need for multi-factor explanations of crime that includes not only hereditary
but also social, cultural and economic factors*. Biological/ individual positivism has
significantly impacted the criminal justice system today. The theories and concepts previously
developed have contributed to the ending of cruel, inhumane treatment of criminals and to the
reformation of the death penalty. As Walklate says that these criminals may be different and
abnormal, but they were subjected to forces outside of their control. Therefore, imprisonment
might be a more appropriate punishment than execution*. The Positivist School of thought
made it possible to get the criminals the help they need to be rehabilitated.
This essay has been concerned with introducing the basic features of biological/ individual
positivism in criminology, and the importance of the historical development of biological
positivism. It has outlined the new ideas and practices it has introduced into today's society.
According to biological positivism, criminals are different to non-criminals. Criminals are
somehow impaired and are missing something that non-criminals have. This impairment was
manifested in biological and psychological factors. Therefore, individuals did not choose to
commit a crime, but factors beyond their control had driven them to commit a crime. Unlike
the classicism approach, positivism believed that it should not only be about punishment.
Positivism aimed to reform, rehabilitate or cure. The punishment should fit the criminal, not
the crime.
Biological/Individual Positivism was developed as a theoretical approach to criminology in the
late 18th and early 19th centuries and was established by key figures Cesare Lombroso, Enrico
Ferri, and Raffaele Garofalo. These criminological positivists were the first to concern
themselves with discovering and eliminating the causes of crime and criminality. To discover
and eliminate the causes of crime and criminality, positivists engaged the methods of scientific,
rather than philosophical analysis. The main argument of biological/ individual positivism is
that crime occurs because the offender has not been sufficiently or effectively socialized, or
educated of society's values. Core principles of positivism include, the doctrine of determinism,
focus on the actor not the act, and treatment not punishment. Other core concepts of individual
positivism include rejecting metaphysical or risky approaches and adopting scientific methods.
The innovation of biological/individual positivism introduced a collection of new ideas and
practices that have contributed significantly to the growth of criminology.
Biological Positivism represents the earliest manifestation of Individual Positivism and is
associated with the Italian School of Positivist Criminology inspired by the work of Cesare
Lombroso. Lombroso was famous in the 19th century because he claimed to have discovered
the causes of crime. Lombroso's theory suggested that "criminals are distinguished from non-
criminals by the manifestation of physical anomalies that represented atavistic or degenerative
origin". Atavism means the hereditary transmission from earlier generations and ancestors.
Atavism was a term Lombroso used to describe individuals who were not fully developed.
Lombroso believed that the criminal was almost a separate species demonstrating a variety of
mental and physical characteristics separating them from the rest of society. "Specifically, he
claimed that criminals have abnormal dimensions of the skull and jaw". Lombroso's theoretical
approach was to believe that becoming a criminal was somehow to be explained through
identifying specific characteristics of individuals. On the basis of Lombroso's arguments, he
constructed and classified criminals in four main categories. Firstly, born criminals who can be
distinguished by their physical atavistic characteristics. Secondly, insane criminals who are
labeled as idiots, imbeciles, and alcoholics. Thirdly, occasional criminals are those who were
pulled into crime by their environment or situation. Finally, criminals by passion are those
motivated to commit crimes by love, anger, honor or other emotional factors.
Lombroso argued that criminology should focus primarily on the scientific study of criminals
and criminal behavior. At the end of the 19th century, it was suggested that criminality is
inherited in the same way as physical characteristics. The attempt to locate proof of genetic
transmission for criminality was focused on three areas - family studies, twin studies, and
adoption studies. Goring conducted a study with 3000 prisoners that had a history of long and
frequent sentences, and a control group of non-criminals. According to the results, the
"prisoners were inferior to the control group in terms of physical size and mental ability, while
strong associations between the criminality of children and their parents and between brothers
were found*. Osborn and West also discovered that around 40% of the sons of criminal fathers
were criminals themselves, compared to a figure of 13% for sons of non-criminal fathers. The
twin study method was been widely used in seeking to determine the influence of hereditary
in, for example, intelligence, and also in disturbances such as alcoholism, depression, and
schizophrenia. Lange examined a group of 30 men, consisting of 13 identical twins and 17
fraternal twins who all had a prison record. Lange found that in 77% of the identical twin cases,
the other brother also had a record. This percentage relationship is referred to as a criminal
concordance, meaning both members of a pair have a particular attribute. According to the
findings from previous studies, identical twins generally showed a much higher degree of
criminal concordance than fraternal twins. However, the criminal concordance was found to be
higher for both categories where more serious offenses had been committed, for example,
murder.
An alternative strategy to the use of twins is to study adopted children. "The assumption in
such work is that if adopted children resemble biological rather than adoptive parents in some
important respects, then this is potentially evidence of a genetic influence*. Research by
Hutchings and Mednick found evidence that adoptees with criminal records had a higher
proportion of biological mothers and fathers with criminal records than adoptees with no
criminal records. Researchers concluded that there was an inherited characteristic element that
was transmitted from the criminal parents to their children that increased the likelihood of the
children developing criminal behavior. Compared to the classicism approach, positivism
argued that criminals did not willingly choose to commit a crime, but instead were determined
into crime by factors beyond the criminal's control. Therefore, behavior is determined within
individuals. Positivists called this the doctrine of determinism. As the approach of positivism
grew over time, the biological and heredity concepts were reduced, and psychological and
environmental factors grew more attention. 'Focus on the actor, not the act is another core
concept of positivism, as its beliefs were to focus on the criminal rather than the crime. Bradley
and Walters also acknowledged that "if the crime is the result of factors beyond the control of
the individual, then the criminal cannot be viewed as responsible but rather as irresponsible."
The positivist aspect was not to punish criminals but to rehabilitate them. The necessary steps
to be taken would be to identity the causes of crime committed by an individual, then address
these causes. "Thus, it was the job of the expert to both identify these factors and then designed
ways of treating them".
"Positivism was founded on the belief, that there were other factors either innate to the
individual or to be found in the immediate environment which could be identified, and which
would help determine the criminal from the non-criminal". Burke acknowledged how The
Italian Positivist School denied the concept of free will and the approach of equality that was
expressed by the classism approach. Positivists replaced this with the assumption of
determinism. Today, people consider Lombroso's work to have been condensed and somewhat
laughable. However, Lombroso and other key figures made some significant contributions to
the development of modern criminological theory. 'It should be remembered that these ideas
led to rather more liberal interpretations of punishment". Burke recognizes that Lombroso
demonstrated the significance of examining clinical and historical records. Most importantly,
he recognized the need for multi-factor explanations of crime that includes not only hereditary
but also social, cultural and economic factors*. Biological/ individual positivism has
significantly impacted the criminal justice system today. The theories and concepts previously
developed have contributed to the ending of cruel, inhumane treatment of criminals and to the
reformation of the death penalty. As Walklate says that these criminals may be different and
abnormal, but they were subjected to forces outside of their control. Therefore, imprisonment
might be a more appropriate punishment than execution*. The Positivist School of thought
made it possible to get the criminals the help they need to be rehabilitated.
This essay has been concerned with introducing the basic features of biological/ individual
positivism in criminology, and the importance of the historical development of biological
positivism. It has outlined the new ideas and practices it has introduced into today's society.
According to biological positivism, criminals are different to non-criminals. Criminals are
somehow impaired and are missing something that non-criminals have. This impairment was
manifested in biological and psychological factors. Therefore, individuals did not choose to
commit a crime, but factors beyond their control had driven them to commit a crime. Unlike
the classicism approach, positivism believed that it should not only be about punishment.
Positivism aimed to reform, rehabilitate or cure. The punishment should fit the criminal, not
the crime.
