Explanation of Violent Crime by Strain Theory
The question most consistently asked throughout time is; why do people commit violent
crimes? Various perspectives, derived from one of two original thories: classical or positivist,
have been pondered trying to discover an answer to this question One modern-day theory,
stemming from the positivist theory, that may be able to best explain the reasoning as to why
people commit violent crimes is strain thory. There are two takes on strain theory, Morton's
classic strain theory. and Agnew's general strain theory, that have been developed in order to
solve this puzzling question, both perspectives having their own strengths and weaknesses.
Within violent crimes, there are two types subtypes: expressive and instrumental. Expressive
crimes are not committed for an individual to bencfit or gain from the act but instead aro
committed out of rago, anger, or frustration (Siogel, 2017). Whercas instrumental crime has
moro of a purposo to the actions. A person may commit an instrumental crimo to improve
his/hor financial or social status (Sicgal, 2017). There are several factors that are drawn upon
whon discussing the cause of a violent crimo, such as personal traits, human instinct, exposure
to violence, substance abusa, and culture and national values (Siogol, 2017). The four main
violent crimes committed are rape, murder, assault and battery, and robbery. These violent
crimes are categorized as part one crimes, meaning those crimes are only four of the most
scrious offenses. Rape is non consensual sexual intercours inflicted by another on cither male
or fomale and is one of the most misunderstood crimes (Siogal, 2017). Murder is the unlawful
killing of a porson or poople with intention and is considered the most scrious crime (Siogol,
2017). Assault and battery are actually two separate crimes. Battery being actual physical
contact during the offense, such as punching, against the victim, while assault does not involve
physical contact, but rather intention or throat of harming the victim (Siogol, 2017). Lastly,
robbery is the taking of something valuable from an individual by use of force, throat, or
violence (Siegel, 2017). The occurrence of violent crimes can be explained by both Merton's
and Agnews strain theories.
The classic strain theory, presented by Merton in his work "Social Structure and Anomic" in
1938, developed during a time when issues dealing with widening social class divisions started
to arise from urbanization growth (Toth, 2019). It is a micro-level theory, which halps to explain
why individuals or groups are more likoly to engage in criminal activity (Toth, 2019).
Specifically, how strain is produced on disadvantaged minority individuals and groups, as well
as the lower class, because these people do not have equal access to legitimate opportunitics
for success (Akors & Sellers, 2013). This strain coming from blocked opportunity causes the
individual or group to lean towards using illegal means in order to achieve success. Merton
goes on to explain in "Social Structure and Anomic that there are five ways an individual can
adapt to the strain produced on them: conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, and
rebellion. Conformity, being the most common, is when an individual accopts the strain and
still strives for success within the institutionalized means available (Akers & Sellers, 2013).
Stability and continuity of a society aro still maintained through this adaptation (Toth, 2019).
Innovation is when a parson still strives for success, however, the individual rejects the
institutionalized means, therefore, leading him or hor to take acantage of illegal means in order
to reach his/her goal (Akors & Sallors, 2013). This adaptation occurs more often where there
is limited opportunitics for people to achieve success (Toth, 2019). Ritualism is when a person
does not intend on reaching his/her goal, however, the individual still accopts the
institutionalized means. The individual does not gain much from this adaptation, but simply
just goes through the motions (Toth, 2019). Retreatism is when one gives up on both the goal
itself, as well as the means to reach that goal (Akers & Scllors, 2013). This adaptation, being
the least common, is more of an escape mechanism in which Merton placed those being, but
not limited to, alcoholics, drug addicts, and the severcly mentally ill within (Akers & Sellers,
2013). Lastly, rebellion is when a person rejects the entire system, both the goal itself and the
means of reaching the goal, but replaces them with a new set of goals and means, these usually
contrasting those of conventional society (Toth, 2019).
Merton's classic strain theory explains the cause of violent crimes. if an individual experiences
more strain from being blocked from using institutional means to achieve his/her goals, then
the individual is more likely to be lead to criminal activity, specifically violent criminal activity.
To start a person might be lead to commit murder if he/she is experiencing strain from another
standing in his/her way. To specify by using an extreme circumstance, an individual may be
blocked from progressing in his/her workplace, also known as a promotion, due to another
employee. If the individual needs this promotion in order to increase his/her financial success
they might be lead to commit murder of said other employee to gain this promotion. This can
fall under the innovation adaptation to a stressor of classic strain theory due to the individual
striving for that success, however, rejecting the institutionalized means to acquire the goal
caused by a lack of available opportunities to gain a promotion. Robbery can also be explained
by Merton's classic strain theory, which can occur because of an innovation adaptation to strain
as well. if one values financial success a great deal, then that may be a goal he/she is striving
for. Thus, the individual can reject the institutional means of achiving wealth because some
view obtaining a job harder than using illegal actions, such as robbery (a violent crime).
Merton's classic strain theory has both strengths and weaknesses when referencing the
explanation of violent crimes. To start, classic strain theory really has an emphasis on economic
inequality being a main stressor, leading to violent crimes. Support for this prior statement has
been found showing that economic deprivation does seem to have an effect on community
diffcrences in crime rates (Toth, 2019). However, this strength also comes with a weakness
because it has otherwise been shown that economic deprivation is not as strongly correlated to
societal differences as it is does on community differences (Toth, 2019). This being stated, not
everyone views economic success as being valuable and, therefore, may not consider it to be a
strain. In this casc, being economically unsuccessful would not lead to violent crime. Another
weakness to Merton's theory is it does not account for various strains other than the separation
between goals and presumptions (Toth, 2019)-
After Merton's classic strain theory came Agnews general strain theory, which is micro level
as well. Agnow approaches the outlook on strains by broadening stressors beyond the goals
and institutionalized means of reaching said goals of socicty by arguing there are several
sources of stress an individual can experience. Agnows strain theory perspective arose during
a time in which issues with widening social class division occurred due to increasing societal
pressures. Within Agnow's "Pressured into Crime: Goncral Strain Theory," he discusses how
people engage in crime due to experiencing stressors that result from one of three nogative
relationships. Thosc include relations that prevent or threaten to prevent the achievement of
positively valued goals, remove or threaten to remove the achievement of positively valued
goals, and present or threaten to present negatively valued stimuli (Toth, 2019). The first
relation, that of which prevents or threatens to prevent the achievement of positively valued
goals, features three subtypes. The first usually includes the traditional concept of stress
relating to long-term goals and the means of achieving said goals stated by Morton's classic
strain theory, howevor, Agnow expanded this idca (Akors & Sollors, 2013). Agnow not only
included long-term goals, but also short term, as well as the fact that an individual may not
achieve said goals due to individual inabilities or lack of skills, rather than only duc to blocked
opportunitics (Akors & Sallors, 2013). The socond subtypo includes the strain an individual
fols whon ho/sho believes he/she deserves a reward but that reward is never produced (Akors
& Scllors, 2013). The strain comes from the resentment the person may fecl from this
disappointing circumstance. The third subtype comes from when an individual believes he/she
deserves more than the outcome he/she reccived (Akers & Sallors, 2013). An example of this
could be when one person fools as if he/she is putting more effort into a relationship the other
person, therefore, fooling as if he/she is not reaping any benefit from said relationship.
The second relation, that of which removes or threatens to remove the achievement of
positively valued goals, usually falls within the adolescence period. This occurs when one loses
"something) or someone of great worth' (Akors & Sellers, 2013). Losing someone can include
a family member passing away or the breaking up with a girlfriend/boyfriend. Losing
something can consist of gotting fired from a job or being suspended from school. The third
relation, that of which prevents or threatens to present negatively valucd stimuli, includes
events in which a person has to deal with the negative actions of others. These events can be
anything from child abuse to adverse school experiences (Akers and Sallors, 2013), An
individual can not necessarily escape from family or school during childhood and adolescents
so they may be lead to use illegitimato means in order to escape said events. Although strains
may develop from those three negative relations, strains can also be divided into two categorics:
objective and subjoctive. Objoctive strains are events that most people would find stressful.
These events include boing physically assaulted or doprived of food and sholter (Cullon,
Agnow, & Wilcox, 2014). Mossorschmict (1993) also states that questioning a malo's
masculino status can causo stross to most men. Objoctive strains can bo measured by
intervicwing a sample of people. Subjoctive strains pertain to how different people evaluate
the same events. Although an event may be objoctively stressful, an individual might only
mildly dislike the event, where another could strongly dislike it (Toth, 2019). The evaluation
of stressful events is due to factors, such as an individual's porsonality traits, goals, values, and
prior experiences (Cullen, Agnow, & Wilcox, 2014)). An example of a subjective strain is a
divorce. It was found by Wheaton (1990) that some positively viewed their divorce because of
the poor quality of their prior marriage.
Strains may also be further divided into three sub-categories: experience, vicarious, and
anticipated Experienced strains are stressors one has personally experienced. This type of strain
should "bear the strongest relationship to crime" (Cullen, Agnew, & Wilcox, 2014). Vicarious
strains are strains on an individual due to stressors experienced by those around him/her,
specifically those closest towards the individual, such as a family member or a friend (Toth,
2019). Anticipated strains are when one believes their current stressors) may continue into the
future or a new stressor may arise in the future (Cullen, Agnew, & Wilcox, 2014).
General strain theory also goes on to discuss how not all strains result in criminal activity. It is
explained that strains are more likely to result in crime if they are seen as high in magnitude,
unjust, associated with low social control, or creating some pressure or incentive for criminal
coping (Toth, 2019). High in magnitude refers to how severe the individual subjectively views
a stressor. If one views the stressor as more severe than the individual will have a stronger
emotional response to said stressor, thus causing the person to take a more severe action to
relieve him/herself of the strain he/she feels. An individual may view a stressor as more severe
if it is high in degree, frequent, recent, long in duration or expected to continue, or threatens
his/her core goals, needs, and values (Toth, 2019). if an individual views a stressor as "unjust,"
meaning an individual did not believe he/she deserved the strain he/she foels, then it can cause
the individual to become aggravated. One may deem the strain unjust if the one who inflicted
it intentionally chose to do so knowing the individual would dislike the action (Toth, 2019). If
a strain is associated with lowering the amount of social control on a person, he/she may react
in a negative way (Toth, 2019). There are actually several types of social control one may
experience: direct, emotional bond or attachment to conventional others, investment into
conventional institutions, and beliefs regarding crime. Direct social control is the extent to
which others set rules prohibiting crime, monitor the person's bchavior, and sanction violations'
(Toth, 2019). Emotional bond or attachment to conventional others consists of whether or not
an individual cares what othors think (Toth, 2019). If a person cares more about what others
think, then it is more likely that a strain can have a stronger effect on the individual. Investment
into conventional institutions consist of the time and resources one has put into conventional
ochaviors (Toth, 2019). If a person has invested more into these conventional bchaviors, then
he/she is more likely to not want to lose these investments through crime. Social control
stemming from beliefs regarding crime involves the individual's attitude towards the laws and
whether or not he/she finds them valid (Toth, 2019). Lastly, creating pressure or incentive for
criminal coping refers to how easily a stressor can be resolved by means of criminal activity,
rather than conventional means. Not only do these four factors increase the likelihood of crime,
but also if an individual experience two or more strains at a single time or very close together
in time (Toth, 2019).
Agnews general strain theory can explain the cause of violent crimes. If an individual
experiences more strain from the negative relationships he/she developed, as well as
experiencing strain from other negative life events, then the inclividual is more likely to be lead
to criminal activity, specifically violent criminal activity. For one, Agnew's theory can be used
to explain sexual assault crimes, such as the violent crime of rape. This can occur if a person
encounters an objective, experienced strain. If an inclividual endures sexual assault, which can
be categorized as an objoctive strain seeing as it is generally disliked by most people,
himself/herself and lacks the ability to cope with this strain in a legal manner, then this
individual is more likely to inflict sexual assault, possibly even rape, on another person. Assault
and battory can also be explained by Agnows general strain theory. This can be seen when one
experiences a vicarious strain. If someone close to the individual, either a family member or a
friend, is being harmed by another, then the individual could be lead into secking revenge,
which can include physically harming or throatoning to physically harm, the person negatively
affecting his/hor family member or friend. Agnows goneral strain theory has both strengths and
weakness when referencing tho explanation of violent crimes. For one, his theory does account
for other strains, rather than just disconnection between aspirations and expectations, that may
lead to violent criminal actions. It has also boon supported that delinquency, which can lead to
violent criminal behavior in the future, is higher among those who experience one or more of
the threo negative relationships, as well as other various negative life events (Toth, 2019).
However, just because an individual experiences strain, does not moan they will utilize illegal
means to overcome it. if one has the ability to copo in a legal manner, such as having the verbal
skills necessary to resolve a negative situation, then the individual will not be lead into taking
illegal means, such as violent crimes, in orcer to overcome the strain (Toth, 2019).
Agnew has identified some policy implications in order to reduce the amount of violent crimes
occurring, mostly focusing on family, as well as school, interventions. He discusses how these
interventions should include four different aspects. The first is to reduce the difficulties of an
individual's social environment by training parents in skills that can better supervision and
discipline of an the individual, specifying in better usage of rewards and punishments (Akers
& Sellers, 2013). The second is to train individuals in their adolescence to have better social
skills in order to reduce the provocation of negative reactions from others (Akers & Sellers,
2013). The third aspect is to increase support from programs, such as counscling, mediation,
and advocacy, for adolescents in order for them to have an outlet to turn to before inclining
towards violent criminal behavior (Akers & Sellers, 2013). The last aspect is to have anger
control, problem solving, social skills, and stress management training for the youth in order
for them to cope in a noncriminal way (Akers & Sellers, 2013). To conclude, although Merton's
classic strain theory and Agnews general strain theory have weakness to the perspectives, the
strengths are what causes it to be able to best describe why violent crime occurs. Both
perspectives stemming from the positivist theory, as well as are micro level, explain that violent
crime can result due to the strain of being blocked from having opportunities in order to achieve
a goal, having a negative relationship, or one of the other various sub types of strain
Specifically, rape, murder, assault and battery, and robbery are the four main violent crimes
that can be best explained by strain theory.
The question most consistently asked throughout time is; why do people commit violent
crimes? Various perspectives, derived from one of two original thories: classical or positivist,
have been pondered trying to discover an answer to this question One modern-day theory,
stemming from the positivist theory, that may be able to best explain the reasoning as to why
people commit violent crimes is strain thory. There are two takes on strain theory, Morton's
classic strain theory. and Agnew's general strain theory, that have been developed in order to
solve this puzzling question, both perspectives having their own strengths and weaknesses.
Within violent crimes, there are two types subtypes: expressive and instrumental. Expressive
crimes are not committed for an individual to bencfit or gain from the act but instead aro
committed out of rago, anger, or frustration (Siogel, 2017). Whercas instrumental crime has
moro of a purposo to the actions. A person may commit an instrumental crimo to improve
his/hor financial or social status (Sicgal, 2017). There are several factors that are drawn upon
whon discussing the cause of a violent crimo, such as personal traits, human instinct, exposure
to violence, substance abusa, and culture and national values (Siogol, 2017). The four main
violent crimes committed are rape, murder, assault and battery, and robbery. These violent
crimes are categorized as part one crimes, meaning those crimes are only four of the most
scrious offenses. Rape is non consensual sexual intercours inflicted by another on cither male
or fomale and is one of the most misunderstood crimes (Siogal, 2017). Murder is the unlawful
killing of a porson or poople with intention and is considered the most scrious crime (Siogol,
2017). Assault and battery are actually two separate crimes. Battery being actual physical
contact during the offense, such as punching, against the victim, while assault does not involve
physical contact, but rather intention or throat of harming the victim (Siogol, 2017). Lastly,
robbery is the taking of something valuable from an individual by use of force, throat, or
violence (Siegel, 2017). The occurrence of violent crimes can be explained by both Merton's
and Agnews strain theories.
The classic strain theory, presented by Merton in his work "Social Structure and Anomic" in
1938, developed during a time when issues dealing with widening social class divisions started
to arise from urbanization growth (Toth, 2019). It is a micro-level theory, which halps to explain
why individuals or groups are more likoly to engage in criminal activity (Toth, 2019).
Specifically, how strain is produced on disadvantaged minority individuals and groups, as well
as the lower class, because these people do not have equal access to legitimate opportunitics
for success (Akors & Sellers, 2013). This strain coming from blocked opportunity causes the
individual or group to lean towards using illegal means in order to achieve success. Merton
goes on to explain in "Social Structure and Anomic that there are five ways an individual can
adapt to the strain produced on them: conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, and
rebellion. Conformity, being the most common, is when an individual accopts the strain and
still strives for success within the institutionalized means available (Akers & Sellers, 2013).
Stability and continuity of a society aro still maintained through this adaptation (Toth, 2019).
Innovation is when a parson still strives for success, however, the individual rejects the
institutionalized means, therefore, leading him or hor to take acantage of illegal means in order
to reach his/her goal (Akors & Sallors, 2013). This adaptation occurs more often where there
is limited opportunitics for people to achieve success (Toth, 2019). Ritualism is when a person
does not intend on reaching his/her goal, however, the individual still accopts the
institutionalized means. The individual does not gain much from this adaptation, but simply
just goes through the motions (Toth, 2019). Retreatism is when one gives up on both the goal
itself, as well as the means to reach that goal (Akers & Scllors, 2013). This adaptation, being
the least common, is more of an escape mechanism in which Merton placed those being, but
not limited to, alcoholics, drug addicts, and the severcly mentally ill within (Akers & Sellers,
2013). Lastly, rebellion is when a person rejects the entire system, both the goal itself and the
means of reaching the goal, but replaces them with a new set of goals and means, these usually
contrasting those of conventional society (Toth, 2019).
Merton's classic strain theory explains the cause of violent crimes. if an individual experiences
more strain from being blocked from using institutional means to achieve his/her goals, then
the individual is more likely to be lead to criminal activity, specifically violent criminal activity.
To start a person might be lead to commit murder if he/she is experiencing strain from another
standing in his/her way. To specify by using an extreme circumstance, an individual may be
blocked from progressing in his/her workplace, also known as a promotion, due to another
employee. If the individual needs this promotion in order to increase his/her financial success
they might be lead to commit murder of said other employee to gain this promotion. This can
fall under the innovation adaptation to a stressor of classic strain theory due to the individual
striving for that success, however, rejecting the institutionalized means to acquire the goal
caused by a lack of available opportunities to gain a promotion. Robbery can also be explained
by Merton's classic strain theory, which can occur because of an innovation adaptation to strain
as well. if one values financial success a great deal, then that may be a goal he/she is striving
for. Thus, the individual can reject the institutional means of achiving wealth because some
view obtaining a job harder than using illegal actions, such as robbery (a violent crime).
Merton's classic strain theory has both strengths and weaknesses when referencing the
explanation of violent crimes. To start, classic strain theory really has an emphasis on economic
inequality being a main stressor, leading to violent crimes. Support for this prior statement has
been found showing that economic deprivation does seem to have an effect on community
diffcrences in crime rates (Toth, 2019). However, this strength also comes with a weakness
because it has otherwise been shown that economic deprivation is not as strongly correlated to
societal differences as it is does on community differences (Toth, 2019). This being stated, not
everyone views economic success as being valuable and, therefore, may not consider it to be a
strain. In this casc, being economically unsuccessful would not lead to violent crime. Another
weakness to Merton's theory is it does not account for various strains other than the separation
between goals and presumptions (Toth, 2019)-
After Merton's classic strain theory came Agnews general strain theory, which is micro level
as well. Agnow approaches the outlook on strains by broadening stressors beyond the goals
and institutionalized means of reaching said goals of socicty by arguing there are several
sources of stress an individual can experience. Agnows strain theory perspective arose during
a time in which issues with widening social class division occurred due to increasing societal
pressures. Within Agnow's "Pressured into Crime: Goncral Strain Theory," he discusses how
people engage in crime due to experiencing stressors that result from one of three nogative
relationships. Thosc include relations that prevent or threaten to prevent the achievement of
positively valued goals, remove or threaten to remove the achievement of positively valued
goals, and present or threaten to present negatively valued stimuli (Toth, 2019). The first
relation, that of which prevents or threatens to prevent the achievement of positively valued
goals, features three subtypes. The first usually includes the traditional concept of stress
relating to long-term goals and the means of achieving said goals stated by Morton's classic
strain theory, howevor, Agnow expanded this idca (Akors & Sollors, 2013). Agnow not only
included long-term goals, but also short term, as well as the fact that an individual may not
achieve said goals due to individual inabilities or lack of skills, rather than only duc to blocked
opportunitics (Akors & Sallors, 2013). The socond subtypo includes the strain an individual
fols whon ho/sho believes he/she deserves a reward but that reward is never produced (Akors
& Scllors, 2013). The strain comes from the resentment the person may fecl from this
disappointing circumstance. The third subtype comes from when an individual believes he/she
deserves more than the outcome he/she reccived (Akers & Sallors, 2013). An example of this
could be when one person fools as if he/she is putting more effort into a relationship the other
person, therefore, fooling as if he/she is not reaping any benefit from said relationship.
The second relation, that of which removes or threatens to remove the achievement of
positively valued goals, usually falls within the adolescence period. This occurs when one loses
"something) or someone of great worth' (Akors & Sellers, 2013). Losing someone can include
a family member passing away or the breaking up with a girlfriend/boyfriend. Losing
something can consist of gotting fired from a job or being suspended from school. The third
relation, that of which prevents or threatens to present negatively valucd stimuli, includes
events in which a person has to deal with the negative actions of others. These events can be
anything from child abuse to adverse school experiences (Akers and Sallors, 2013), An
individual can not necessarily escape from family or school during childhood and adolescents
so they may be lead to use illegitimato means in order to escape said events. Although strains
may develop from those three negative relations, strains can also be divided into two categorics:
objective and subjoctive. Objoctive strains are events that most people would find stressful.
These events include boing physically assaulted or doprived of food and sholter (Cullon,
Agnow, & Wilcox, 2014). Mossorschmict (1993) also states that questioning a malo's
masculino status can causo stross to most men. Objoctive strains can bo measured by
intervicwing a sample of people. Subjoctive strains pertain to how different people evaluate
the same events. Although an event may be objoctively stressful, an individual might only
mildly dislike the event, where another could strongly dislike it (Toth, 2019). The evaluation
of stressful events is due to factors, such as an individual's porsonality traits, goals, values, and
prior experiences (Cullen, Agnow, & Wilcox, 2014)). An example of a subjective strain is a
divorce. It was found by Wheaton (1990) that some positively viewed their divorce because of
the poor quality of their prior marriage.
Strains may also be further divided into three sub-categories: experience, vicarious, and
anticipated Experienced strains are stressors one has personally experienced. This type of strain
should "bear the strongest relationship to crime" (Cullen, Agnew, & Wilcox, 2014). Vicarious
strains are strains on an individual due to stressors experienced by those around him/her,
specifically those closest towards the individual, such as a family member or a friend (Toth,
2019). Anticipated strains are when one believes their current stressors) may continue into the
future or a new stressor may arise in the future (Cullen, Agnew, & Wilcox, 2014).
General strain theory also goes on to discuss how not all strains result in criminal activity. It is
explained that strains are more likely to result in crime if they are seen as high in magnitude,
unjust, associated with low social control, or creating some pressure or incentive for criminal
coping (Toth, 2019). High in magnitude refers to how severe the individual subjectively views
a stressor. If one views the stressor as more severe than the individual will have a stronger
emotional response to said stressor, thus causing the person to take a more severe action to
relieve him/herself of the strain he/she feels. An individual may view a stressor as more severe
if it is high in degree, frequent, recent, long in duration or expected to continue, or threatens
his/her core goals, needs, and values (Toth, 2019). if an individual views a stressor as "unjust,"
meaning an individual did not believe he/she deserved the strain he/she foels, then it can cause
the individual to become aggravated. One may deem the strain unjust if the one who inflicted
it intentionally chose to do so knowing the individual would dislike the action (Toth, 2019). If
a strain is associated with lowering the amount of social control on a person, he/she may react
in a negative way (Toth, 2019). There are actually several types of social control one may
experience: direct, emotional bond or attachment to conventional others, investment into
conventional institutions, and beliefs regarding crime. Direct social control is the extent to
which others set rules prohibiting crime, monitor the person's bchavior, and sanction violations'
(Toth, 2019). Emotional bond or attachment to conventional others consists of whether or not
an individual cares what othors think (Toth, 2019). If a person cares more about what others
think, then it is more likely that a strain can have a stronger effect on the individual. Investment
into conventional institutions consist of the time and resources one has put into conventional
ochaviors (Toth, 2019). If a person has invested more into these conventional bchaviors, then
he/she is more likely to not want to lose these investments through crime. Social control
stemming from beliefs regarding crime involves the individual's attitude towards the laws and
whether or not he/she finds them valid (Toth, 2019). Lastly, creating pressure or incentive for
criminal coping refers to how easily a stressor can be resolved by means of criminal activity,
rather than conventional means. Not only do these four factors increase the likelihood of crime,
but also if an individual experience two or more strains at a single time or very close together
in time (Toth, 2019).
Agnews general strain theory can explain the cause of violent crimes. If an individual
experiences more strain from the negative relationships he/she developed, as well as
experiencing strain from other negative life events, then the inclividual is more likely to be lead
to criminal activity, specifically violent criminal activity. For one, Agnew's theory can be used
to explain sexual assault crimes, such as the violent crime of rape. This can occur if a person
encounters an objective, experienced strain. If an inclividual endures sexual assault, which can
be categorized as an objoctive strain seeing as it is generally disliked by most people,
himself/herself and lacks the ability to cope with this strain in a legal manner, then this
individual is more likely to inflict sexual assault, possibly even rape, on another person. Assault
and battory can also be explained by Agnows general strain theory. This can be seen when one
experiences a vicarious strain. If someone close to the individual, either a family member or a
friend, is being harmed by another, then the individual could be lead into secking revenge,
which can include physically harming or throatoning to physically harm, the person negatively
affecting his/hor family member or friend. Agnows goneral strain theory has both strengths and
weakness when referencing tho explanation of violent crimes. For one, his theory does account
for other strains, rather than just disconnection between aspirations and expectations, that may
lead to violent criminal actions. It has also boon supported that delinquency, which can lead to
violent criminal behavior in the future, is higher among those who experience one or more of
the threo negative relationships, as well as other various negative life events (Toth, 2019).
However, just because an individual experiences strain, does not moan they will utilize illegal
means to overcome it. if one has the ability to copo in a legal manner, such as having the verbal
skills necessary to resolve a negative situation, then the individual will not be lead into taking
illegal means, such as violent crimes, in orcer to overcome the strain (Toth, 2019).
Agnew has identified some policy implications in order to reduce the amount of violent crimes
occurring, mostly focusing on family, as well as school, interventions. He discusses how these
interventions should include four different aspects. The first is to reduce the difficulties of an
individual's social environment by training parents in skills that can better supervision and
discipline of an the individual, specifying in better usage of rewards and punishments (Akers
& Sellers, 2013). The second is to train individuals in their adolescence to have better social
skills in order to reduce the provocation of negative reactions from others (Akers & Sellers,
2013). The third aspect is to increase support from programs, such as counscling, mediation,
and advocacy, for adolescents in order for them to have an outlet to turn to before inclining
towards violent criminal behavior (Akers & Sellers, 2013). The last aspect is to have anger
control, problem solving, social skills, and stress management training for the youth in order
for them to cope in a noncriminal way (Akers & Sellers, 2013). To conclude, although Merton's
classic strain theory and Agnews general strain theory have weakness to the perspectives, the
strengths are what causes it to be able to best describe why violent crime occurs. Both
perspectives stemming from the positivist theory, as well as are micro level, explain that violent
crime can result due to the strain of being blocked from having opportunities in order to achieve
a goal, having a negative relationship, or one of the other various sub types of strain
Specifically, rape, murder, assault and battery, and robbery are the four main violent crimes
that can be best explained by strain theory.
The question most consistently asked throughout time is; why do people commit violent
crimes? Various perspectives, derived from one of two original thories: classical or positivist,
have been pondered trying to discover an answer to this question One modern-day theory,
stemming from the positivist theory, that may be able to best explain the reasoning as to why
people commit violent crimes is strain thory. There are two takes on strain theory, Morton's
classic strain theory. and Agnew's general strain theory, that have been developed in order to
solve this puzzling question, both perspectives having their own strengths and weaknesses.
Within violent crimes, there are two types subtypes: expressive and instrumental. Expressive
crimes are not committed for an individual to bencfit or gain from the act but instead aro
committed out of rago, anger, or frustration (Siogel, 2017). Whercas instrumental crime has
moro of a purposo to the actions. A person may commit an instrumental crimo to improve
his/hor financial or social status (Sicgal, 2017). There are several factors that are drawn upon
whon discussing the cause of a violent crimo, such as personal traits, human instinct, exposure
to violence, substance abusa, and culture and national values (Siogol, 2017). The four main
violent crimes committed are rape, murder, assault and battery, and robbery. These violent
crimes are categorized as part one crimes, meaning those crimes are only four of the most
scrious offenses. Rape is non consensual sexual intercours inflicted by another on cither male
or fomale and is one of the most misunderstood crimes (Siogal, 2017). Murder is the unlawful
killing of a porson or poople with intention and is considered the most scrious crime (Siogol,
2017). Assault and battery are actually two separate crimes. Battery being actual physical
contact during the offense, such as punching, against the victim, while assault does not involve
physical contact, but rather intention or throat of harming the victim (Siogol, 2017). Lastly,
robbery is the taking of something valuable from an individual by use of force, throat, or
violence (Siegel, 2017). The occurrence of violent crimes can be explained by both Merton's
and Agnews strain theories.
The classic strain theory, presented by Merton in his work "Social Structure and Anomic" in
1938, developed during a time when issues dealing with widening social class divisions started
to arise from urbanization growth (Toth, 2019). It is a micro-level theory, which halps to explain
why individuals or groups are more likoly to engage in criminal activity (Toth, 2019).
Specifically, how strain is produced on disadvantaged minority individuals and groups, as well
as the lower class, because these people do not have equal access to legitimate opportunitics
for success (Akors & Sellers, 2013). This strain coming from blocked opportunity causes the
individual or group to lean towards using illegal means in order to achieve success. Merton
goes on to explain in "Social Structure and Anomic that there are five ways an individual can
adapt to the strain produced on them: conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, and
rebellion. Conformity, being the most common, is when an individual accopts the strain and
still strives for success within the institutionalized means available (Akers & Sellers, 2013).
Stability and continuity of a society aro still maintained through this adaptation (Toth, 2019).
Innovation is when a parson still strives for success, however, the individual rejects the
institutionalized means, therefore, leading him or hor to take acantage of illegal means in order
to reach his/her goal (Akors & Sallors, 2013). This adaptation occurs more often where there
is limited opportunitics for people to achieve success (Toth, 2019). Ritualism is when a person
does not intend on reaching his/her goal, however, the individual still accopts the
institutionalized means. The individual does not gain much from this adaptation, but simply
just goes through the motions (Toth, 2019). Retreatism is when one gives up on both the goal
itself, as well as the means to reach that goal (Akers & Scllors, 2013). This adaptation, being
the least common, is more of an escape mechanism in which Merton placed those being, but
not limited to, alcoholics, drug addicts, and the severcly mentally ill within (Akers & Sellers,
2013). Lastly, rebellion is when a person rejects the entire system, both the goal itself and the
means of reaching the goal, but replaces them with a new set of goals and means, these usually
contrasting those of conventional society (Toth, 2019).
Merton's classic strain theory explains the cause of violent crimes. if an individual experiences
more strain from being blocked from using institutional means to achieve his/her goals, then
the individual is more likely to be lead to criminal activity, specifically violent criminal activity.
To start a person might be lead to commit murder if he/she is experiencing strain from another
standing in his/her way. To specify by using an extreme circumstance, an individual may be
blocked from progressing in his/her workplace, also known as a promotion, due to another
employee. If the individual needs this promotion in order to increase his/her financial success
they might be lead to commit murder of said other employee to gain this promotion. This can
fall under the innovation adaptation to a stressor of classic strain theory due to the individual
striving for that success, however, rejecting the institutionalized means to acquire the goal
caused by a lack of available opportunities to gain a promotion. Robbery can also be explained
by Merton's classic strain theory, which can occur because of an innovation adaptation to strain
as well. if one values financial success a great deal, then that may be a goal he/she is striving
for. Thus, the individual can reject the institutional means of achiving wealth because some
view obtaining a job harder than using illegal actions, such as robbery (a violent crime).
Merton's classic strain theory has both strengths and weaknesses when referencing the
explanation of violent crimes. To start, classic strain theory really has an emphasis on economic
inequality being a main stressor, leading to violent crimes. Support for this prior statement has
been found showing that economic deprivation does seem to have an effect on community
diffcrences in crime rates (Toth, 2019). However, this strength also comes with a weakness
because it has otherwise been shown that economic deprivation is not as strongly correlated to
societal differences as it is does on community differences (Toth, 2019). This being stated, not
everyone views economic success as being valuable and, therefore, may not consider it to be a
strain. In this casc, being economically unsuccessful would not lead to violent crime. Another
weakness to Merton's theory is it does not account for various strains other than the separation
between goals and presumptions (Toth, 2019)-
After Merton's classic strain theory came Agnews general strain theory, which is micro level
as well. Agnow approaches the outlook on strains by broadening stressors beyond the goals
and institutionalized means of reaching said goals of socicty by arguing there are several
sources of stress an individual can experience. Agnows strain theory perspective arose during
a time in which issues with widening social class division occurred due to increasing societal
pressures. Within Agnow's "Pressured into Crime: Goncral Strain Theory," he discusses how
people engage in crime due to experiencing stressors that result from one of three nogative
relationships. Thosc include relations that prevent or threaten to prevent the achievement of
positively valued goals, remove or threaten to remove the achievement of positively valued
goals, and present or threaten to present negatively valued stimuli (Toth, 2019). The first
relation, that of which prevents or threatens to prevent the achievement of positively valued
goals, features three subtypes. The first usually includes the traditional concept of stress
relating to long-term goals and the means of achieving said goals stated by Morton's classic
strain theory, howevor, Agnow expanded this idca (Akors & Sollors, 2013). Agnow not only
included long-term goals, but also short term, as well as the fact that an individual may not
achieve said goals due to individual inabilities or lack of skills, rather than only duc to blocked
opportunitics (Akors & Sallors, 2013). The socond subtypo includes the strain an individual
fols whon ho/sho believes he/she deserves a reward but that reward is never produced (Akors
& Scllors, 2013). The strain comes from the resentment the person may fecl from this
disappointing circumstance. The third subtype comes from when an individual believes he/she
deserves more than the outcome he/she reccived (Akers & Sallors, 2013). An example of this
could be when one person fools as if he/she is putting more effort into a relationship the other
person, therefore, fooling as if he/she is not reaping any benefit from said relationship.
The second relation, that of which removes or threatens to remove the achievement of
positively valued goals, usually falls within the adolescence period. This occurs when one loses
"something) or someone of great worth' (Akors & Sellers, 2013). Losing someone can include
a family member passing away or the breaking up with a girlfriend/boyfriend. Losing
something can consist of gotting fired from a job or being suspended from school. The third
relation, that of which prevents or threatens to present negatively valucd stimuli, includes
events in which a person has to deal with the negative actions of others. These events can be
anything from child abuse to adverse school experiences (Akers and Sallors, 2013), An
individual can not necessarily escape from family or school during childhood and adolescents
so they may be lead to use illegitimato means in order to escape said events. Although strains
may develop from those three negative relations, strains can also be divided into two categorics:
objective and subjoctive. Objoctive strains are events that most people would find stressful.
These events include boing physically assaulted or doprived of food and sholter (Cullon,
Agnow, & Wilcox, 2014). Mossorschmict (1993) also states that questioning a malo's
masculino status can causo stross to most men. Objoctive strains can bo measured by
intervicwing a sample of people. Subjoctive strains pertain to how different people evaluate
the same events. Although an event may be objoctively stressful, an individual might only
mildly dislike the event, where another could strongly dislike it (Toth, 2019). The evaluation
of stressful events is due to factors, such as an individual's porsonality traits, goals, values, and
prior experiences (Cullen, Agnow, & Wilcox, 2014)). An example of a subjective strain is a
divorce. It was found by Wheaton (1990) that some positively viewed their divorce because of
the poor quality of their prior marriage.
Strains may also be further divided into three sub-categories: experience, vicarious, and
anticipated Experienced strains are stressors one has personally experienced. This type of strain
should "bear the strongest relationship to crime" (Cullen, Agnew, & Wilcox, 2014). Vicarious
strains are strains on an individual due to stressors experienced by those around him/her,
specifically those closest towards the individual, such as a family member or a friend (Toth,
2019). Anticipated strains are when one believes their current stressors) may continue into the
future or a new stressor may arise in the future (Cullen, Agnew, & Wilcox, 2014).
General strain theory also goes on to discuss how not all strains result in criminal activity. It is
explained that strains are more likely to result in crime if they are seen as high in magnitude,
unjust, associated with low social control, or creating some pressure or incentive for criminal
coping (Toth, 2019). High in magnitude refers to how severe the individual subjectively views
a stressor. If one views the stressor as more severe than the individual will have a stronger
emotional response to said stressor, thus causing the person to take a more severe action to
relieve him/herself of the strain he/she feels. An individual may view a stressor as more severe
if it is high in degree, frequent, recent, long in duration or expected to continue, or threatens
his/her core goals, needs, and values (Toth, 2019). if an individual views a stressor as "unjust,"
meaning an individual did not believe he/she deserved the strain he/she foels, then it can cause
the individual to become aggravated. One may deem the strain unjust if the one who inflicted
it intentionally chose to do so knowing the individual would dislike the action (Toth, 2019). If
a strain is associated with lowering the amount of social control on a person, he/she may react
in a negative way (Toth, 2019). There are actually several types of social control one may
experience: direct, emotional bond or attachment to conventional others, investment into
conventional institutions, and beliefs regarding crime. Direct social control is the extent to
which others set rules prohibiting crime, monitor the person's bchavior, and sanction violations'
(Toth, 2019). Emotional bond or attachment to conventional others consists of whether or not
an individual cares what othors think (Toth, 2019). If a person cares more about what others
think, then it is more likely that a strain can have a stronger effect on the individual. Investment
into conventional institutions consist of the time and resources one has put into conventional
ochaviors (Toth, 2019). If a person has invested more into these conventional bchaviors, then
he/she is more likely to not want to lose these investments through crime. Social control
stemming from beliefs regarding crime involves the individual's attitude towards the laws and
whether or not he/she finds them valid (Toth, 2019). Lastly, creating pressure or incentive for
criminal coping refers to how easily a stressor can be resolved by means of criminal activity,
rather than conventional means. Not only do these four factors increase the likelihood of crime,
but also if an individual experience two or more strains at a single time or very close together
in time (Toth, 2019).
Agnews general strain theory can explain the cause of violent crimes. If an individual
experiences more strain from the negative relationships he/she developed, as well as
experiencing strain from other negative life events, then the inclividual is more likely to be lead
to criminal activity, specifically violent criminal activity. For one, Agnew's theory can be used
to explain sexual assault crimes, such as the violent crime of rape. This can occur if a person
encounters an objective, experienced strain. If an inclividual endures sexual assault, which can
be categorized as an objoctive strain seeing as it is generally disliked by most people,
himself/herself and lacks the ability to cope with this strain in a legal manner, then this
individual is more likely to inflict sexual assault, possibly even rape, on another person. Assault
and battory can also be explained by Agnows general strain theory. This can be seen when one
experiences a vicarious strain. If someone close to the individual, either a family member or a
friend, is being harmed by another, then the individual could be lead into secking revenge,
which can include physically harming or throatoning to physically harm, the person negatively
affecting his/hor family member or friend. Agnows goneral strain theory has both strengths and
weakness when referencing tho explanation of violent crimes. For one, his theory does account
for other strains, rather than just disconnection between aspirations and expectations, that may
lead to violent criminal actions. It has also boon supported that delinquency, which can lead to
violent criminal behavior in the future, is higher among those who experience one or more of
the threo negative relationships, as well as other various negative life events (Toth, 2019).
However, just because an individual experiences strain, does not moan they will utilize illegal
means to overcome it. if one has the ability to copo in a legal manner, such as having the verbal
skills necessary to resolve a negative situation, then the individual will not be lead into taking
illegal means, such as violent crimes, in orcer to overcome the strain (Toth, 2019).
Agnew has identified some policy implications in order to reduce the amount of violent crimes
occurring, mostly focusing on family, as well as school, interventions. He discusses how these
interventions should include four different aspects. The first is to reduce the difficulties of an
individual's social environment by training parents in skills that can better supervision and
discipline of an the individual, specifying in better usage of rewards and punishments (Akers
& Sellers, 2013). The second is to train individuals in their adolescence to have better social
skills in order to reduce the provocation of negative reactions from others (Akers & Sellers,
2013). The third aspect is to increase support from programs, such as counscling, mediation,
and advocacy, for adolescents in order for them to have an outlet to turn to before inclining
towards violent criminal behavior (Akers & Sellers, 2013). The last aspect is to have anger
control, problem solving, social skills, and stress management training for the youth in order
for them to cope in a noncriminal way (Akers & Sellers, 2013). To conclude, although Merton's
classic strain theory and Agnews general strain theory have weakness to the perspectives, the
strengths are what causes it to be able to best describe why violent crime occurs. Both
perspectives stemming from the positivist theory, as well as are micro level, explain that violent
crime can result due to the strain of being blocked from having opportunities in order to achieve
a goal, having a negative relationship, or one of the other various sub types of strain
Specifically, rape, murder, assault and battery, and robbery are the four main violent crimes
that can be best explained by strain theory.
The question most consistently asked throughout time is; why do people commit violent
crimes? Various perspectives, derived from one of two original thories: classical or positivist,
have been pondered trying to discover an answer to this question One modern-day theory,
stemming from the positivist theory, that may be able to best explain the reasoning as to why
people commit violent crimes is strain thory. There are two takes on strain theory, Morton's
classic strain theory. and Agnew's general strain theory, that have been developed in order to
solve this puzzling question, both perspectives having their own strengths and weaknesses.
Within violent crimes, there are two types subtypes: expressive and instrumental. Expressive
crimes are not committed for an individual to bencfit or gain from the act but instead aro
committed out of rago, anger, or frustration (Siogel, 2017). Whercas instrumental crime has
moro of a purposo to the actions. A person may commit an instrumental crimo to improve
his/hor financial or social status (Sicgal, 2017). There are several factors that are drawn upon
whon discussing the cause of a violent crimo, such as personal traits, human instinct, exposure
to violence, substance abusa, and culture and national values (Siogol, 2017). The four main
violent crimes committed are rape, murder, assault and battery, and robbery. These violent
crimes are categorized as part one crimes, meaning those crimes are only four of the most
scrious offenses. Rape is non consensual sexual intercours inflicted by another on cither male
or fomale and is one of the most misunderstood crimes (Siogal, 2017). Murder is the unlawful
killing of a porson or poople with intention and is considered the most scrious crime (Siogol,
2017). Assault and battery are actually two separate crimes. Battery being actual physical
contact during the offense, such as punching, against the victim, while assault does not involve
physical contact, but rather intention or throat of harming the victim (Siogol, 2017). Lastly,
robbery is the taking of something valuable from an individual by use of force, throat, or
violence (Siegel, 2017). The occurrence of violent crimes can be explained by both Merton's
and Agnews strain theories.
The classic strain theory, presented by Merton in his work "Social Structure and Anomic" in
1938, developed during a time when issues dealing with widening social class divisions started
to arise from urbanization growth (Toth, 2019). It is a micro-level theory, which halps to explain
why individuals or groups are more likoly to engage in criminal activity (Toth, 2019).
Specifically, how strain is produced on disadvantaged minority individuals and groups, as well
as the lower class, because these people do not have equal access to legitimate opportunitics
for success (Akors & Sellers, 2013). This strain coming from blocked opportunity causes the
individual or group to lean towards using illegal means in order to achieve success. Merton
goes on to explain in "Social Structure and Anomic that there are five ways an individual can
adapt to the strain produced on them: conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, and
rebellion. Conformity, being the most common, is when an individual accopts the strain and
still strives for success within the institutionalized means available (Akers & Sellers, 2013).
Stability and continuity of a society aro still maintained through this adaptation (Toth, 2019).
Innovation is when a parson still strives for success, however, the individual rejects the
institutionalized means, therefore, leading him or hor to take acantage of illegal means in order
to reach his/her goal (Akors & Sallors, 2013). This adaptation occurs more often where there
is limited opportunitics for people to achieve success (Toth, 2019). Ritualism is when a person
does not intend on reaching his/her goal, however, the individual still accopts the
institutionalized means. The individual does not gain much from this adaptation, but simply
just goes through the motions (Toth, 2019). Retreatism is when one gives up on both the goal
itself, as well as the means to reach that goal (Akers & Scllors, 2013). This adaptation, being
the least common, is more of an escape mechanism in which Merton placed those being, but
not limited to, alcoholics, drug addicts, and the severcly mentally ill within (Akers & Sellers,
2013). Lastly, rebellion is when a person rejects the entire system, both the goal itself and the
means of reaching the goal, but replaces them with a new set of goals and means, these usually
contrasting those of conventional society (Toth, 2019).
Merton's classic strain theory explains the cause of violent crimes. if an individual experiences
more strain from being blocked from using institutional means to achieve his/her goals, then
the individual is more likely to be lead to criminal activity, specifically violent criminal activity.
To start a person might be lead to commit murder if he/she is experiencing strain from another
standing in his/her way. To specify by using an extreme circumstance, an individual may be
blocked from progressing in his/her workplace, also known as a promotion, due to another
employee. If the individual needs this promotion in order to increase his/her financial success
they might be lead to commit murder of said other employee to gain this promotion. This can
fall under the innovation adaptation to a stressor of classic strain theory due to the individual
striving for that success, however, rejecting the institutionalized means to acquire the goal
caused by a lack of available opportunities to gain a promotion. Robbery can also be explained
by Merton's classic strain theory, which can occur because of an innovation adaptation to strain
as well. if one values financial success a great deal, then that may be a goal he/she is striving
for. Thus, the individual can reject the institutional means of achiving wealth because some
view obtaining a job harder than using illegal actions, such as robbery (a violent crime).
Merton's classic strain theory has both strengths and weaknesses when referencing the
explanation of violent crimes. To start, classic strain theory really has an emphasis on economic
inequality being a main stressor, leading to violent crimes. Support for this prior statement has
been found showing that economic deprivation does seem to have an effect on community
diffcrences in crime rates (Toth, 2019). However, this strength also comes with a weakness
because it has otherwise been shown that economic deprivation is not as strongly correlated to
societal differences as it is does on community differences (Toth, 2019). This being stated, not
everyone views economic success as being valuable and, therefore, may not consider it to be a
strain. In this casc, being economically unsuccessful would not lead to violent crime. Another
weakness to Merton's theory is it does not account for various strains other than the separation
between goals and presumptions (Toth, 2019)-
After Merton's classic strain theory came Agnews general strain theory, which is micro level
as well. Agnow approaches the outlook on strains by broadening stressors beyond the goals
and institutionalized means of reaching said goals of socicty by arguing there are several
sources of stress an individual can experience. Agnows strain theory perspective arose during
a time in which issues with widening social class division occurred due to increasing societal
pressures. Within Agnow's "Pressured into Crime: Goncral Strain Theory," he discusses how
people engage in crime due to experiencing stressors that result from one of three nogative
relationships. Thosc include relations that prevent or threaten to prevent the achievement of
positively valued goals, remove or threaten to remove the achievement of positively valued
goals, and present or threaten to present negatively valued stimuli (Toth, 2019). The first
relation, that of which prevents or threatens to prevent the achievement of positively valued
goals, features three subtypes. The first usually includes the traditional concept of stress
relating to long-term goals and the means of achieving said goals stated by Morton's classic
strain theory, howevor, Agnow expanded this idca (Akors & Sollors, 2013). Agnow not only
included long-term goals, but also short term, as well as the fact that an individual may not
achieve said goals due to individual inabilities or lack of skills, rather than only duc to blocked
opportunitics (Akors & Sallors, 2013). The socond subtypo includes the strain an individual
fols whon ho/sho believes he/she deserves a reward but that reward is never produced (Akors
& Scllors, 2013). The strain comes from the resentment the person may fecl from this
disappointing circumstance. The third subtype comes from when an individual believes he/she
deserves more than the outcome he/she reccived (Akers & Sallors, 2013). An example of this
could be when one person fools as if he/she is putting more effort into a relationship the other
person, therefore, fooling as if he/she is not reaping any benefit from said relationship.
The second relation, that of which removes or threatens to remove the achievement of
positively valued goals, usually falls within the adolescence period. This occurs when one loses
"something) or someone of great worth' (Akors & Sellers, 2013). Losing someone can include
a family member passing away or the breaking up with a girlfriend/boyfriend. Losing
something can consist of gotting fired from a job or being suspended from school. The third
relation, that of which prevents or threatens to present negatively valucd stimuli, includes
events in which a person has to deal with the negative actions of others. These events can be
anything from child abuse to adverse school experiences (Akers and Sallors, 2013), An
individual can not necessarily escape from family or school during childhood and adolescents
so they may be lead to use illegitimato means in order to escape said events. Although strains
may develop from those three negative relations, strains can also be divided into two categorics:
objective and subjoctive. Objoctive strains are events that most people would find stressful.
These events include boing physically assaulted or doprived of food and sholter (Cullon,
Agnow, & Wilcox, 2014). Mossorschmict (1993) also states that questioning a malo's
masculino status can causo stross to most men. Objoctive strains can bo measured by
intervicwing a sample of people. Subjoctive strains pertain to how different people evaluate
the same events. Although an event may be objoctively stressful, an individual might only
mildly dislike the event, where another could strongly dislike it (Toth, 2019). The evaluation
of stressful events is due to factors, such as an individual's porsonality traits, goals, values, and
prior experiences (Cullen, Agnow, & Wilcox, 2014)). An example of a subjective strain is a
divorce. It was found by Wheaton (1990) that some positively viewed their divorce because of
the poor quality of their prior marriage.
Strains may also be further divided into three sub-categories: experience, vicarious, and
anticipated Experienced strains are stressors one has personally experienced. This type of strain
should "bear the strongest relationship to crime" (Cullen, Agnew, & Wilcox, 2014). Vicarious
strains are strains on an individual due to stressors experienced by those around him/her,
specifically those closest towards the individual, such as a family member or a friend (Toth,
2019). Anticipated strains are when one believes their current stressors) may continue into the
future or a new stressor may arise in the future (Cullen, Agnew, & Wilcox, 2014).
General strain theory also goes on to discuss how not all strains result in criminal activity. It is
explained that strains are more likely to result in crime if they are seen as high in magnitude,
unjust, associated with low social control, or creating some pressure or incentive for criminal
coping (Toth, 2019). High in magnitude refers to how severe the individual subjectively views
a stressor. If one views the stressor as more severe than the individual will have a stronger
emotional response to said stressor, thus causing the person to take a more severe action to
relieve him/herself of the strain he/she feels. An individual may view a stressor as more severe
if it is high in degree, frequent, recent, long in duration or expected to continue, or threatens
his/her core goals, needs, and values (Toth, 2019). if an individual views a stressor as "unjust,"
meaning an individual did not believe he/she deserved the strain he/she foels, then it can cause
the individual to become aggravated. One may deem the strain unjust if the one who inflicted
it intentionally chose to do so knowing the individual would dislike the action (Toth, 2019). If
a strain is associated with lowering the amount of social control on a person, he/she may react
in a negative way (Toth, 2019). There are actually several types of social control one may
experience: direct, emotional bond or attachment to conventional others, investment into
conventional institutions, and beliefs regarding crime. Direct social control is the extent to
which others set rules prohibiting crime, monitor the person's bchavior, and sanction violations'
(Toth, 2019). Emotional bond or attachment to conventional others consists of whether or not
an individual cares what othors think (Toth, 2019). If a person cares more about what others
think, then it is more likely that a strain can have a stronger effect on the individual. Investment
into conventional institutions consist of the time and resources one has put into conventional
ochaviors (Toth, 2019). If a person has invested more into these conventional bchaviors, then
he/she is more likely to not want to lose these investments through crime. Social control
stemming from beliefs regarding crime involves the individual's attitude towards the laws and
whether or not he/she finds them valid (Toth, 2019). Lastly, creating pressure or incentive for
criminal coping refers to how easily a stressor can be resolved by means of criminal activity,
rather than conventional means. Not only do these four factors increase the likelihood of crime,
but also if an individual experience two or more strains at a single time or very close together
in time (Toth, 2019).
Agnews general strain theory can explain the cause of violent crimes. If an individual
experiences more strain from the negative relationships he/she developed, as well as
experiencing strain from other negative life events, then the inclividual is more likely to be lead
to criminal activity, specifically violent criminal activity. For one, Agnew's theory can be used
to explain sexual assault crimes, such as the violent crime of rape. This can occur if a person
encounters an objective, experienced strain. If an inclividual endures sexual assault, which can
be categorized as an objoctive strain seeing as it is generally disliked by most people,
himself/herself and lacks the ability to cope with this strain in a legal manner, then this
individual is more likely to inflict sexual assault, possibly even rape, on another person. Assault
and battory can also be explained by Agnows general strain theory. This can be seen when one
experiences a vicarious strain. If someone close to the individual, either a family member or a
friend, is being harmed by another, then the individual could be lead into secking revenge,
which can include physically harming or throatoning to physically harm, the person negatively
affecting his/hor family member or friend. Agnows goneral strain theory has both strengths and
weakness when referencing tho explanation of violent crimes. For one, his theory does account
for other strains, rather than just disconnection between aspirations and expectations, that may
lead to violent criminal actions. It has also boon supported that delinquency, which can lead to
violent criminal behavior in the future, is higher among those who experience one or more of
the threo negative relationships, as well as other various negative life events (Toth, 2019).
However, just because an individual experiences strain, does not moan they will utilize illegal
means to overcome it. if one has the ability to copo in a legal manner, such as having the verbal
skills necessary to resolve a negative situation, then the individual will not be lead into taking
illegal means, such as violent crimes, in orcer to overcome the strain (Toth, 2019).
Agnew has identified some policy implications in order to reduce the amount of violent crimes
occurring, mostly focusing on family, as well as school, interventions. He discusses how these
interventions should include four different aspects. The first is to reduce the difficulties of an
individual's social environment by training parents in skills that can better supervision and
discipline of an the individual, specifying in better usage of rewards and punishments (Akers
& Sellers, 2013). The second is to train individuals in their adolescence to have better social
skills in order to reduce the provocation of negative reactions from others (Akers & Sellers,
2013). The third aspect is to increase support from programs, such as counscling, mediation,
and advocacy, for adolescents in order for them to have an outlet to turn to before inclining
towards violent criminal behavior (Akers & Sellers, 2013). The last aspect is to have anger
control, problem solving, social skills, and stress management training for the youth in order
for them to cope in a noncriminal way (Akers & Sellers, 2013). To conclude, although Merton's
classic strain theory and Agnews general strain theory have weakness to the perspectives, the
strengths are what causes it to be able to best describe why violent crime occurs. Both
perspectives stemming from the positivist theory, as well as are micro level, explain that violent
crime can result due to the strain of being blocked from having opportunities in order to achieve
a goal, having a negative relationship, or one of the other various sub types of strain
Specifically, rape, murder, assault and battery, and robbery are the four main violent crimes
that can be best explained by strain theory.
The question most consistently asked throughout time is; why do people commit violent
crimes? Various perspectives, derived from one of two original thories: classical or positivist,
have been pondered trying to discover an answer to this question One modern-day theory,
stemming from the positivist theory, that may be able to best explain the reasoning as to why
people commit violent crimes is strain thory. There are two takes on strain theory, Morton's
classic strain theory. and Agnew's general strain theory, that have been developed in order to
solve this puzzling question, both perspectives having their own strengths and weaknesses.
Within violent crimes, there are two types subtypes: expressive and instrumental. Expressive
crimes are not committed for an individual to bencfit or gain from the act but instead aro
committed out of rago, anger, or frustration (Siogel, 2017). Whercas instrumental crime has
moro of a purposo to the actions. A person may commit an instrumental crimo to improve
his/hor financial or social status (Sicgal, 2017). There are several factors that are drawn upon
whon discussing the cause of a violent crimo, such as personal traits, human instinct, exposure
to violence, substance abusa, and culture and national values (Siogol, 2017). The four main
violent crimes committed are rape, murder, assault and battery, and robbery. These violent
crimes are categorized as part one crimes, meaning those crimes are only four of the most
scrious offenses. Rape is non consensual sexual intercours inflicted by another on cither male
or fomale and is one of the most misunderstood crimes (Siogal, 2017). Murder is the unlawful
killing of a porson or poople with intention and is considered the most scrious crime (Siogol,
2017). Assault and battery are actually two separate crimes. Battery being actual physical
contact during the offense, such as punching, against the victim, while assault does not involve
physical contact, but rather intention or throat of harming the victim (Siogol, 2017). Lastly,
robbery is the taking of something valuable from an individual by use of force, throat, or
violence (Siegel, 2017). The occurrence of violent crimes can be explained by both Merton's
and Agnews strain theories.
The classic strain theory, presented by Merton in his work "Social Structure and Anomic" in
1938, developed during a time when issues dealing with widening social class divisions started
to arise from urbanization growth (Toth, 2019). It is a micro-level theory, which halps to explain
why individuals or groups are more likoly to engage in criminal activity (Toth, 2019).
Specifically, how strain is produced on disadvantaged minority individuals and groups, as well
as the lower class, because these people do not have equal access to legitimate opportunitics
for success (Akors & Sellers, 2013). This strain coming from blocked opportunity causes the
individual or group to lean towards using illegal means in order to achieve success. Merton
goes on to explain in "Social Structure and Anomic that there are five ways an individual can
adapt to the strain produced on them: conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, and
rebellion. Conformity, being the most common, is when an individual accopts the strain and
still strives for success within the institutionalized means available (Akers & Sellers, 2013).
Stability and continuity of a society aro still maintained through this adaptation (Toth, 2019).
Innovation is when a parson still strives for success, however, the individual rejects the
institutionalized means, therefore, leading him or hor to take acantage of illegal means in order
to reach his/her goal (Akors & Sallors, 2013). This adaptation occurs more often where there
is limited opportunitics for people to achieve success (Toth, 2019). Ritualism is when a person
does not intend on reaching his/her goal, however, the individual still accopts the
institutionalized means. The individual does not gain much from this adaptation, but simply
just goes through the motions (Toth, 2019). Retreatism is when one gives up on both the goal
itself, as well as the means to reach that goal (Akers & Scllors, 2013). This adaptation, being
the least common, is more of an escape mechanism in which Merton placed those being, but
not limited to, alcoholics, drug addicts, and the severcly mentally ill within (Akers & Sellers,
2013). Lastly, rebellion is when a person rejects the entire system, both the goal itself and the
means of reaching the goal, but replaces them with a new set of goals and means, these usually
contrasting those of conventional society (Toth, 2019).
Merton's classic strain theory explains the cause of violent crimes. if an individual experiences
more strain from being blocked from using institutional means to achieve his/her goals, then
the individual is more likely to be lead to criminal activity, specifically violent criminal activity.
To start a person might be lead to commit murder if he/she is experiencing strain from another
standing in his/her way. To specify by using an extreme circumstance, an individual may be
blocked from progressing in his/her workplace, also known as a promotion, due to another
employee. If the individual needs this promotion in order to increase his/her financial success
they might be lead to commit murder of said other employee to gain this promotion. This can
fall under the innovation adaptation to a stressor of classic strain theory due to the individual
striving for that success, however, rejecting the institutionalized means to acquire the goal
caused by a lack of available opportunities to gain a promotion. Robbery can also be explained
by Merton's classic strain theory, which can occur because of an innovation adaptation to strain
as well. if one values financial success a great deal, then that may be a goal he/she is striving
for. Thus, the individual can reject the institutional means of achiving wealth because some
view obtaining a job harder than using illegal actions, such as robbery (a violent crime).
Merton's classic strain theory has both strengths and weaknesses when referencing the
explanation of violent crimes. To start, classic strain theory really has an emphasis on economic
inequality being a main stressor, leading to violent crimes. Support for this prior statement has
been found showing that economic deprivation does seem to have an effect on community
diffcrences in crime rates (Toth, 2019). However, this strength also comes with a weakness
because it has otherwise been shown that economic deprivation is not as strongly correlated to
societal differences as it is does on community differences (Toth, 2019). This being stated, not
everyone views economic success as being valuable and, therefore, may not consider it to be a
strain. In this casc, being economically unsuccessful would not lead to violent crime. Another
weakness to Merton's theory is it does not account for various strains other than the separation
between goals and presumptions (Toth, 2019)-
After Merton's classic strain theory came Agnews general strain theory, which is micro level
as well. Agnow approaches the outlook on strains by broadening stressors beyond the goals
and institutionalized means of reaching said goals of socicty by arguing there are several
sources of stress an individual can experience. Agnows strain theory perspective arose during
a time in which issues with widening social class division occurred due to increasing societal
pressures. Within Agnow's "Pressured into Crime: Goncral Strain Theory," he discusses how
people engage in crime due to experiencing stressors that result from one of three nogative
relationships. Thosc include relations that prevent or threaten to prevent the achievement of
positively valued goals, remove or threaten to remove the achievement of positively valued
goals, and present or threaten to present negatively valued stimuli (Toth, 2019). The first
relation, that of which prevents or threatens to prevent the achievement of positively valued
goals, features three subtypes. The first usually includes the traditional concept of stress
relating to long-term goals and the means of achieving said goals stated by Morton's classic
strain theory, howevor, Agnow expanded this idca (Akors & Sollors, 2013). Agnow not only
included long-term goals, but also short term, as well as the fact that an individual may not
achieve said goals due to individual inabilities or lack of skills, rather than only duc to blocked
opportunitics (Akors & Sallors, 2013). The socond subtypo includes the strain an individual
fols whon ho/sho believes he/she deserves a reward but that reward is never produced (Akors
& Scllors, 2013). The strain comes from the resentment the person may fecl from this
disappointing circumstance. The third subtype comes from when an individual believes he/she
deserves more than the outcome he/she reccived (Akers & Sallors, 2013). An example of this
could be when one person fools as if he/she is putting more effort into a relationship the other
person, therefore, fooling as if he/she is not reaping any benefit from said relationship.
The second relation, that of which removes or threatens to remove the achievement of
positively valued goals, usually falls within the adolescence period. This occurs when one loses
"something) or someone of great worth' (Akors & Sellers, 2013). Losing someone can include
a family member passing away or the breaking up with a girlfriend/boyfriend. Losing
something can consist of gotting fired from a job or being suspended from school. The third
relation, that of which prevents or threatens to present negatively valucd stimuli, includes
events in which a person has to deal with the negative actions of others. These events can be
anything from child abuse to adverse school experiences (Akers and Sallors, 2013), An
individual can not necessarily escape from family or school during childhood and adolescents
so they may be lead to use illegitimato means in order to escape said events. Although strains
may develop from those three negative relations, strains can also be divided into two categorics:
objective and subjoctive. Objoctive strains are events that most people would find stressful.
These events include boing physically assaulted or doprived of food and sholter (Cullon,
Agnow, & Wilcox, 2014). Mossorschmict (1993) also states that questioning a malo's
masculino status can causo stross to most men. Objoctive strains can bo measured by
intervicwing a sample of people. Subjoctive strains pertain to how different people evaluate
the same events. Although an event may be objoctively stressful, an individual might only
mildly dislike the event, where another could strongly dislike it (Toth, 2019). The evaluation
of stressful events is due to factors, such as an individual's porsonality traits, goals, values, and
prior experiences (Cullen, Agnow, & Wilcox, 2014)). An example of a subjective strain is a
divorce. It was found by Wheaton (1990) that some positively viewed their divorce because of
the poor quality of their prior marriage.
Strains may also be further divided into three sub-categories: experience, vicarious, and
anticipated Experienced strains are stressors one has personally experienced. This type of strain
should "bear the strongest relationship to crime" (Cullen, Agnew, & Wilcox, 2014). Vicarious
strains are strains on an individual due to stressors experienced by those around him/her,
specifically those closest towards the individual, such as a family member or a friend (Toth,
2019). Anticipated strains are when one believes their current stressors) may continue into the
future or a new stressor may arise in the future (Cullen, Agnew, & Wilcox, 2014).
General strain theory also goes on to discuss how not all strains result in criminal activity. It is
explained that strains are more likely to result in crime if they are seen as high in magnitude,
unjust, associated with low social control, or creating some pressure or incentive for criminal
coping (Toth, 2019). High in magnitude refers to how severe the individual subjectively views
a stressor. If one views the stressor as more severe than the individual will have a stronger
emotional response to said stressor, thus causing the person to take a more severe action to
relieve him/herself of the strain he/she feels. An individual may view a stressor as more severe
if it is high in degree, frequent, recent, long in duration or expected to continue, or threatens
his/her core goals, needs, and values (Toth, 2019). if an individual views a stressor as "unjust,"
meaning an individual did not believe he/she deserved the strain he/she foels, then it can cause
the individual to become aggravated. One may deem the strain unjust if the one who inflicted
it intentionally chose to do so knowing the individual would dislike the action (Toth, 2019). If
a strain is associated with lowering the amount of social control on a person, he/she may react
in a negative way (Toth, 2019). There are actually several types of social control one may
experience: direct, emotional bond or attachment to conventional others, investment into
conventional institutions, and beliefs regarding crime. Direct social control is the extent to
which others set rules prohibiting crime, monitor the person's bchavior, and sanction violations'
(Toth, 2019). Emotional bond or attachment to conventional others consists of whether or not
an individual cares what othors think (Toth, 2019). If a person cares more about what others
think, then it is more likely that a strain can have a stronger effect on the individual. Investment
into conventional institutions consist of the time and resources one has put into conventional
ochaviors (Toth, 2019). If a person has invested more into these conventional bchaviors, then
he/she is more likely to not want to lose these investments through crime. Social control
stemming from beliefs regarding crime involves the individual's attitude towards the laws and
whether or not he/she finds them valid (Toth, 2019). Lastly, creating pressure or incentive for
criminal coping refers to how easily a stressor can be resolved by means of criminal activity,
rather than conventional means. Not only do these four factors increase the likelihood of crime,
but also if an individual experience two or more strains at a single time or very close together
in time (Toth, 2019).
Agnews general strain theory can explain the cause of violent crimes. If an individual
experiences more strain from the negative relationships he/she developed, as well as
experiencing strain from other negative life events, then the inclividual is more likely to be lead
to criminal activity, specifically violent criminal activity. For one, Agnew's theory can be used
to explain sexual assault crimes, such as the violent crime of rape. This can occur if a person
encounters an objective, experienced strain. If an inclividual endures sexual assault, which can
be categorized as an objoctive strain seeing as it is generally disliked by most people,
himself/herself and lacks the ability to cope with this strain in a legal manner, then this
individual is more likely to inflict sexual assault, possibly even rape, on another person. Assault
and battory can also be explained by Agnows general strain theory. This can be seen when one
experiences a vicarious strain. If someone close to the individual, either a family member or a
friend, is being harmed by another, then the individual could be lead into secking revenge,
which can include physically harming or throatoning to physically harm, the person negatively
affecting his/hor family member or friend. Agnows goneral strain theory has both strengths and
weakness when referencing tho explanation of violent crimes. For one, his theory does account
for other strains, rather than just disconnection between aspirations and expectations, that may
lead to violent criminal actions. It has also boon supported that delinquency, which can lead to
violent criminal behavior in the future, is higher among those who experience one or more of
the threo negative relationships, as well as other various negative life events (Toth, 2019).
However, just because an individual experiences strain, does not moan they will utilize illegal
means to overcome it. if one has the ability to copo in a legal manner, such as having the verbal
skills necessary to resolve a negative situation, then the individual will not be lead into taking
illegal means, such as violent crimes, in orcer to overcome the strain (Toth, 2019).
Agnew has identified some policy implications in order to reduce the amount of violent crimes
occurring, mostly focusing on family, as well as school, interventions. He discusses how these
interventions should include four different aspects. The first is to reduce the difficulties of an
individual's social environment by training parents in skills that can better supervision and
discipline of an the individual, specifying in better usage of rewards and punishments (Akers
& Sellers, 2013). The second is to train individuals in their adolescence to have better social
skills in order to reduce the provocation of negative reactions from others (Akers & Sellers,
2013). The third aspect is to increase support from programs, such as counscling, mediation,
and advocacy, for adolescents in order for them to have an outlet to turn to before inclining
towards violent criminal behavior (Akers & Sellers, 2013). The last aspect is to have anger
control, problem solving, social skills, and stress management training for the youth in order
for them to cope in a noncriminal way (Akers & Sellers, 2013). To conclude, although Merton's
classic strain theory and Agnews general strain theory have weakness to the perspectives, the
strengths are what causes it to be able to best describe why violent crime occurs. Both
perspectives stemming from the positivist theory, as well as are micro level, explain that violent
crime can result due to the strain of being blocked from having opportunities in order to achieve
a goal, having a negative relationship, or one of the other various sub types of strain
Specifically, rape, murder, assault and battery, and robbery are the four main violent crimes
that can be best explained by strain theory.
The question most consistently asked throughout time is; why do people commit violent
crimes? Various perspectives, derived from one of two original thories: classical or positivist,
have been pondered trying to discover an answer to this question One modern-day theory,
stemming from the positivist theory, that may be able to best explain the reasoning as to why
people commit violent crimes is strain thory. There are two takes on strain theory, Morton's
classic strain theory. and Agnew's general strain theory, that have been developed in order to
solve this puzzling question, both perspectives having their own strengths and weaknesses.
Within violent crimes, there are two types subtypes: expressive and instrumental. Expressive
crimes are not committed for an individual to bencfit or gain from the act but instead aro
committed out of rago, anger, or frustration (Siogel, 2017). Whercas instrumental crime has
moro of a purposo to the actions. A person may commit an instrumental crimo to improve
his/hor financial or social status (Sicgal, 2017). There are several factors that are drawn upon
whon discussing the cause of a violent crimo, such as personal traits, human instinct, exposure
to violence, substance abusa, and culture and national values (Siogol, 2017). The four main
violent crimes committed are rape, murder, assault and battery, and robbery. These violent
crimes are categorized as part one crimes, meaning those crimes are only four of the most
scrious offenses. Rape is non consensual sexual intercours inflicted by another on cither male
or fomale and is one of the most misunderstood crimes (Siogal, 2017). Murder is the unlawful
killing of a porson or poople with intention and is considered the most scrious crime (Siogol,
2017). Assault and battery are actually two separate crimes. Battery being actual physical
contact during the offense, such as punching, against the victim, while assault does not involve
physical contact, but rather intention or throat of harming the victim (Siogol, 2017). Lastly,
robbery is the taking of something valuable from an individual by use of force, throat, or
violence (Siegel, 2017). The occurrence of violent crimes can be explained by both Merton's
and Agnews strain theories.
The classic strain theory, presented by Merton in his work "Social Structure and Anomic" in
1938, developed during a time when issues dealing with widening social class divisions started
to arise from urbanization growth (Toth, 2019). It is a micro-level theory, which halps to explain
why individuals or groups are more likoly to engage in criminal activity (Toth, 2019).
Specifically, how strain is produced on disadvantaged minority individuals and groups, as well
as the lower class, because these people do not have equal access to legitimate opportunitics
for success (Akors & Sellers, 2013). This strain coming from blocked opportunity causes the
individual or group to lean towards using illegal means in order to achieve success. Merton
goes on to explain in "Social Structure and Anomic that there are five ways an individual can
adapt to the strain produced on them: conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, and
rebellion. Conformity, being the most common, is when an individual accopts the strain and
still strives for success within the institutionalized means available (Akers & Sellers, 2013).
Stability and continuity of a society aro still maintained through this adaptation (Toth, 2019).
Innovation is when a parson still strives for success, however, the individual rejects the
institutionalized means, therefore, leading him or hor to take acantage of illegal means in order
to reach his/her goal (Akors & Sallors, 2013). This adaptation occurs more often where there
is limited opportunitics for people to achieve success (Toth, 2019). Ritualism is when a person
does not intend on reaching his/her goal, however, the individual still accopts the
institutionalized means. The individual does not gain much from this adaptation, but simply
just goes through the motions (Toth, 2019). Retreatism is when one gives up on both the goal
itself, as well as the means to reach that goal (Akers & Scllors, 2013). This adaptation, being
the least common, is more of an escape mechanism in which Merton placed those being, but
not limited to, alcoholics, drug addicts, and the severcly mentally ill within (Akers & Sellers,
2013). Lastly, rebellion is when a person rejects the entire system, both the goal itself and the
means of reaching the goal, but replaces them with a new set of goals and means, these usually
contrasting those of conventional society (Toth, 2019).
Merton's classic strain theory explains the cause of violent crimes. if an individual experiences
more strain from being blocked from using institutional means to achieve his/her goals, then
the individual is more likely to be lead to criminal activity, specifically violent criminal activity.
To start a person might be lead to commit murder if he/she is experiencing strain from another
standing in his/her way. To specify by using an extreme circumstance, an individual may be
blocked from progressing in his/her workplace, also known as a promotion, due to another
employee. If the individual needs this promotion in order to increase his/her financial success
they might be lead to commit murder of said other employee to gain this promotion. This can
fall under the innovation adaptation to a stressor of classic strain theory due to the individual
striving for that success, however, rejecting the institutionalized means to acquire the goal
caused by a lack of available opportunities to gain a promotion. Robbery can also be explained
by Merton's classic strain theory, which can occur because of an innovation adaptation to strain
as well. if one values financial success a great deal, then that may be a goal he/she is striving
for. Thus, the individual can reject the institutional means of achiving wealth because some
view obtaining a job harder than using illegal actions, such as robbery (a violent crime).
Merton's classic strain theory has both strengths and weaknesses when referencing the
explanation of violent crimes. To start, classic strain theory really has an emphasis on economic
inequality being a main stressor, leading to violent crimes. Support for this prior statement has
been found showing that economic deprivation does seem to have an effect on community
diffcrences in crime rates (Toth, 2019). However, this strength also comes with a weakness
because it has otherwise been shown that economic deprivation is not as strongly correlated to
societal differences as it is does on community differences (Toth, 2019). This being stated, not
everyone views economic success as being valuable and, therefore, may not consider it to be a
strain. In this casc, being economically unsuccessful would not lead to violent crime. Another
weakness to Merton's theory is it does not account for various strains other than the separation
between goals and presumptions (Toth, 2019)-
After Merton's classic strain theory came Agnews general strain theory, which is micro level
as well. Agnow approaches the outlook on strains by broadening stressors beyond the goals
and institutionalized means of reaching said goals of socicty by arguing there are several
sources of stress an individual can experience. Agnows strain theory perspective arose during
a time in which issues with widening social class division occurred due to increasing societal
pressures. Within Agnow's "Pressured into Crime: Goncral Strain Theory," he discusses how
people engage in crime due to experiencing stressors that result from one of three nogative
relationships. Thosc include relations that prevent or threaten to prevent the achievement of
positively valued goals, remove or threaten to remove the achievement of positively valued
goals, and present or threaten to present negatively valued stimuli (Toth, 2019). The first
relation, that of which prevents or threatens to prevent the achievement of positively valued
goals, features three subtypes. The first usually includes the traditional concept of stress
relating to long-term goals and the means of achieving said goals stated by Morton's classic
strain theory, howevor, Agnow expanded this idca (Akors & Sollors, 2013). Agnow not only
included long-term goals, but also short term, as well as the fact that an individual may not
achieve said goals due to individual inabilities or lack of skills, rather than only duc to blocked
opportunitics (Akors & Sallors, 2013). The socond subtypo includes the strain an individual
fols whon ho/sho believes he/she deserves a reward but that reward is never produced (Akors
& Scllors, 2013). The strain comes from the resentment the person may fecl from this
disappointing circumstance. The third subtype comes from when an individual believes he/she
deserves more than the outcome he/she reccived (Akers & Sallors, 2013). An example of this
could be when one person fools as if he/she is putting more effort into a relationship the other
person, therefore, fooling as if he/she is not reaping any benefit from said relationship.
The second relation, that of which removes or threatens to remove the achievement of
positively valued goals, usually falls within the adolescence period. This occurs when one loses
"something) or someone of great worth' (Akors & Sellers, 2013). Losing someone can include
a family member passing away or the breaking up with a girlfriend/boyfriend. Losing
something can consist of gotting fired from a job or being suspended from school. The third
relation, that of which prevents or threatens to present negatively valucd stimuli, includes
events in which a person has to deal with the negative actions of others. These events can be
anything from child abuse to adverse school experiences (Akers and Sallors, 2013), An
individual can not necessarily escape from family or school during childhood and adolescents
so they may be lead to use illegitimato means in order to escape said events. Although strains
may develop from those three negative relations, strains can also be divided into two categorics:
objective and subjoctive. Objoctive strains are events that most people would find stressful.
These events include boing physically assaulted or doprived of food and sholter (Cullon,
Agnow, & Wilcox, 2014). Mossorschmict (1993) also states that questioning a malo's
masculino status can causo stross to most men. Objoctive strains can bo measured by
intervicwing a sample of people. Subjoctive strains pertain to how different people evaluate
the same events. Although an event may be objoctively stressful, an individual might only
mildly dislike the event, where another could strongly dislike it (Toth, 2019). The evaluation
of stressful events is due to factors, such as an individual's porsonality traits, goals, values, and
prior experiences (Cullen, Agnow, & Wilcox, 2014)). An example of a subjective strain is a
divorce. It was found by Wheaton (1990) that some positively viewed their divorce because of
the poor quality of their prior marriage.
Strains may also be further divided into three sub-categories: experience, vicarious, and
anticipated Experienced strains are stressors one has personally experienced. This type of strain
should "bear the strongest relationship to crime" (Cullen, Agnew, & Wilcox, 2014). Vicarious
strains are strains on an individual due to stressors experienced by those around him/her,
specifically those closest towards the individual, such as a family member or a friend (Toth,
2019). Anticipated strains are when one believes their current stressors) may continue into the
future or a new stressor may arise in the future (Cullen, Agnew, & Wilcox, 2014).
General strain theory also goes on to discuss how not all strains result in criminal activity. It is
explained that strains are more likely to result in crime if they are seen as high in magnitude,
unjust, associated with low social control, or creating some pressure or incentive for criminal
coping (Toth, 2019). High in magnitude refers to how severe the individual subjectively views
a stressor. If one views the stressor as more severe than the individual will have a stronger
emotional response to said stressor, thus causing the person to take a more severe action to
relieve him/herself of the strain he/she feels. An individual may view a stressor as more severe
if it is high in degree, frequent, recent, long in duration or expected to continue, or threatens
his/her core goals, needs, and values (Toth, 2019). if an individual views a stressor as "unjust,"
meaning an individual did not believe he/she deserved the strain he/she foels, then it can cause
the individual to become aggravated. One may deem the strain unjust if the one who inflicted
it intentionally chose to do so knowing the individual would dislike the action (Toth, 2019). If
a strain is associated with lowering the amount of social control on a person, he/she may react
in a negative way (Toth, 2019). There are actually several types of social control one may
experience: direct, emotional bond or attachment to conventional others, investment into
conventional institutions, and beliefs regarding crime. Direct social control is the extent to
which others set rules prohibiting crime, monitor the person's bchavior, and sanction violations'
(Toth, 2019). Emotional bond or attachment to conventional others consists of whether or not
an individual cares what othors think (Toth, 2019). If a person cares more about what others
think, then it is more likely that a strain can have a stronger effect on the individual. Investment
into conventional institutions consist of the time and resources one has put into conventional
ochaviors (Toth, 2019). If a person has invested more into these conventional bchaviors, then
he/she is more likely to not want to lose these investments through crime. Social control
stemming from beliefs regarding crime involves the individual's attitude towards the laws and
whether or not he/she finds them valid (Toth, 2019). Lastly, creating pressure or incentive for
criminal coping refers to how easily a stressor can be resolved by means of criminal activity,
rather than conventional means. Not only do these four factors increase the likelihood of crime,
but also if an individual experience two or more strains at a single time or very close together
in time (Toth, 2019).
Agnews general strain theory can explain the cause of violent crimes. If an individual
experiences more strain from the negative relationships he/she developed, as well as
experiencing strain from other negative life events, then the inclividual is more likely to be lead
to criminal activity, specifically violent criminal activity. For one, Agnew's theory can be used
to explain sexual assault crimes, such as the violent crime of rape. This can occur if a person
encounters an objective, experienced strain. If an inclividual endures sexual assault, which can
be categorized as an objoctive strain seeing as it is generally disliked by most people,
himself/herself and lacks the ability to cope with this strain in a legal manner, then this
individual is more likely to inflict sexual assault, possibly even rape, on another person. Assault
and battory can also be explained by Agnows general strain theory. This can be seen when one
experiences a vicarious strain. If someone close to the individual, either a family member or a
friend, is being harmed by another, then the individual could be lead into secking revenge,
which can include physically harming or throatoning to physically harm, the person negatively
affecting his/hor family member or friend. Agnows goneral strain theory has both strengths and
weakness when referencing tho explanation of violent crimes. For one, his theory does account
for other strains, rather than just disconnection between aspirations and expectations, that may
lead to violent criminal actions. It has also boon supported that delinquency, which can lead to
violent criminal behavior in the future, is higher among those who experience one or more of
the threo negative relationships, as well as other various negative life events (Toth, 2019).
However, just because an individual experiences strain, does not moan they will utilize illegal
means to overcome it. if one has the ability to copo in a legal manner, such as having the verbal
skills necessary to resolve a negative situation, then the individual will not be lead into taking
illegal means, such as violent crimes, in orcer to overcome the strain (Toth, 2019).
Agnew has identified some policy implications in order to reduce the amount of violent crimes
occurring, mostly focusing on family, as well as school, interventions. He discusses how these
interventions should include four different aspects. The first is to reduce the difficulties of an
individual's social environment by training parents in skills that can better supervision and
discipline of an the individual, specifying in better usage of rewards and punishments (Akers
& Sellers, 2013). The second is to train individuals in their adolescence to have better social
skills in order to reduce the provocation of negative reactions from others (Akers & Sellers,
2013). The third aspect is to increase support from programs, such as counscling, mediation,
and advocacy, for adolescents in order for them to have an outlet to turn to before inclining
towards violent criminal behavior (Akers & Sellers, 2013). The last aspect is to have anger
control, problem solving, social skills, and stress management training for the youth in order
for them to cope in a noncriminal way (Akers & Sellers, 2013). To conclude, although Merton's
classic strain theory and Agnews general strain theory have weakness to the perspectives, the
strengths are what causes it to be able to best describe why violent crime occurs. Both
perspectives stemming from the positivist theory, as well as are micro level, explain that violent
crime can result due to the strain of being blocked from having opportunities in order to achieve
a goal, having a negative relationship, or one of the other various sub types of strain
Specifically, rape, murder, assault and battery, and robbery are the four main violent crimes
that can be best explained by strain theory.
The question most consistently asked throughout time is; why do people commit violent
crimes? Various perspectives, derived from one of two original thories: classical or positivist,
have been pondered trying to discover an answer to this question One modern-day theory,
stemming from the positivist theory, that may be able to best explain the reasoning as to why
people commit violent crimes is strain thory. There are two takes on strain theory, Morton's
classic strain theory. and Agnew's general strain theory, that have been developed in order to
solve this puzzling question, both perspectives having their own strengths and weaknesses.
Within violent crimes, there are two types subtypes: expressive and instrumental. Expressive
crimes are not committed for an individual to bencfit or gain from the act but instead aro
committed out of rago, anger, or frustration (Siogel, 2017). Whercas instrumental crime has
moro of a purposo to the actions. A person may commit an instrumental crimo to improve
his/hor financial or social status (Sicgal, 2017). There are several factors that are drawn upon
whon discussing the cause of a violent crimo, such as personal traits, human instinct, exposure
to violence, substance abusa, and culture and national values (Siogol, 2017). The four main
violent crimes committed are rape, murder, assault and battery, and robbery. These violent
crimes are categorized as part one crimes, meaning those crimes are only four of the most
scrious offenses. Rape is non consensual sexual intercours inflicted by another on cither male
or fomale and is one of the most misunderstood crimes (Siogal, 2017). Murder is the unlawful
killing of a porson or poople with intention and is considered the most scrious crime (Siogol,
2017). Assault and battery are actually two separate crimes. Battery being actual physical
contact during the offense, such as punching, against the victim, while assault does not involve
physical contact, but rather intention or throat of harming the victim (Siogol, 2017). Lastly,
robbery is the taking of something valuable from an individual by use of force, throat, or
violence (Siegel, 2017). The occurrence of violent crimes can be explained by both Merton's
and Agnews strain theories.
The classic strain theory, presented by Merton in his work "Social Structure and Anomic" in
1938, developed during a time when issues dealing with widening social class divisions started
to arise from urbanization growth (Toth, 2019). It is a micro-level theory, which halps to explain
why individuals or groups are more likoly to engage in criminal activity (Toth, 2019).
Specifically, how strain is produced on disadvantaged minority individuals and groups, as well
as the lower class, because these people do not have equal access to legitimate opportunitics
for success (Akors & Sellers, 2013). This strain coming from blocked opportunity causes the
individual or group to lean towards using illegal means in order to achieve success. Merton
goes on to explain in "Social Structure and Anomic that there are five ways an individual can
adapt to the strain produced on them: conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, and
rebellion. Conformity, being the most common, is when an individual accopts the strain and
still strives for success within the institutionalized means available (Akers & Sellers, 2013).
Stability and continuity of a society aro still maintained through this adaptation (Toth, 2019).
Innovation is when a parson still strives for success, however, the individual rejects the
institutionalized means, therefore, leading him or hor to take acantage of illegal means in order
to reach his/her goal (Akors & Sallors, 2013). This adaptation occurs more often where there
is limited opportunitics for people to achieve success (Toth, 2019). Ritualism is when a person
does not intend on reaching his/her goal, however, the individual still accopts the
institutionalized means. The individual does not gain much from this adaptation, but simply
just goes through the motions (Toth, 2019). Retreatism is when one gives up on both the goal
itself, as well as the means to reach that goal (Akers & Scllors, 2013). This adaptation, being
the least common, is more of an escape mechanism in which Merton placed those being, but
not limited to, alcoholics, drug addicts, and the severcly mentally ill within (Akers & Sellers,
2013). Lastly, rebellion is when a person rejects the entire system, both the goal itself and the
means of reaching the goal, but replaces them with a new set of goals and means, these usually
contrasting those of conventional society (Toth, 2019).
Merton's classic strain theory explains the cause of violent crimes. if an individual experiences
more strain from being blocked from using institutional means to achieve his/her goals, then
the individual is more likely to be lead to criminal activity, specifically violent criminal activity.
To start a person might be lead to commit murder if he/she is experiencing strain from another
standing in his/her way. To specify by using an extreme circumstance, an individual may be
blocked from progressing in his/her workplace, also known as a promotion, due to another
employee. If the individual needs this promotion in order to increase his/her financial success
they might be lead to commit murder of said other employee to gain this promotion. This can
fall under the innovation adaptation to a stressor of classic strain theory due to the individual
striving for that success, however, rejecting the institutionalized means to acquire the goal
caused by a lack of available opportunities to gain a promotion. Robbery can also be explained
by Merton's classic strain theory, which can occur because of an innovation adaptation to strain
as well. if one values financial success a great deal, then that may be a goal he/she is striving
for. Thus, the individual can reject the institutional means of achiving wealth because some
view obtaining a job harder than using illegal actions, such as robbery (a violent crime).
Merton's classic strain theory has both strengths and weaknesses when referencing the
explanation of violent crimes. To start, classic strain theory really has an emphasis on economic
inequality being a main stressor, leading to violent crimes. Support for this prior statement has
been found showing that economic deprivation does seem to have an effect on community
diffcrences in crime rates (Toth, 2019). However, this strength also comes with a weakness
because it has otherwise been shown that economic deprivation is not as strongly correlated to
societal differences as it is does on community differences (Toth, 2019). This being stated, not
everyone views economic success as being valuable and, therefore, may not consider it to be a
strain. In this casc, being economically unsuccessful would not lead to violent crime. Another
weakness to Merton's theory is it does not account for various strains other than the separation
between goals and presumptions (Toth, 2019)-
After Merton's classic strain theory came Agnews general strain theory, which is micro level
as well. Agnow approaches the outlook on strains by broadening stressors beyond the goals
and institutionalized means of reaching said goals of socicty by arguing there are several
sources of stress an individual can experience. Agnows strain theory perspective arose during
a time in which issues with widening social class division occurred due to increasing societal
pressures. Within Agnow's "Pressured into Crime: Goncral Strain Theory," he discusses how
people engage in crime due to experiencing stressors that result from one of three nogative
relationships. Thosc include relations that prevent or threaten to prevent the achievement of
positively valued goals, remove or threaten to remove the achievement of positively valued
goals, and present or threaten to present negatively valued stimuli (Toth, 2019). The first
relation, that of which prevents or threatens to prevent the achievement of positively valued
goals, features three subtypes. The first usually includes the traditional concept of stress
relating to long-term goals and the means of achieving said goals stated by Morton's classic
strain theory, howevor, Agnow expanded this idca (Akors & Sollors, 2013). Agnow not only
included long-term goals, but also short term, as well as the fact that an individual may not
achieve said goals due to individual inabilities or lack of skills, rather than only duc to blocked
opportunitics (Akors & Sallors, 2013). The socond subtypo includes the strain an individual
fols whon ho/sho believes he/she deserves a reward but that reward is never produced (Akors
& Scllors, 2013). The strain comes from the resentment the person may fecl from this
disappointing circumstance. The third subtype comes from when an individual believes he/she
deserves more than the outcome he/she reccived (Akers & Sallors, 2013). An example of this
could be when one person fools as if he/she is putting more effort into a relationship the other
person, therefore, fooling as if he/she is not reaping any benefit from said relationship.
The second relation, that of which removes or threatens to remove the achievement of
positively valued goals, usually falls within the adolescence period. This occurs when one loses
"something) or someone of great worth' (Akors & Sellers, 2013). Losing someone can include
a family member passing away or the breaking up with a girlfriend/boyfriend. Losing
something can consist of gotting fired from a job or being suspended from school. The third
relation, that of which prevents or threatens to present negatively valucd stimuli, includes
events in which a person has to deal with the negative actions of others. These events can be
anything from child abuse to adverse school experiences (Akers and Sallors, 2013), An
individual can not necessarily escape from family or school during childhood and adolescents
so they may be lead to use illegitimato means in order to escape said events. Although strains
may develop from those three negative relations, strains can also be divided into two categorics:
objective and subjoctive. Objoctive strains are events that most people would find stressful.
These events include boing physically assaulted or doprived of food and sholter (Cullon,
Agnow, & Wilcox, 2014). Mossorschmict (1993) also states that questioning a malo's
masculino status can causo stross to most men. Objoctive strains can bo measured by
intervicwing a sample of people. Subjoctive strains pertain to how different people evaluate
the same events. Although an event may be objoctively stressful, an individual might only
mildly dislike the event, where another could strongly dislike it (Toth, 2019). The evaluation
of stressful events is due to factors, such as an individual's porsonality traits, goals, values, and
prior experiences (Cullen, Agnow, & Wilcox, 2014)). An example of a subjective strain is a
divorce. It was found by Wheaton (1990) that some positively viewed their divorce because of
the poor quality of their prior marriage.
Strains may also be further divided into three sub-categories: experience, vicarious, and
anticipated Experienced strains are stressors one has personally experienced. This type of strain
should "bear the strongest relationship to crime" (Cullen, Agnew, & Wilcox, 2014). Vicarious
strains are strains on an individual due to stressors experienced by those around him/her,
specifically those closest towards the individual, such as a family member or a friend (Toth,
2019). Anticipated strains are when one believes their current stressors) may continue into the
future or a new stressor may arise in the future (Cullen, Agnew, & Wilcox, 2014).
General strain theory also goes on to discuss how not all strains result in criminal activity. It is
explained that strains are more likely to result in crime if they are seen as high in magnitude,
unjust, associated with low social control, or creating some pressure or incentive for criminal
coping (Toth, 2019). High in magnitude refers to how severe the individual subjectively views
a stressor. If one views the stressor as more severe than the individual will have a stronger
emotional response to said stressor, thus causing the person to take a more severe action to
relieve him/herself of the strain he/she feels. An individual may view a stressor as more severe
if it is high in degree, frequent, recent, long in duration or expected to continue, or threatens
his/her core goals, needs, and values (Toth, 2019). if an individual views a stressor as "unjust,"
meaning an individual did not believe he/she deserved the strain he/she foels, then it can cause
the individual to become aggravated. One may deem the strain unjust if the one who inflicted
it intentionally chose to do so knowing the individual would dislike the action (Toth, 2019). If
a strain is associated with lowering the amount of social control on a person, he/she may react
in a negative way (Toth, 2019). There are actually several types of social control one may
experience: direct, emotional bond or attachment to conventional others, investment into
conventional institutions, and beliefs regarding crime. Direct social control is the extent to
which others set rules prohibiting crime, monitor the person's bchavior, and sanction violations'
(Toth, 2019). Emotional bond or attachment to conventional others consists of whether or not
an individual cares what othors think (Toth, 2019). If a person cares more about what others
think, then it is more likely that a strain can have a stronger effect on the individual. Investment
into conventional institutions consist of the time and resources one has put into conventional
ochaviors (Toth, 2019). If a person has invested more into these conventional bchaviors, then
he/she is more likely to not want to lose these investments through crime. Social control
stemming from beliefs regarding crime involves the individual's attitude towards the laws and
whether or not he/she finds them valid (Toth, 2019). Lastly, creating pressure or incentive for
criminal coping refers to how easily a stressor can be resolved by means of criminal activity,
rather than conventional means. Not only do these four factors increase the likelihood of crime,
but also if an individual experience two or more strains at a single time or very close together
in time (Toth, 2019).
Agnews general strain theory can explain the cause of violent crimes. If an individual
experiences more strain from the negative relationships he/she developed, as well as
experiencing strain from other negative life events, then the inclividual is more likely to be lead
to criminal activity, specifically violent criminal activity. For one, Agnew's theory can be used
to explain sexual assault crimes, such as the violent crime of rape. This can occur if a person
encounters an objective, experienced strain. If an inclividual endures sexual assault, which can
be categorized as an objoctive strain seeing as it is generally disliked by most people,
himself/herself and lacks the ability to cope with this strain in a legal manner, then this
individual is more likely to inflict sexual assault, possibly even rape, on another person. Assault
and battory can also be explained by Agnows general strain theory. This can be seen when one
experiences a vicarious strain. If someone close to the individual, either a family member or a
friend, is being harmed by another, then the individual could be lead into secking revenge,
which can include physically harming or throatoning to physically harm, the person negatively
affecting his/hor family member or friend. Agnows goneral strain theory has both strengths and
weakness when referencing tho explanation of violent crimes. For one, his theory does account
for other strains, rather than just disconnection between aspirations and expectations, that may
lead to violent criminal actions. It has also boon supported that delinquency, which can lead to
violent criminal behavior in the future, is higher among those who experience one or more of
the threo negative relationships, as well as other various negative life events (Toth, 2019).
However, just because an individual experiences strain, does not moan they will utilize illegal
means to overcome it. if one has the ability to copo in a legal manner, such as having the verbal
skills necessary to resolve a negative situation, then the individual will not be lead into taking
illegal means, such as violent crimes, in orcer to overcome the strain (Toth, 2019).
Agnew has identified some policy implications in order to reduce the amount of violent crimes
occurring, mostly focusing on family, as well as school, interventions. He discusses how these
interventions should include four different aspects. The first is to reduce the difficulties of an
individual's social environment by training parents in skills that can better supervision and
discipline of an the individual, specifying in better usage of rewards and punishments (Akers
& Sellers, 2013). The second is to train individuals in their adolescence to have better social
skills in order to reduce the provocation of negative reactions from others (Akers & Sellers,
2013). The third aspect is to increase support from programs, such as counscling, mediation,
and advocacy, for adolescents in order for them to have an outlet to turn to before inclining
towards violent criminal behavior (Akers & Sellers, 2013). The last aspect is to have anger
control, problem solving, social skills, and stress management training for the youth in order
for them to cope in a noncriminal way (Akers & Sellers, 2013). To conclude, although Merton's
classic strain theory and Agnews general strain theory have weakness to the perspectives, the
strengths are what causes it to be able to best describe why violent crime occurs. Both
perspectives stemming from the positivist theory, as well as are micro level, explain that violent
crime can result due to the strain of being blocked from having opportunities in order to achieve
a goal, having a negative relationship, or one of the other various sub types of strain
Specifically, rape, murder, assault and battery, and robbery are the four main violent crimes
that can be best explained by strain theory.
The question most consistently asked throughout time is; why do people commit violent
crimes? Various perspectives, derived from one of two original thories: classical or positivist,
have been pondered trying to discover an answer to this question One modern-day theory,
stemming from the positivist theory, that may be able to best explain the reasoning as to why
people commit violent crimes is strain thory. There are two takes on strain theory, Morton's
classic strain theory. and Agnew's general strain theory, that have been developed in order to
solve this puzzling question, both perspectives having their own strengths and weaknesses.
Within violent crimes, there are two types subtypes: expressive and instrumental. Expressive
crimes are not committed for an individual to bencfit or gain from the act but instead aro
committed out of rago, anger, or frustration (Siogel, 2017). Whercas instrumental crime has
moro of a purposo to the actions. A person may commit an instrumental crimo to improve
his/hor financial or social status (Sicgal, 2017). There are several factors that are drawn upon
whon discussing the cause of a violent crimo, such as personal traits, human instinct, exposure
to violence, substance abusa, and culture and national values (Siogol, 2017). The four main
violent crimes committed are rape, murder, assault and battery, and robbery. These violent
crimes are categorized as part one crimes, meaning those crimes are only four of the most
scrious offenses. Rape is non consensual sexual intercours inflicted by another on cither male
or fomale and is one of the most misunderstood crimes (Siogal, 2017). Murder is the unlawful
killing of a porson or poople with intention and is considered the most scrious crime (Siogol,
2017). Assault and battery are actually two separate crimes. Battery being actual physical
contact during the offense, such as punching, against the victim, while assault does not involve
physical contact, but rather intention or throat of harming the victim (Siogol, 2017). Lastly,
robbery is the taking of something valuable from an individual by use of force, throat, or
violence (Siegel, 2017). The occurrence of violent crimes can be explained by both Merton's
and Agnews strain theories.
The classic strain theory, presented by Merton in his work "Social Structure and Anomic" in
1938, developed during a time when issues dealing with widening social class divisions started
to arise from urbanization growth (Toth, 2019). It is a micro-level theory, which halps to explain
why individuals or groups are more likoly to engage in criminal activity (Toth, 2019).
Specifically, how strain is produced on disadvantaged minority individuals and groups, as well
as the lower class, because these people do not have equal access to legitimate opportunitics
for success (Akors & Sellers, 2013). This strain coming from blocked opportunity causes the
individual or group to lean towards using illegal means in order to achieve success. Merton
goes on to explain in "Social Structure and Anomic that there are five ways an individual can
adapt to the strain produced on them: conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, and
rebellion. Conformity, being the most common, is when an individual accopts the strain and
still strives for success within the institutionalized means available (Akers & Sellers, 2013).
Stability and continuity of a society aro still maintained through this adaptation (Toth, 2019).
Innovation is when a parson still strives for success, however, the individual rejects the
institutionalized means, therefore, leading him or hor to take acantage of illegal means in order
to reach his/her goal (Akors & Sallors, 2013). This adaptation occurs more often where there
is limited opportunitics for people to achieve success (Toth, 2019). Ritualism is when a person
does not intend on reaching his/her goal, however, the individual still accopts the
institutionalized means. The individual does not gain much from this adaptation, but simply
just goes through the motions (Toth, 2019). Retreatism is when one gives up on both the goal
itself, as well as the means to reach that goal (Akers & Scllors, 2013). This adaptation, being
the least common, is more of an escape mechanism in which Merton placed those being, but
not limited to, alcoholics, drug addicts, and the severcly mentally ill within (Akers & Sellers,
2013). Lastly, rebellion is when a person rejects the entire system, both the goal itself and the
means of reaching the goal, but replaces them with a new set of goals and means, these usually
contrasting those of conventional society (Toth, 2019).
Merton's classic strain theory explains the cause of violent crimes. if an individual experiences
more strain from being blocked from using institutional means to achieve his/her goals, then
the individual is more likely to be lead to criminal activity, specifically violent criminal activity.
To start a person might be lead to commit murder if he/she is experiencing strain from another
standing in his/her way. To specify by using an extreme circumstance, an individual may be
blocked from progressing in his/her workplace, also known as a promotion, due to another
employee. If the individual needs this promotion in order to increase his/her financial success
they might be lead to commit murder of said other employee to gain this promotion. This can
fall under the innovation adaptation to a stressor of classic strain theory due to the individual
striving for that success, however, rejecting the institutionalized means to acquire the goal
caused by a lack of available opportunities to gain a promotion. Robbery can also be explained
by Merton's classic strain theory, which can occur because of an innovation adaptation to strain
as well. if one values financial success a great deal, then that may be a goal he/she is striving
for. Thus, the individual can reject the institutional means of achiving wealth because some
view obtaining a job harder than using illegal actions, such as robbery (a violent crime).
Merton's classic strain theory has both strengths and weaknesses when referencing the
explanation of violent crimes. To start, classic strain theory really has an emphasis on economic
inequality being a main stressor, leading to violent crimes. Support for this prior statement has
been found showing that economic deprivation does seem to have an effect on community
diffcrences in crime rates (Toth, 2019). However, this strength also comes with a weakness
because it has otherwise been shown that economic deprivation is not as strongly correlated to
societal differences as it is does on community differences (Toth, 2019). This being stated, not
everyone views economic success as being valuable and, therefore, may not consider it to be a
strain. In this casc, being economically unsuccessful would not lead to violent crime. Another
weakness to Merton's theory is it does not account for various strains other than the separation
between goals and presumptions (Toth, 2019)-
After Merton's classic strain theory came Agnews general strain theory, which is micro level
as well. Agnow approaches the outlook on strains by broadening stressors beyond the goals
and institutionalized means of reaching said goals of socicty by arguing there are several
sources of stress an individual can experience. Agnows strain theory perspective arose during
a time in which issues with widening social class division occurred due to increasing societal
pressures. Within Agnow's "Pressured into Crime: Goncral Strain Theory," he discusses how
people engage in crime due to experiencing stressors that result from one of three nogative
relationships. Thosc include relations that prevent or threaten to prevent the achievement of
positively valued goals, remove or threaten to remove the achievement of positively valued
goals, and present or threaten to present negatively valued stimuli (Toth, 2019). The first
relation, that of which prevents or threatens to prevent the achievement of positively valued
goals, features three subtypes. The first usually includes the traditional concept of stress
relating to long-term goals and the means of achieving said goals stated by Morton's classic
strain theory, howevor, Agnow expanded this idca (Akors & Sollors, 2013). Agnow not only
included long-term goals, but also short term, as well as the fact that an individual may not
achieve said goals due to individual inabilities or lack of skills, rather than only duc to blocked
opportunitics (Akors & Sallors, 2013). The socond subtypo includes the strain an individual
fols whon ho/sho believes he/she deserves a reward but that reward is never produced (Akors
& Scllors, 2013). The strain comes from the resentment the person may fecl from this
disappointing circumstance. The third subtype comes from when an individual believes he/she
deserves more than the outcome he/she reccived (Akers & Sallors, 2013). An example of this
could be when one person fools as if he/she is putting more effort into a relationship the other
person, therefore, fooling as if he/she is not reaping any benefit from said relationship.
The second relation, that of which removes or threatens to remove the achievement of
positively valued goals, usually falls within the adolescence period. This occurs when one loses
"something) or someone of great worth' (Akors & Sellers, 2013). Losing someone can include
a family member passing away or the breaking up with a girlfriend/boyfriend. Losing
something can consist of gotting fired from a job or being suspended from school. The third
relation, that of which prevents or threatens to present negatively valucd stimuli, includes
events in which a person has to deal with the negative actions of others. These events can be
anything from child abuse to adverse school experiences (Akers and Sallors, 2013), An
individual can not necessarily escape from family or school during childhood and adolescents
so they may be lead to use illegitimato means in order to escape said events. Although strains
may develop from those three negative relations, strains can also be divided into two categorics:
objective and subjoctive. Objoctive strains are events that most people would find stressful.
These events include boing physically assaulted or doprived of food and sholter (Cullon,
Agnow, & Wilcox, 2014). Mossorschmict (1993) also states that questioning a malo's
masculino status can causo stross to most men. Objoctive strains can bo measured by
intervicwing a sample of people. Subjoctive strains pertain to how different people evaluate
the same events. Although an event may be objoctively stressful, an individual might only
mildly dislike the event, where another could strongly dislike it (Toth, 2019). The evaluation
of stressful events is due to factors, such as an individual's porsonality traits, goals, values, and
prior experiences (Cullen, Agnow, & Wilcox, 2014)). An example of a subjective strain is a
divorce. It was found by Wheaton (1990) that some positively viewed their divorce because of
the poor quality of their prior marriage.
Strains may also be further divided into three sub-categories: experience, vicarious, and
anticipated Experienced strains are stressors one has personally experienced. This type of strain
should "bear the strongest relationship to crime" (Cullen, Agnew, & Wilcox, 2014). Vicarious
strains are strains on an individual due to stressors experienced by those around him/her,
specifically those closest towards the individual, such as a family member or a friend (Toth,
2019). Anticipated strains are when one believes their current stressors) may continue into the
future or a new stressor may arise in the future (Cullen, Agnew, & Wilcox, 2014).
General strain theory also goes on to discuss how not all strains result in criminal activity. It is
explained that strains are more likely to result in crime if they are seen as high in magnitude,
unjust, associated with low social control, or creating some pressure or incentive for criminal
coping (Toth, 2019). High in magnitude refers to how severe the individual subjectively views
a stressor. If one views the stressor as more severe than the individual will have a stronger
emotional response to said stressor, thus causing the person to take a more severe action to
relieve him/herself of the strain he/she feels. An individual may view a stressor as more severe
if it is high in degree, frequent, recent, long in duration or expected to continue, or threatens
his/her core goals, needs, and values (Toth, 2019). if an individual views a stressor as "unjust,"
meaning an individual did not believe he/she deserved the strain he/she foels, then it can cause
the individual to become aggravated. One may deem the strain unjust if the one who inflicted
it intentionally chose to do so knowing the individual would dislike the action (Toth, 2019). If
a strain is associated with lowering the amount of social control on a person, he/she may react
in a negative way (Toth, 2019). There are actually several types of social control one may
experience: direct, emotional bond or attachment to conventional others, investment into
conventional institutions, and beliefs regarding crime. Direct social control is the extent to
which others set rules prohibiting crime, monitor the person's bchavior, and sanction violations'
(Toth, 2019). Emotional bond or attachment to conventional others consists of whether or not
an individual cares what othors think (Toth, 2019). If a person cares more about what others
think, then it is more likely that a strain can have a stronger effect on the individual. Investment
into conventional institutions consist of the time and resources one has put into conventional
ochaviors (Toth, 2019). If a person has invested more into these conventional bchaviors, then
he/she is more likely to not want to lose these investments through crime. Social control
stemming from beliefs regarding crime involves the individual's attitude towards the laws and
whether or not he/she finds them valid (Toth, 2019). Lastly, creating pressure or incentive for
criminal coping refers to how easily a stressor can be resolved by means of criminal activity,
rather than conventional means. Not only do these four factors increase the likelihood of crime,
but also if an individual experience two or more strains at a single time or very close together
in time (Toth, 2019).
Agnews general strain theory can explain the cause of violent crimes. If an individual
experiences more strain from the negative relationships he/she developed, as well as
experiencing strain from other negative life events, then the inclividual is more likely to be lead
to criminal activity, specifically violent criminal activity. For one, Agnew's theory can be used
to explain sexual assault crimes, such as the violent crime of rape. This can occur if a person
encounters an objective, experienced strain. If an inclividual endures sexual assault, which can
be categorized as an objoctive strain seeing as it is generally disliked by most people,
himself/herself and lacks the ability to cope with this strain in a legal manner, then this
individual is more likely to inflict sexual assault, possibly even rape, on another person. Assault
and battory can also be explained by Agnows general strain theory. This can be seen when one
experiences a vicarious strain. If someone close to the individual, either a family member or a
friend, is being harmed by another, then the individual could be lead into secking revenge,
which can include physically harming or throatoning to physically harm, the person negatively
affecting his/hor family member or friend. Agnows goneral strain theory has both strengths and
weakness when referencing tho explanation of violent crimes. For one, his theory does account
for other strains, rather than just disconnection between aspirations and expectations, that may
lead to violent criminal actions. It has also boon supported that delinquency, which can lead to
violent criminal behavior in the future, is higher among those who experience one or more of
the threo negative relationships, as well as other various negative life events (Toth, 2019).
However, just because an individual experiences strain, does not moan they will utilize illegal
means to overcome it. if one has the ability to copo in a legal manner, such as having the verbal
skills necessary to resolve a negative situation, then the individual will not be lead into taking
illegal means, such as violent crimes, in orcer to overcome the strain (Toth, 2019).
Agnew has identified some policy implications in order to reduce the amount of violent crimes
occurring, mostly focusing on family, as well as school, interventions. He discusses how these
interventions should include four different aspects. The first is to reduce the difficulties of an
individual's social environment by training parents in skills that can better supervision and
discipline of an the individual, specifying in better usage of rewards and punishments (Akers
& Sellers, 2013). The second is to train individuals in their adolescence to have better social
skills in order to reduce the provocation of negative reactions from others (Akers & Sellers,
2013). The third aspect is to increase support from programs, such as counscling, mediation,
and advocacy, for adolescents in order for them to have an outlet to turn to before inclining
towards violent criminal behavior (Akers & Sellers, 2013). The last aspect is to have anger
control, problem solving, social skills, and stress management training for the youth in order
for them to cope in a noncriminal way (Akers & Sellers, 2013). To conclude, although Merton's
classic strain theory and Agnews general strain theory have weakness to the perspectives, the
strengths are what causes it to be able to best describe why violent crime occurs. Both
perspectives stemming from the positivist theory, as well as are micro level, explain that violent
crime can result due to the strain of being blocked from having opportunities in order to achieve
a goal, having a negative relationship, or one of the other various sub types of strain
Specifically, rape, murder, assault and battery, and robbery are the four main violent crimes
that can be best explained by strain theory.
The question most consistently asked throughout time is; why do people commit violent
crimes? Various perspectives, derived from one of two original thories: classical or positivist,
have been pondered trying to discover an answer to this question One modern-day theory,
stemming from the positivist theory, that may be able to best explain the reasoning as to why
people commit violent crimes is strain thory. There are two takes on strain theory, Morton's
classic strain theory. and Agnew's general strain theory, that have been developed in order to
solve this puzzling question, both perspectives having their own strengths and weaknesses.
Within violent crimes, there are two types subtypes: expressive and instrumental. Expressive
crimes are not committed for an individual to bencfit or gain from the act but instead aro
committed out of rago, anger, or frustration (Siogel, 2017). Whercas instrumental crime has
moro of a purposo to the actions. A person may commit an instrumental crimo to improve
his/hor financial or social status (Sicgal, 2017). There are several factors that are drawn upon
whon discussing the cause of a violent crimo, such as personal traits, human instinct, exposure
to violence, substance abusa, and culture and national values (Siogol, 2017). The four main
violent crimes committed are rape, murder, assault and battery, and robbery. These violent
crimes are categorized as part one crimes, meaning those crimes are only four of the most
scrious offenses. Rape is non consensual sexual intercours inflicted by another on cither male
or fomale and is one of the most misunderstood crimes (Siogal, 2017). Murder is the unlawful
killing of a porson or poople with intention and is considered the most scrious crime (Siogol,
2017). Assault and battery are actually two separate crimes. Battery being actual physical
contact during the offense, such as punching, against the victim, while assault does not involve
physical contact, but rather intention or throat of harming the victim (Siogol, 2017). Lastly,
robbery is the taking of something valuable from an individual by use of force, throat, or
violence (Siegel, 2017). The occurrence of violent crimes can be explained by both Merton's
and Agnews strain theories.
The classic strain theory, presented by Merton in his work "Social Structure and Anomic" in
1938, developed during a time when issues dealing with widening social class divisions started
to arise from urbanization growth (Toth, 2019). It is a micro-level theory, which halps to explain
why individuals or groups are more likoly to engage in criminal activity (Toth, 2019).
Specifically, how strain is produced on disadvantaged minority individuals and groups, as well
as the lower class, because these people do not have equal access to legitimate opportunitics
for success (Akors & Sellers, 2013). This strain coming from blocked opportunity causes the
individual or group to lean towards using illegal means in order to achieve success. Merton
goes on to explain in "Social Structure and Anomic that there are five ways an individual can
adapt to the strain produced on them: conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, and
rebellion. Conformity, being the most common, is when an individual accopts the strain and
still strives for success within the institutionalized means available (Akers & Sellers, 2013).
Stability and continuity of a society aro still maintained through this adaptation (Toth, 2019).
Innovation is when a parson still strives for success, however, the individual rejects the
institutionalized means, therefore, leading him or hor to take acantage of illegal means in order
to reach his/her goal (Akors & Sallors, 2013). This adaptation occurs more often where there
is limited opportunitics for people to achieve success (Toth, 2019). Ritualism is when a person
does not intend on reaching his/her goal, however, the individual still accopts the
institutionalized means. The individual does not gain much from this adaptation, but simply
just goes through the motions (Toth, 2019). Retreatism is when one gives up on both the goal
itself, as well as the means to reach that goal (Akers & Scllors, 2013). This adaptation, being
the least common, is more of an escape mechanism in which Merton placed those being, but
not limited to, alcoholics, drug addicts, and the severcly mentally ill within (Akers & Sellers,
2013). Lastly, rebellion is when a person rejects the entire system, both the goal itself and the
means of reaching the goal, but replaces them with a new set of goals and means, these usually
contrasting those of conventional society (Toth, 2019).
Merton's classic strain theory explains the cause of violent crimes. if an individual experiences
more strain from being blocked from using institutional means to achieve his/her goals, then
the individual is more likely to be lead to criminal activity, specifically violent criminal activity.
To start a person might be lead to commit murder if he/she is experiencing strain from another
standing in his/her way. To specify by using an extreme circumstance, an individual may be
blocked from progressing in his/her workplace, also known as a promotion, due to another
employee. If the individual needs this promotion in order to increase his/her financial success
they might be lead to commit murder of said other employee to gain this promotion. This can
fall under the innovation adaptation to a stressor of classic strain theory due to the individual
striving for that success, however, rejecting the institutionalized means to acquire the goal
caused by a lack of available opportunities to gain a promotion. Robbery can also be explained
by Merton's classic strain theory, which can occur because of an innovation adaptation to strain
as well. if one values financial success a great deal, then that may be a goal he/she is striving
for. Thus, the individual can reject the institutional means of achiving wealth because some
view obtaining a job harder than using illegal actions, such as robbery (a violent crime).
Merton's classic strain theory has both strengths and weaknesses when referencing the
explanation of violent crimes. To start, classic strain theory really has an emphasis on economic
inequality being a main stressor, leading to violent crimes. Support for this prior statement has
been found showing that economic deprivation does seem to have an effect on community
diffcrences in crime rates (Toth, 2019). However, this strength also comes with a weakness
because it has otherwise been shown that economic deprivation is not as strongly correlated to
societal differences as it is does on community differences (Toth, 2019). This being stated, not
everyone views economic success as being valuable and, therefore, may not consider it to be a
strain. In this casc, being economically unsuccessful would not lead to violent crime. Another
weakness to Merton's theory is it does not account for various strains other than the separation
between goals and presumptions (Toth, 2019)-
After Merton's classic strain theory came Agnews general strain theory, which is micro level
as well. Agnow approaches the outlook on strains by broadening stressors beyond the goals
and institutionalized means of reaching said goals of socicty by arguing there are several
sources of stress an individual can experience. Agnows strain theory perspective arose during
a time in which issues with widening social class division occurred due to increasing societal
pressures. Within Agnow's "Pressured into Crime: Goncral Strain Theory," he discusses how
people engage in crime due to experiencing stressors that result from one of three nogative
relationships. Thosc include relations that prevent or threaten to prevent the achievement of
positively valued goals, remove or threaten to remove the achievement of positively valued
goals, and present or threaten to present negatively valued stimuli (Toth, 2019). The first
relation, that of which prevents or threatens to prevent the achievement of positively valued
goals, features three subtypes. The first usually includes the traditional concept of stress
relating to long-term goals and the means of achieving said goals stated by Morton's classic
strain theory, howevor, Agnow expanded this idca (Akors & Sollors, 2013). Agnow not only
included long-term goals, but also short term, as well as the fact that an individual may not
achieve said goals due to individual inabilities or lack of skills, rather than only duc to blocked
opportunitics (Akors & Sallors, 2013). The socond subtypo includes the strain an individual
fols whon ho/sho believes he/she deserves a reward but that reward is never produced (Akors
& Scllors, 2013). The strain comes from the resentment the person may fecl from this
disappointing circumstance. The third subtype comes from when an individual believes he/she
deserves more than the outcome he/she reccived (Akers & Sallors, 2013). An example of this
could be when one person fools as if he/she is putting more effort into a relationship the other
person, therefore, fooling as if he/she is not reaping any benefit from said relationship.
The second relation, that of which removes or threatens to remove the achievement of
positively valued goals, usually falls within the adolescence period. This occurs when one loses
"something) or someone of great worth' (Akors & Sellers, 2013). Losing someone can include
a family member passing away or the breaking up with a girlfriend/boyfriend. Losing
something can consist of gotting fired from a job or being suspended from school. The third
relation, that of which prevents or threatens to present negatively valucd stimuli, includes
events in which a person has to deal with the negative actions of others. These events can be
anything from child abuse to adverse school experiences (Akers and Sallors, 2013), An
individual can not necessarily escape from family or school during childhood and adolescents
so they may be lead to use illegitimato means in order to escape said events. Although strains
may develop from those three negative relations, strains can also be divided into two categorics:
objective and subjoctive. Objoctive strains are events that most people would find stressful.
These events include boing physically assaulted or doprived of food and sholter (Cullon,
Agnow, & Wilcox, 2014). Mossorschmict (1993) also states that questioning a malo's
masculino status can causo stross to most men. Objoctive strains can bo measured by
intervicwing a sample of people. Subjoctive strains pertain to how different people evaluate
the same events. Although an event may be objoctively stressful, an individual might only
mildly dislike the event, where another could strongly dislike it (Toth, 2019). The evaluation
of stressful events is due to factors, such as an individual's porsonality traits, goals, values, and
prior experiences (Cullen, Agnow, & Wilcox, 2014)). An example of a subjective strain is a
divorce. It was found by Wheaton (1990) that some positively viewed their divorce because of
the poor quality of their prior marriage.
Strains may also be further divided into three sub-categories: experience, vicarious, and
anticipated Experienced strains are stressors one has personally experienced. This type of strain
should "bear the strongest relationship to crime" (Cullen, Agnew, & Wilcox, 2014). Vicarious
strains are strains on an individual due to stressors experienced by those around him/her,
specifically those closest towards the individual, such as a family member or a friend (Toth,
2019). Anticipated strains are when one believes their current stressors) may continue into the
future or a new stressor may arise in the future (Cullen, Agnew, & Wilcox, 2014).
General strain theory also goes on to discuss how not all strains result in criminal activity. It is
explained that strains are more likely to result in crime if they are seen as high in magnitude,
unjust, associated with low social control, or creating some pressure or incentive for criminal
coping (Toth, 2019). High in magnitude refers to how severe the individual subjectively views
a stressor. If one views the stressor as more severe than the individual will have a stronger
emotional response to said stressor, thus causing the person to take a more severe action to
relieve him/herself of the strain he/she feels. An individual may view a stressor as more severe
if it is high in degree, frequent, recent, long in duration or expected to continue, or threatens
his/her core goals, needs, and values (Toth, 2019). if an individual views a stressor as "unjust,"
meaning an individual did not believe he/she deserved the strain he/she foels, then it can cause
the individual to become aggravated. One may deem the strain unjust if the one who inflicted
it intentionally chose to do so knowing the individual would dislike the action (Toth, 2019). If
a strain is associated with lowering the amount of social control on a person, he/she may react
in a negative way (Toth, 2019). There are actually several types of social control one may
experience: direct, emotional bond or attachment to conventional others, investment into
conventional institutions, and beliefs regarding crime. Direct social control is the extent to
which others set rules prohibiting crime, monitor the person's bchavior, and sanction violations'
(Toth, 2019). Emotional bond or attachment to conventional others consists of whether or not
an individual cares what othors think (Toth, 2019). If a person cares more about what others
think, then it is more likely that a strain can have a stronger effect on the individual. Investment
into conventional institutions consist of the time and resources one has put into conventional
ochaviors (Toth, 2019). If a person has invested more into these conventional bchaviors, then
he/she is more likely to not want to lose these investments through crime. Social control
stemming from beliefs regarding crime involves the individual's attitude towards the laws and
whether or not he/she finds them valid (Toth, 2019). Lastly, creating pressure or incentive for
criminal coping refers to how easily a stressor can be resolved by means of criminal activity,
rather than conventional means. Not only do these four factors increase the likelihood of crime,
but also if an individual experience two or more strains at a single time or very close together
in time (Toth, 2019).
Agnews general strain theory can explain the cause of violent crimes. If an individual
experiences more strain from the negative relationships he/she developed, as well as
experiencing strain from other negative life events, then the inclividual is more likely to be lead
to criminal activity, specifically violent criminal activity. For one, Agnew's theory can be used
to explain sexual assault crimes, such as the violent crime of rape. This can occur if a person
encounters an objective, experienced strain. If an inclividual endures sexual assault, which can
be categorized as an objoctive strain seeing as it is generally disliked by most people,
himself/herself and lacks the ability to cope with this strain in a legal manner, then this
individual is more likely to inflict sexual assault, possibly even rape, on another person. Assault
and battory can also be explained by Agnows general strain theory. This can be seen when one
experiences a vicarious strain. If someone close to the individual, either a family member or a
friend, is being harmed by another, then the individual could be lead into secking revenge,
which can include physically harming or throatoning to physically harm, the person negatively
affecting his/hor family member or friend. Agnows goneral strain theory has both strengths and
weakness when referencing tho explanation of violent crimes. For one, his theory does account
for other strains, rather than just disconnection between aspirations and expectations, that may
lead to violent criminal actions. It has also boon supported that delinquency, which can lead to
violent criminal behavior in the future, is higher among those who experience one or more of
the threo negative relationships, as well as other various negative life events (Toth, 2019).
However, just because an individual experiences strain, does not moan they will utilize illegal
means to overcome it. if one has the ability to copo in a legal manner, such as having the verbal
skills necessary to resolve a negative situation, then the individual will not be lead into taking
illegal means, such as violent crimes, in orcer to overcome the strain (Toth, 2019).
Agnew has identified some policy implications in order to reduce the amount of violent crimes
occurring, mostly focusing on family, as well as school, interventions. He discusses how these
interventions should include four different aspects. The first is to reduce the difficulties of an
individual's social environment by training parents in skills that can better supervision and
discipline of an the individual, specifying in better usage of rewards and punishments (Akers
& Sellers, 2013). The second is to train individuals in their adolescence to have better social
skills in order to reduce the provocation of negative reactions from others (Akers & Sellers,
2013). The third aspect is to increase support from programs, such as counscling, mediation,
and advocacy, for adolescents in order for them to have an outlet to turn to before inclining
towards violent criminal behavior (Akers & Sellers, 2013). The last aspect is to have anger
control, problem solving, social skills, and stress management training for the youth in order
for them to cope in a noncriminal way (Akers & Sellers, 2013). To conclude, although Merton's
classic strain theory and Agnews general strain theory have weakness to the perspectives, the
strengths are what causes it to be able to best describe why violent crime occurs. Both
perspectives stemming from the positivist theory, as well as are micro level, explain that violent
crime can result due to the strain of being blocked from having opportunities in order to achieve
a goal, having a negative relationship, or one of the other various sub types of strain
Specifically, rape, murder, assault and battery, and robbery are the four main violent crimes
that can be best explained by strain theory.
The question most consistently asked throughout time is; why do people commit violent
crimes? Various perspectives, derived from one of two original thories: classical or positivist,
have been pondered trying to discover an answer to this question One modern-day theory,
stemming from the positivist theory, that may be able to best explain the reasoning as to why
people commit violent crimes is strain thory. There are two takes on strain theory, Morton's
classic strain theory. and Agnew's general strain theory, that have been developed in order to
solve this puzzling question, both perspectives having their own strengths and weaknesses.
Within violent crimes, there are two types subtypes: expressive and instrumental. Expressive
crimes are not committed for an individual to bencfit or gain from the act but instead aro
committed out of rago, anger, or frustration (Siogel, 2017). Whercas instrumental crime has
moro of a purposo to the actions. A person may commit an instrumental crimo to improve
his/hor financial or social status (Sicgal, 2017). There are several factors that are drawn upon
whon discussing the cause of a violent crimo, such as personal traits, human instinct, exposure
to violence, substance abusa, and culture and national values (Siogol, 2017). The four main
violent crimes committed are rape, murder, assault and battery, and robbery. These violent
crimes are categorized as part one crimes, meaning those crimes are only four of the most
scrious offenses. Rape is non consensual sexual intercours inflicted by another on cither male
or fomale and is one of the most misunderstood crimes (Siogal, 2017). Murder is the unlawful
killing of a porson or poople with intention and is considered the most scrious crime (Siogol,
2017). Assault and battery are actually two separate crimes. Battery being actual physical
contact during the offense, such as punching, against the victim, while assault does not involve
physical contact, but rather intention or throat of harming the victim (Siogol, 2017). Lastly,
robbery is the taking of something valuable from an individual by use of force, throat, or
violence (Siegel, 2017). The occurrence of violent crimes can be explained by both Merton's
and Agnews strain theories.
The classic strain theory, presented by Merton in his work "Social Structure and Anomic" in
1938, developed during a time when issues dealing with widening social class divisions started
to arise from urbanization growth (Toth, 2019). It is a micro-level theory, which halps to explain
why individuals or groups are more likoly to engage in criminal activity (Toth, 2019).
Specifically, how strain is produced on disadvantaged minority individuals and groups, as well
as the lower class, because these people do not have equal access to legitimate opportunitics
for success (Akors & Sellers, 2013). This strain coming from blocked opportunity causes the
individual or group to lean towards using illegal means in order to achieve success. Merton
goes on to explain in "Social Structure and Anomic that there are five ways an individual can
adapt to the strain produced on them: conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, and
rebellion. Conformity, being the most common, is when an individual accopts the strain and
still strives for success within the institutionalized means available (Akers & Sellers, 2013).
Stability and continuity of a society aro still maintained through this adaptation (Toth, 2019).
Innovation is when a parson still strives for success, however, the individual rejects the
institutionalized means, therefore, leading him or hor to take acantage of illegal means in order
to reach his/her goal (Akors & Sallors, 2013). This adaptation occurs more often where there
is limited opportunitics for people to achieve success (Toth, 2019). Ritualism is when a person
does not intend on reaching his/her goal, however, the individual still accopts the
institutionalized means. The individual does not gain much from this adaptation, but simply
just goes through the motions (Toth, 2019). Retreatism is when one gives up on both the goal
itself, as well as the means to reach that goal (Akers & Scllors, 2013). This adaptation, being
the least common, is more of an escape mechanism in which Merton placed those being, but
not limited to, alcoholics, drug addicts, and the severcly mentally ill within (Akers & Sellers,
2013). Lastly, rebellion is when a person rejects the entire system, both the goal itself and the
means of reaching the goal, but replaces them with a new set of goals and means, these usually
contrasting those of conventional society (Toth, 2019).
Merton's classic strain theory explains the cause of violent crimes. if an individual experiences
more strain from being blocked from using institutional means to achieve his/her goals, then
the individual is more likely to be lead to criminal activity, specifically violent criminal activity.
To start a person might be lead to commit murder if he/she is experiencing strain from another
standing in his/her way. To specify by using an extreme circumstance, an individual may be
blocked from progressing in his/her workplace, also known as a promotion, due to another
employee. If the individual needs this promotion in order to increase his/her financial success
they might be lead to commit murder of said other employee to gain this promotion. This can
fall under the innovation adaptation to a stressor of classic strain theory due to the individual
striving for that success, however, rejecting the institutionalized means to acquire the goal
caused by a lack of available opportunities to gain a promotion. Robbery can also be explained
by Merton's classic strain theory, which can occur because of an innovation adaptation to strain
as well. if one values financial success a great deal, then that may be a goal he/she is striving
for. Thus, the individual can reject the institutional means of achiving wealth because some
view obtaining a job harder than using illegal actions, such as robbery (a violent crime).
Merton's classic strain theory has both strengths and weaknesses when referencing the
explanation of violent crimes. To start, classic strain theory really has an emphasis on economic
inequality being a main stressor, leading to violent crimes. Support for this prior statement has
been found showing that economic deprivation does seem to have an effect on community
diffcrences in crime rates (Toth, 2019). However, this strength also comes with a weakness
because it has otherwise been shown that economic deprivation is not as strongly correlated to
societal differences as it is does on community differences (Toth, 2019). This being stated, not
everyone views economic success as being valuable and, therefore, may not consider it to be a
strain. In this casc, being economically unsuccessful would not lead to violent crime. Another
weakness to Merton's theory is it does not account for various strains other than the separation
between goals and presumptions (Toth, 2019)-
After Merton's classic strain theory came Agnews general strain theory, which is micro level
as well. Agnow approaches the outlook on strains by broadening stressors beyond the goals
and institutionalized means of reaching said goals of socicty by arguing there are several
sources of stress an individual can experience. Agnows strain theory perspective arose during
a time in which issues with widening social class division occurred due to increasing societal
pressures. Within Agnow's "Pressured into Crime: Goncral Strain Theory," he discusses how
people engage in crime due to experiencing stressors that result from one of three nogative
relationships. Thosc include relations that prevent or threaten to prevent the achievement of
positively valued goals, remove or threaten to remove the achievement of positively valued
goals, and present or threaten to present negatively valued stimuli (Toth, 2019). The first
relation, that of which prevents or threatens to prevent the achievement of positively valued
goals, features three subtypes. The first usually includes the traditional concept of stress
relating to long-term goals and the means of achieving said goals stated by Morton's classic
strain theory, howevor, Agnow expanded this idca (Akors & Sollors, 2013). Agnow not only
included long-term goals, but also short term, as well as the fact that an individual may not
achieve said goals due to individual inabilities or lack of skills, rather than only duc to blocked
opportunitics (Akors & Sallors, 2013). The socond subtypo includes the strain an individual
fols whon ho/sho believes he/she deserves a reward but that reward is never produced (Akors
& Scllors, 2013). The strain comes from the resentment the person may fecl from this
disappointing circumstance. The third subtype comes from when an individual believes he/she
deserves more than the outcome he/she reccived (Akers & Sallors, 2013). An example of this
could be when one person fools as if he/she is putting more effort into a relationship the other
person, therefore, fooling as if he/she is not reaping any benefit from said relationship.
The second relation, that of which removes or threatens to remove the achievement of
positively valued goals, usually falls within the adolescence period. This occurs when one loses
"something) or someone of great worth' (Akors & Sellers, 2013). Losing someone can include
a family member passing away or the breaking up with a girlfriend/boyfriend. Losing
something can consist of gotting fired from a job or being suspended from school. The third
relation, that of which prevents or threatens to present negatively valucd stimuli, includes
events in which a person has to deal with the negative actions of others. These events can be
anything from child abuse to adverse school experiences (Akers and Sallors, 2013), An
individual can not necessarily escape from family or school during childhood and adolescents
so they may be lead to use illegitimato means in order to escape said events. Although strains
may develop from those three negative relations, strains can also be divided into two categorics:
objective and subjoctive. Objoctive strains are events that most people would find stressful.
These events include boing physically assaulted or doprived of food and sholter (Cullon,
Agnow, & Wilcox, 2014). Mossorschmict (1993) also states that questioning a malo's
masculino status can causo stross to most men. Objoctive strains can bo measured by
intervicwing a sample of people. Subjoctive strains pertain to how different people evaluate
the same events. Although an event may be objoctively stressful, an individual might only
mildly dislike the event, where another could strongly dislike it (Toth, 2019). The evaluation
of stressful events is due to factors, such as an individual's porsonality traits, goals, values, and
prior experiences (Cullen, Agnow, & Wilcox, 2014)). An example of a subjective strain is a
divorce. It was found by Wheaton (1990) that some positively viewed their divorce because of
the poor quality of their prior marriage.
Strains may also be further divided into three sub-categories: experience, vicarious, and
anticipated Experienced strains are stressors one has personally experienced. This type of strain
should "bear the strongest relationship to crime" (Cullen, Agnew, & Wilcox, 2014). Vicarious
strains are strains on an individual due to stressors experienced by those around him/her,
specifically those closest towards the individual, such as a family member or a friend (Toth,
2019). Anticipated strains are when one believes their current stressors) may continue into the
future or a new stressor may arise in the future (Cullen, Agnew, & Wilcox, 2014).
General strain theory also goes on to discuss how not all strains result in criminal activity. It is
explained that strains are more likely to result in crime if they are seen as high in magnitude,
unjust, associated with low social control, or creating some pressure or incentive for criminal
coping (Toth, 2019). High in magnitude refers to how severe the individual subjectively views
a stressor. If one views the stressor as more severe than the individual will have a stronger
emotional response to said stressor, thus causing the person to take a more severe action to
relieve him/herself of the strain he/she feels. An individual may view a stressor as more severe
if it is high in degree, frequent, recent, long in duration or expected to continue, or threatens
his/her core goals, needs, and values (Toth, 2019). if an individual views a stressor as "unjust,"
meaning an individual did not believe he/she deserved the strain he/she foels, then it can cause
the individual to become aggravated. One may deem the strain unjust if the one who inflicted
it intentionally chose to do so knowing the individual would dislike the action (Toth, 2019). If
a strain is associated with lowering the amount of social control on a person, he/she may react
in a negative way (Toth, 2019). There are actually several types of social control one may
experience: direct, emotional bond or attachment to conventional others, investment into
conventional institutions, and beliefs regarding crime. Direct social control is the extent to
which others set rules prohibiting crime, monitor the person's bchavior, and sanction violations'
(Toth, 2019). Emotional bond or attachment to conventional others consists of whether or not
an individual cares what othors think (Toth, 2019). If a person cares more about what others
think, then it is more likely that a strain can have a stronger effect on the individual. Investment
into conventional institutions consist of the time and resources one has put into conventional
ochaviors (Toth, 2019). If a person has invested more into these conventional bchaviors, then
he/she is more likely to not want to lose these investments through crime. Social control
stemming from beliefs regarding crime involves the individual's attitude towards the laws and
whether or not he/she finds them valid (Toth, 2019). Lastly, creating pressure or incentive for
criminal coping refers to how easily a stressor can be resolved by means of criminal activity,
rather than conventional means. Not only do these four factors increase the likelihood of crime,
but also if an individual experience two or more strains at a single time or very close together
in time (Toth, 2019).
Agnews general strain theory can explain the cause of violent crimes. If an individual
experiences more strain from the negative relationships he/she developed, as well as
experiencing strain from other negative life events, then the inclividual is more likely to be lead
to criminal activity, specifically violent criminal activity. For one, Agnew's theory can be used
to explain sexual assault crimes, such as the violent crime of rape. This can occur if a person
encounters an objective, experienced strain. If an inclividual endures sexual assault, which can
be categorized as an objoctive strain seeing as it is generally disliked by most people,
himself/herself and lacks the ability to cope with this strain in a legal manner, then this
individual is more likely to inflict sexual assault, possibly even rape, on another person. Assault
and battory can also be explained by Agnows general strain theory. This can be seen when one
experiences a vicarious strain. If someone close to the individual, either a family member or a
friend, is being harmed by another, then the individual could be lead into secking revenge,
which can include physically harming or throatoning to physically harm, the person negatively
affecting his/hor family member or friend. Agnows goneral strain theory has both strengths and
weakness when referencing tho explanation of violent crimes. For one, his theory does account
for other strains, rather than just disconnection between aspirations and expectations, that may
lead to violent criminal actions. It has also boon supported that delinquency, which can lead to
violent criminal behavior in the future, is higher among those who experience one or more of
the threo negative relationships, as well as other various negative life events (Toth, 2019).
However, just because an individual experiences strain, does not moan they will utilize illegal
means to overcome it. if one has the ability to copo in a legal manner, such as having the verbal
skills necessary to resolve a negative situation, then the individual will not be lead into taking
illegal means, such as violent crimes, in orcer to overcome the strain (Toth, 2019).
Agnew has identified some policy implications in order to reduce the amount of violent crimes
occurring, mostly focusing on family, as well as school, interventions. He discusses how these
interventions should include four different aspects. The first is to reduce the difficulties of an
individual's social environment by training parents in skills that can better supervision and
discipline of an the individual, specifying in better usage of rewards and punishments (Akers
& Sellers, 2013). The second is to train individuals in their adolescence to have better social
skills in order to reduce the provocation of negative reactions from others (Akers & Sellers,
2013). The third aspect is to increase support from programs, such as counscling, mediation,
and advocacy, for adolescents in order for them to have an outlet to turn to before inclining
towards violent criminal behavior (Akers & Sellers, 2013). The last aspect is to have anger
control, problem solving, social skills, and stress management training for the youth in order
for them to cope in a noncriminal way (Akers & Sellers, 2013). To conclude, although Merton's
classic strain theory and Agnews general strain theory have weakness to the perspectives, the
strengths are what causes it to be able to best describe why violent crime occurs. Both
perspectives stemming from the positivist theory, as well as are micro level, explain that violent
crime can result due to the strain of being blocked from having opportunities in order to achieve
a goal, having a negative relationship, or one of the other various sub types of strain
Specifically, rape, murder, assault and battery, and robbery are the four main violent crimes
that can be best explained by strain theory.
The question most consistently asked throughout time is; why do people commit violent
crimes? Various perspectives, derived from one of two original thories: classical or positivist,
have been pondered trying to discover an answer to this question One modern-day theory,
stemming from the positivist theory, that may be able to best explain the reasoning as to why
people commit violent crimes is strain thory. There are two takes on strain theory, Morton's
classic strain theory. and Agnew's general strain theory, that have been developed in order to
solve this puzzling question, both perspectives having their own strengths and weaknesses.
Within violent crimes, there are two types subtypes: expressive and instrumental. Expressive
crimes are not committed for an individual to bencfit or gain from the act but instead aro
committed out of rago, anger, or frustration (Siogel, 2017). Whercas instrumental crime has
moro of a purposo to the actions. A person may commit an instrumental crimo to improve
his/hor financial or social status (Sicgal, 2017). There are several factors that are drawn upon
whon discussing the cause of a violent crimo, such as personal traits, human instinct, exposure
to violence, substance abusa, and culture and national values (Siogol, 2017). The four main
violent crimes committed are rape, murder, assault and battery, and robbery. These violent
crimes are categorized as part one crimes, meaning those crimes are only four of the most
scrious offenses. Rape is non consensual sexual intercours inflicted by another on cither male
or fomale and is one of the most misunderstood crimes (Siogal, 2017). Murder is the unlawful
killing of a porson or poople with intention and is considered the most scrious crime (Siogol,
2017). Assault and battery are actually two separate crimes. Battery being actual physical
contact during the offense, such as punching, against the victim, while assault does not involve
physical contact, but rather intention or throat of harming the victim (Siogol, 2017). Lastly,
robbery is the taking of something valuable from an individual by use of force, throat, or
violence (Siegel, 2017). The occurrence of violent crimes can be explained by both Merton's
and Agnews strain theories.
The classic strain theory, presented by Merton in his work "Social Structure and Anomic" in
1938, developed during a time when issues dealing with widening social class divisions started
to arise from urbanization growth (Toth, 2019). It is a micro-level theory, which halps to explain
why individuals or groups are more likoly to engage in criminal activity (Toth, 2019).
Specifically, how strain is produced on disadvantaged minority individuals and groups, as well
as the lower class, because these people do not have equal access to legitimate opportunitics
for success (Akors & Sellers, 2013). This strain coming from blocked opportunity causes the
individual or group to lean towards using illegal means in order to achieve success. Merton
goes on to explain in "Social Structure and Anomic that there are five ways an individual can
adapt to the strain produced on them: conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, and
rebellion. Conformity, being the most common, is when an individual accopts the strain and
still strives for success within the institutionalized means available (Akers & Sellers, 2013).
Stability and continuity of a society aro still maintained through this adaptation (Toth, 2019).
Innovation is when a parson still strives for success, however, the individual rejects the
institutionalized means, therefore, leading him or hor to take acantage of illegal means in order
to reach his/her goal (Akors & Sallors, 2013). This adaptation occurs more often where there
is limited opportunitics for people to achieve success (Toth, 2019). Ritualism is when a person
does not intend on reaching his/her goal, however, the individual still accopts the
institutionalized means. The individual does not gain much from this adaptation, but simply
just goes through the motions (Toth, 2019). Retreatism is when one gives up on both the goal
itself, as well as the means to reach that goal (Akers & Scllors, 2013). This adaptation, being
the least common, is more of an escape mechanism in which Merton placed those being, but
not limited to, alcoholics, drug addicts, and the severcly mentally ill within (Akers & Sellers,
2013). Lastly, rebellion is when a person rejects the entire system, both the goal itself and the
means of reaching the goal, but replaces them with a new set of goals and means, these usually
contrasting those of conventional society (Toth, 2019).
Merton's classic strain theory explains the cause of violent crimes. if an individual experiences
more strain from being blocked from using institutional means to achieve his/her goals, then
the individual is more likely to be lead to criminal activity, specifically violent criminal activity.
To start a person might be lead to commit murder if he/she is experiencing strain from another
standing in his/her way. To specify by using an extreme circumstance, an individual may be
blocked from progressing in his/her workplace, also known as a promotion, due to another
employee. If the individual needs this promotion in order to increase his/her financial success
they might be lead to commit murder of said other employee to gain this promotion. This can
fall under the innovation adaptation to a stressor of classic strain theory due to the individual
striving for that success, however, rejecting the institutionalized means to acquire the goal
caused by a lack of available opportunities to gain a promotion. Robbery can also be explained
by Merton's classic strain theory, which can occur because of an innovation adaptation to strain
as well. if one values financial success a great deal, then that may be a goal he/she is striving
for. Thus, the individual can reject the institutional means of achiving wealth because some
view obtaining a job harder than using illegal actions, such as robbery (a violent crime).
Merton's classic strain theory has both strengths and weaknesses when referencing the
explanation of violent crimes. To start, classic strain theory really has an emphasis on economic
inequality being a main stressor, leading to violent crimes. Support for this prior statement has
been found showing that economic deprivation does seem to have an effect on community
diffcrences in crime rates (Toth, 2019). However, this strength also comes with a weakness
because it has otherwise been shown that economic deprivation is not as strongly correlated to
societal differences as it is does on community differences (Toth, 2019). This being stated, not
everyone views economic success as being valuable and, therefore, may not consider it to be a
strain. In this casc, being economically unsuccessful would not lead to violent crime. Another
weakness to Merton's theory is it does not account for various strains other than the separation
between goals and presumptions (Toth, 2019)-
After Merton's classic strain theory came Agnews general strain theory, which is micro level
as well. Agnow approaches the outlook on strains by broadening stressors beyond the goals
and institutionalized means of reaching said goals of socicty by arguing there are several
sources of stress an individual can experience. Agnows strain theory perspective arose during
a time in which issues with widening social class division occurred due to increasing societal
pressures. Within Agnow's "Pressured into Crime: Goncral Strain Theory," he discusses how
people engage in crime due to experiencing stressors that result from one of three nogative
relationships. Thosc include relations that prevent or threaten to prevent the achievement of
positively valued goals, remove or threaten to remove the achievement of positively valued
goals, and present or threaten to present negatively valued stimuli (Toth, 2019). The first
relation, that of which prevents or threatens to prevent the achievement of positively valued
goals, features three subtypes. The first usually includes the traditional concept of stress
relating to long-term goals and the means of achieving said goals stated by Morton's classic
strain theory, howevor, Agnow expanded this idca (Akors & Sollors, 2013). Agnow not only
included long-term goals, but also short term, as well as the fact that an individual may not
achieve said goals due to individual inabilities or lack of skills, rather than only duc to blocked
opportunitics (Akors & Sallors, 2013). The socond subtypo includes the strain an individual
fols whon ho/sho believes he/she deserves a reward but that reward is never produced (Akors
& Scllors, 2013). The strain comes from the resentment the person may fecl from this
disappointing circumstance. The third subtype comes from when an individual believes he/she
deserves more than the outcome he/she reccived (Akers & Sallors, 2013). An example of this
could be when one person fools as if he/she is putting more effort into a relationship the other
person, therefore, fooling as if he/she is not reaping any benefit from said relationship.
The second relation, that of which removes or threatens to remove the achievement of
positively valued goals, usually falls within the adolescence period. This occurs when one loses
"something) or someone of great worth' (Akors & Sellers, 2013). Losing someone can include
a family member passing away or the breaking up with a girlfriend/boyfriend. Losing
something can consist of gotting fired from a job or being suspended from school. The third
relation, that of which prevents or threatens to present negatively valucd stimuli, includes
events in which a person has to deal with the negative actions of others. These events can be
anything from child abuse to adverse school experiences (Akers and Sallors, 2013), An
individual can not necessarily escape from family or school during childhood and adolescents
so they may be lead to use illegitimato means in order to escape said events. Although strains
may develop from those three negative relations, strains can also be divided into two categorics:
objective and subjoctive. Objoctive strains are events that most people would find stressful.
These events include boing physically assaulted or doprived of food and sholter (Cullon,
Agnow, & Wilcox, 2014). Mossorschmict (1993) also states that questioning a malo's
masculino status can causo stross to most men. Objoctive strains can bo measured by
intervicwing a sample of people. Subjoctive strains pertain to how different people evaluate
the same events. Although an event may be objoctively stressful, an individual might only
mildly dislike the event, where another could strongly dislike it (Toth, 2019). The evaluation
of stressful events is due to factors, such as an individual's porsonality traits, goals, values, and
prior experiences (Cullen, Agnow, & Wilcox, 2014)). An example of a subjective strain is a
divorce. It was found by Wheaton (1990) that some positively viewed their divorce because of
the poor quality of their prior marriage.
Strains may also be further divided into three sub-categories: experience, vicarious, and
anticipated Experienced strains are stressors one has personally experienced. This type of strain
should "bear the strongest relationship to crime" (Cullen, Agnew, & Wilcox, 2014). Vicarious
strains are strains on an individual due to stressors experienced by those around him/her,
specifically those closest towards the individual, such as a family member or a friend (Toth,
2019). Anticipated strains are when one believes their current stressors) may continue into the
future or a new stressor may arise in the future (Cullen, Agnew, & Wilcox, 2014).
General strain theory also goes on to discuss how not all strains result in criminal activity. It is
explained that strains are more likely to result in crime if they are seen as high in magnitude,
unjust, associated with low social control, or creating some pressure or incentive for criminal
coping (Toth, 2019). High in magnitude refers to how severe the individual subjectively views
a stressor. If one views the stressor as more severe than the individual will have a stronger
emotional response to said stressor, thus causing the person to take a more severe action to
relieve him/herself of the strain he/she feels. An individual may view a stressor as more severe
if it is high in degree, frequent, recent, long in duration or expected to continue, or threatens
his/her core goals, needs, and values (Toth, 2019). if an individual views a stressor as "unjust,"
meaning an individual did not believe he/she deserved the strain he/she foels, then it can cause
the individual to become aggravated. One may deem the strain unjust if the one who inflicted
it intentionally chose to do so knowing the individual would dislike the action (Toth, 2019). If
a strain is associated with lowering the amount of social control on a person, he/she may react
in a negative way (Toth, 2019). There are actually several types of social control one may
experience: direct, emotional bond or attachment to conventional others, investment into
conventional institutions, and beliefs regarding crime. Direct social control is the extent to
which others set rules prohibiting crime, monitor the person's bchavior, and sanction violations'
(Toth, 2019). Emotional bond or attachment to conventional others consists of whether or not
an individual cares what othors think (Toth, 2019). If a person cares more about what others
think, then it is more likely that a strain can have a stronger effect on the individual. Investment
into conventional institutions consist of the time and resources one has put into conventional
ochaviors (Toth, 2019). If a person has invested more into these conventional bchaviors, then
he/she is more likely to not want to lose these investments through crime. Social control
stemming from beliefs regarding crime involves the individual's attitude towards the laws and
whether or not he/she finds them valid (Toth, 2019). Lastly, creating pressure or incentive for
criminal coping refers to how easily a stressor can be resolved by means of criminal activity,
rather than conventional means. Not only do these four factors increase the likelihood of crime,
but also if an individual experience two or more strains at a single time or very close together
in time (Toth, 2019).
Agnews general strain theory can explain the cause of violent crimes. If an individual
experiences more strain from the negative relationships he/she developed, as well as
experiencing strain from other negative life events, then the inclividual is more likely to be lead
to criminal activity, specifically violent criminal activity. For one, Agnew's theory can be used
to explain sexual assault crimes, such as the violent crime of rape. This can occur if a person
encounters an objective, experienced strain. If an inclividual endures sexual assault, which can
be categorized as an objoctive strain seeing as it is generally disliked by most people,
himself/herself and lacks the ability to cope with this strain in a legal manner, then this
individual is more likely to inflict sexual assault, possibly even rape, on another person. Assault
and battory can also be explained by Agnows general strain theory. This can be seen when one
experiences a vicarious strain. If someone close to the individual, either a family member or a
friend, is being harmed by another, then the individual could be lead into secking revenge,
which can include physically harming or throatoning to physically harm, the person negatively
affecting his/hor family member or friend. Agnows goneral strain theory has both strengths and
weakness when referencing tho explanation of violent crimes. For one, his theory does account
for other strains, rather than just disconnection between aspirations and expectations, that may
lead to violent criminal actions. It has also boon supported that delinquency, which can lead to
violent criminal behavior in the future, is higher among those who experience one or more of
the threo negative relationships, as well as other various negative life events (Toth, 2019).
However, just because an individual experiences strain, does not moan they will utilize illegal
means to overcome it. if one has the ability to copo in a legal manner, such as having the verbal
skills necessary to resolve a negative situation, then the individual will not be lead into taking
illegal means, such as violent crimes, in orcer to overcome the strain (Toth, 2019).
Agnew has identified some policy implications in order to reduce the amount of violent crimes
occurring, mostly focusing on family, as well as school, interventions. He discusses how these
interventions should include four different aspects. The first is to reduce the difficulties of an
individual's social environment by training parents in skills that can better supervision and
discipline of an the individual, specifying in better usage of rewards and punishments (Akers
& Sellers, 2013). The second is to train individuals in their adolescence to have better social
skills in order to reduce the provocation of negative reactions from others (Akers & Sellers,
2013). The third aspect is to increase support from programs, such as counscling, mediation,
and advocacy, for adolescents in order for them to have an outlet to turn to before inclining
towards violent criminal behavior (Akers & Sellers, 2013). The last aspect is to have anger
control, problem solving, social skills, and stress management training for the youth in order
for them to cope in a noncriminal way (Akers & Sellers, 2013). To conclude, although Merton's
classic strain theory and Agnews general strain theory have weakness to the perspectives, the
strengths are what causes it to be able to best describe why violent crime occurs. Both
perspectives stemming from the positivist theory, as well as are micro level, explain that violent
crime can result due to the strain of being blocked from having opportunities in order to achieve
a goal, having a negative relationship, or one of the other various sub types of strain
Specifically, rape, murder, assault and battery, and robbery are the four main violent crimes
that can be best explained by strain theory.
The question most consistently asked throughout time is; why do people commit violent
crimes? Various perspectives, derived from one of two original thories: classical or positivist,
have been pondered trying to discover an answer to this question One modern-day theory,
stemming from the positivist theory, that may be able to best explain the reasoning as to why
people commit violent crimes is strain thory. There are two takes on strain theory, Morton's
classic strain theory. and Agnew's general strain theory, that have been developed in order to
solve this puzzling question, both perspectives having their own strengths and weaknesses.
Within violent crimes, there are two types subtypes: expressive and instrumental. Expressive
crimes are not committed for an individual to bencfit or gain from the act but instead aro
committed out of rago, anger, or frustration (Siogel, 2017). Whercas instrumental crime has
moro of a purposo to the actions. A person may commit an instrumental crimo to improve
his/hor financial or social status (Sicgal, 2017). There are several factors that are drawn upon
whon discussing the cause of a violent crimo, such as personal traits, human instinct, exposure
to violence, substance abusa, and culture and national values (Siogol, 2017). The four main
violent crimes committed are rape, murder, assault and battery, and robbery. These violent
crimes are categorized as part one crimes, meaning those crimes are only four of the most
scrious offenses. Rape is non consensual sexual intercours inflicted by another on cither male
or fomale and is one of the most misunderstood crimes (Siogal, 2017). Murder is the unlawful
killing of a porson or poople with intention and is considered the most scrious crime (Siogol,
2017). Assault and battery are actually two separate crimes. Battery being actual physical
contact during the offense, such as punching, against the victim, while assault does not involve
physical contact, but rather intention or throat of harming the victim (Siogol, 2017). Lastly,
robbery is the taking of something valuable from an individual by use of force, throat, or
violence (Siegel, 2017). The occurrence of violent crimes can be explained by both Merton's
and Agnews strain theories.
The classic strain theory, presented by Merton in his work "Social Structure and Anomic" in
1938, developed during a time when issues dealing with widening social class divisions started
to arise from urbanization growth (Toth, 2019). It is a micro-level theory, which halps to explain
why individuals or groups are more likoly to engage in criminal activity (Toth, 2019).
Specifically, how strain is produced on disadvantaged minority individuals and groups, as well
as the lower class, because these people do not have equal access to legitimate opportunitics
for success (Akors & Sellers, 2013). This strain coming from blocked opportunity causes the
individual or group to lean towards using illegal means in order to achieve success. Merton
goes on to explain in "Social Structure and Anomic that there are five ways an individual can
adapt to the strain produced on them: conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, and
rebellion. Conformity, being the most common, is when an individual accopts the strain and
still strives for success within the institutionalized means available (Akers & Sellers, 2013).
Stability and continuity of a society aro still maintained through this adaptation (Toth, 2019).
Innovation is when a parson still strives for success, however, the individual rejects the
institutionalized means, therefore, leading him or hor to take acantage of illegal means in order
to reach his/her goal (Akors & Sallors, 2013). This adaptation occurs more often where there
is limited opportunitics for people to achieve success (Toth, 2019). Ritualism is when a person
does not intend on reaching his/her goal, however, the individual still accopts the
institutionalized means. The individual does not gain much from this adaptation, but simply
just goes through the motions (Toth, 2019). Retreatism is when one gives up on both the goal
itself, as well as the means to reach that goal (Akers & Scllors, 2013). This adaptation, being
the least common, is more of an escape mechanism in which Merton placed those being, but
not limited to, alcoholics, drug addicts, and the severcly mentally ill within (Akers & Sellers,
2013). Lastly, rebellion is when a person rejects the entire system, both the goal itself and the
means of reaching the goal, but replaces them with a new set of goals and means, these usually
contrasting those of conventional society (Toth, 2019).
Merton's classic strain theory explains the cause of violent crimes. if an individual experiences
more strain from being blocked from using institutional means to achieve his/her goals, then
the individual is more likely to be lead to criminal activity, specifically violent criminal activity.
To start a person might be lead to commit murder if he/she is experiencing strain from another
standing in his/her way. To specify by using an extreme circumstance, an individual may be
blocked from progressing in his/her workplace, also known as a promotion, due to another
employee. If the individual needs this promotion in order to increase his/her financial success
they might be lead to commit murder of said other employee to gain this promotion. This can
fall under the innovation adaptation to a stressor of classic strain theory due to the individual
striving for that success, however, rejecting the institutionalized means to acquire the goal
caused by a lack of available opportunities to gain a promotion. Robbery can also be explained
by Merton's classic strain theory, which can occur because of an innovation adaptation to strain
as well. if one values financial success a great deal, then that may be a goal he/she is striving
for. Thus, the individual can reject the institutional means of achiving wealth because some
view obtaining a job harder than using illegal actions, such as robbery (a violent crime).
Merton's classic strain theory has both strengths and weaknesses when referencing the
explanation of violent crimes. To start, classic strain theory really has an emphasis on economic
inequality being a main stressor, leading to violent crimes. Support for this prior statement has
been found showing that economic deprivation does seem to have an effect on community
diffcrences in crime rates (Toth, 2019). However, this strength also comes with a weakness
because it has otherwise been shown that economic deprivation is not as strongly correlated to
societal differences as it is does on community differences (Toth, 2019). This being stated, not
everyone views economic success as being valuable and, therefore, may not consider it to be a
strain. In this casc, being economically unsuccessful would not lead to violent crime. Another
weakness to Merton's theory is it does not account for various strains other than the separation
between goals and presumptions (Toth, 2019)-
After Merton's classic strain theory came Agnews general strain theory, which is micro level
as well. Agnow approaches the outlook on strains by broadening stressors beyond the goals
and institutionalized means of reaching said goals of socicty by arguing there are several
sources of stress an individual can experience. Agnows strain theory perspective arose during
a time in which issues with widening social class division occurred due to increasing societal
pressures. Within Agnow's "Pressured into Crime: Goncral Strain Theory," he discusses how
people engage in crime due to experiencing stressors that result from one of three nogative
relationships. Thosc include relations that prevent or threaten to prevent the achievement of
positively valued goals, remove or threaten to remove the achievement of positively valued
goals, and present or threaten to present negatively valued stimuli (Toth, 2019). The first
relation, that of which prevents or threatens to prevent the achievement of positively valued
goals, features three subtypes. The first usually includes the traditional concept of stress
relating to long-term goals and the means of achieving said goals stated by Morton's classic
strain theory, howevor, Agnow expanded this idca (Akors & Sollors, 2013). Agnow not only
included long-term goals, but also short term, as well as the fact that an individual may not
achieve said goals due to individual inabilities or lack of skills, rather than only duc to blocked
opportunitics (Akors & Sallors, 2013). The socond subtypo includes the strain an individual
fols whon ho/sho believes he/she deserves a reward but that reward is never produced (Akors
& Scllors, 2013). The strain comes from the resentment the person may fecl from this
disappointing circumstance. The third subtype comes from when an individual believes he/she
deserves more than the outcome he/she reccived (Akers & Sallors, 2013). An example of this
could be when one person fools as if he/she is putting more effort into a relationship the other
person, therefore, fooling as if he/she is not reaping any benefit from said relationship.
The second relation, that of which removes or threatens to remove the achievement of
positively valued goals, usually falls within the adolescence period. This occurs when one loses
"something) or someone of great worth' (Akors & Sellers, 2013). Losing someone can include
a family member passing away or the breaking up with a girlfriend/boyfriend. Losing
something can consist of gotting fired from a job or being suspended from school. The third
relation, that of which prevents or threatens to present negatively valucd stimuli, includes
events in which a person has to deal with the negative actions of others. These events can be
anything from child abuse to adverse school experiences (Akers and Sallors, 2013), An
individual can not necessarily escape from family or school during childhood and adolescents
so they may be lead to use illegitimato means in order to escape said events. Although strains
may develop from those three negative relations, strains can also be divided into two categorics:
objective and subjoctive. Objoctive strains are events that most people would find stressful.
These events include boing physically assaulted or doprived of food and sholter (Cullon,
Agnow, & Wilcox, 2014). Mossorschmict (1993) also states that questioning a malo's
masculino status can causo stross to most men. Objoctive strains can bo measured by
intervicwing a sample of people. Subjoctive strains pertain to how different people evaluate
the same events. Although an event may be objoctively stressful, an individual might only
mildly dislike the event, where another could strongly dislike it (Toth, 2019). The evaluation
of stressful events is due to factors, such as an individual's porsonality traits, goals, values, and
prior experiences (Cullen, Agnow, & Wilcox, 2014)). An example of a subjective strain is a
divorce. It was found by Wheaton (1990) that some positively viewed their divorce because of
the poor quality of their prior marriage.
Strains may also be further divided into three sub-categories: experience, vicarious, and
anticipated Experienced strains are stressors one has personally experienced. This type of strain
should "bear the strongest relationship to crime" (Cullen, Agnew, & Wilcox, 2014). Vicarious
strains are strains on an individual due to stressors experienced by those around him/her,
specifically those closest towards the individual, such as a family member or a friend (Toth,
2019). Anticipated strains are when one believes their current stressors) may continue into the
future or a new stressor may arise in the future (Cullen, Agnew, & Wilcox, 2014).
General strain theory also goes on to discuss how not all strains result in criminal activity. It is
explained that strains are more likely to result in crime if they are seen as high in magnitude,
unjust, associated with low social control, or creating some pressure or incentive for criminal
coping (Toth, 2019). High in magnitude refers to how severe the individual subjectively views
a stressor. If one views the stressor as more severe than the individual will have a stronger
emotional response to said stressor, thus causing the person to take a more severe action to
relieve him/herself of the strain he/she feels. An individual may view a stressor as more severe
if it is high in degree, frequent, recent, long in duration or expected to continue, or threatens
his/her core goals, needs, and values (Toth, 2019). if an individual views a stressor as "unjust,"
meaning an individual did not believe he/she deserved the strain he/she foels, then it can cause
the individual to become aggravated. One may deem the strain unjust if the one who inflicted
it intentionally chose to do so knowing the individual would dislike the action (Toth, 2019). If
a strain is associated with lowering the amount of social control on a person, he/she may react
in a negative way (Toth, 2019). There are actually several types of social control one may
experience: direct, emotional bond or attachment to conventional others, investment into
conventional institutions, and beliefs regarding crime. Direct social control is the extent to
which others set rules prohibiting crime, monitor the person's bchavior, and sanction violations'
(Toth, 2019). Emotional bond or attachment to conventional others consists of whether or not
an individual cares what othors think (Toth, 2019). If a person cares more about what others
think, then it is more likely that a strain can have a stronger effect on the individual. Investment
into conventional institutions consist of the time and resources one has put into conventional
ochaviors (Toth, 2019). If a person has invested more into these conventional bchaviors, then
he/she is more likely to not want to lose these investments through crime. Social control
stemming from beliefs regarding crime involves the individual's attitude towards the laws and
whether or not he/she finds them valid (Toth, 2019). Lastly, creating pressure or incentive for
criminal coping refers to how easily a stressor can be resolved by means of criminal activity,
rather than conventional means. Not only do these four factors increase the likelihood of crime,
but also if an individual experience two or more strains at a single time or very close together
in time (Toth, 2019).
Agnews general strain theory can explain the cause of violent crimes. If an individual
experiences more strain from the negative relationships he/she developed, as well as
experiencing strain from other negative life events, then the inclividual is more likely to be lead
to criminal activity, specifically violent criminal activity. For one, Agnew's theory can be used
to explain sexual assault crimes, such as the violent crime of rape. This can occur if a person
encounters an objective, experienced strain. If an inclividual endures sexual assault, which can
be categorized as an objoctive strain seeing as it is generally disliked by most people,
himself/herself and lacks the ability to cope with this strain in a legal manner, then this
individual is more likely to inflict sexual assault, possibly even rape, on another person. Assault
and battory can also be explained by Agnows general strain theory. This can be seen when one
experiences a vicarious strain. If someone close to the individual, either a family member or a
friend, is being harmed by another, then the individual could be lead into secking revenge,
which can include physically harming or throatoning to physically harm, the person negatively
affecting his/hor family member or friend. Agnows goneral strain theory has both strengths and
weakness when referencing tho explanation of violent crimes. For one, his theory does account
for other strains, rather than just disconnection between aspirations and expectations, that may
lead to violent criminal actions. It has also boon supported that delinquency, which can lead to
violent criminal behavior in the future, is higher among those who experience one or more of
the threo negative relationships, as well as other various negative life events (Toth, 2019).
However, just because an individual experiences strain, does not moan they will utilize illegal
means to overcome it. if one has the ability to copo in a legal manner, such as having the verbal
skills necessary to resolve a negative situation, then the individual will not be lead into taking
illegal means, such as violent crimes, in orcer to overcome the strain (Toth, 2019).
Agnew has identified some policy implications in order to reduce the amount of violent crimes
occurring, mostly focusing on family, as well as school, interventions. He discusses how these
interventions should include four different aspects. The first is to reduce the difficulties of an
individual's social environment by training parents in skills that can better supervision and
discipline of an the individual, specifying in better usage of rewards and punishments (Akers
& Sellers, 2013). The second is to train individuals in their adolescence to have better social
skills in order to reduce the provocation of negative reactions from others (Akers & Sellers,
2013). The third aspect is to increase support from programs, such as counscling, mediation,
and advocacy, for adolescents in order for them to have an outlet to turn to before inclining
towards violent criminal behavior (Akers & Sellers, 2013). The last aspect is to have anger
control, problem solving, social skills, and stress management training for the youth in order
for them to cope in a noncriminal way (Akers & Sellers, 2013). To conclude, although Merton's
classic strain theory and Agnews general strain theory have weakness to the perspectives, the
strengths are what causes it to be able to best describe why violent crime occurs. Both
perspectives stemming from the positivist theory, as well as are micro level, explain that violent
crime can result due to the strain of being blocked from having opportunities in order to achieve
a goal, having a negative relationship, or one of the other various sub types of strain
Specifically, rape, murder, assault and battery, and robbery are the four main violent crimes
that can be best explained by strain theory.
The question most consistently asked throughout time is; why do people commit violent
crimes? Various perspectives, derived from one of two original thories: classical or positivist,
have been pondered trying to discover an answer to this question One modern-day theory,
stemming from the positivist theory, that may be able to best explain the reasoning as to why
people commit violent crimes is strain thory. There are two takes on strain theory, Morton's
classic strain theory. and Agnew's general strain theory, that have been developed in order to
solve this puzzling question, both perspectives having their own strengths and weaknesses.
Within violent crimes, there are two types subtypes: expressive and instrumental. Expressive
crimes are not committed for an individual to bencfit or gain from the act but instead aro
committed out of rago, anger, or frustration (Siogel, 2017). Whercas instrumental crime has
moro of a purposo to the actions. A person may commit an instrumental crimo to improve
his/hor financial or social status (Sicgal, 2017). There are several factors that are drawn upon
whon discussing the cause of a violent crimo, such as personal traits, human instinct, exposure
to violence, substance abusa, and culture and national values (Siogol, 2017). The four main
violent crimes committed are rape, murder, assault and battery, and robbery. These violent
crimes are categorized as part one crimes, meaning those crimes are only four of the most
scrious offenses. Rape is non consensual sexual intercours inflicted by another on cither male
or fomale and is one of the most misunderstood crimes (Siogal, 2017). Murder is the unlawful
killing of a porson or poople with intention and is considered the most scrious crime (Siogol,
2017). Assault and battery are actually two separate crimes. Battery being actual physical
contact during the offense, such as punching, against the victim, while assault does not involve
physical contact, but rather intention or throat of harming the victim (Siogol, 2017). Lastly,
robbery is the taking of something valuable from an individual by use of force, throat, or
violence (Siegel, 2017). The occurrence of violent crimes can be explained by both Merton's
and Agnews strain theories.
The classic strain theory, presented by Merton in his work "Social Structure and Anomic" in
1938, developed during a time when issues dealing with widening social class divisions started
to arise from urbanization growth (Toth, 2019). It is a micro-level theory, which halps to explain
why individuals or groups are more likoly to engage in criminal activity (Toth, 2019).
Specifically, how strain is produced on disadvantaged minority individuals and groups, as well
as the lower class, because these people do not have equal access to legitimate opportunitics
for success (Akors & Sellers, 2013). This strain coming from blocked opportunity causes the
individual or group to lean towards using illegal means in order to achieve success. Merton
goes on to explain in "Social Structure and Anomic that there are five ways an individual can
adapt to the strain produced on them: conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, and
rebellion. Conformity, being the most common, is when an individual accopts the strain and
still strives for success within the institutionalized means available (Akers & Sellers, 2013).
Stability and continuity of a society aro still maintained through this adaptation (Toth, 2019).
Innovation is when a parson still strives for success, however, the individual rejects the
institutionalized means, therefore, leading him or hor to take acantage of illegal means in order
to reach his/her goal (Akors & Sallors, 2013). This adaptation occurs more often where there
is limited opportunitics for people to achieve success (Toth, 2019). Ritualism is when a person
does not intend on reaching his/her goal, however, the individual still accopts the
institutionalized means. The individual does not gain much from this adaptation, but simply
just goes through the motions (Toth, 2019). Retreatism is when one gives up on both the goal
itself, as well as the means to reach that goal (Akers & Scllors, 2013). This adaptation, being
the least common, is more of an escape mechanism in which Merton placed those being, but
not limited to, alcoholics, drug addicts, and the severcly mentally ill within (Akers & Sellers,
2013). Lastly, rebellion is when a person rejects the entire system, both the goal itself and the
means of reaching the goal, but replaces them with a new set of goals and means, these usually
contrasting those of conventional society (Toth, 2019).
Merton's classic strain theory explains the cause of violent crimes. if an individual experiences
more strain from being blocked from using institutional means to achieve his/her goals, then
the individual is more likely to be lead to criminal activity, specifically violent criminal activity.
To start a person might be lead to commit murder if he/she is experiencing strain from another
standing in his/her way. To specify by using an extreme circumstance, an individual may be
blocked from progressing in his/her workplace, also known as a promotion, due to another
employee. If the individual needs this promotion in order to increase his/her financial success
they might be lead to commit murder of said other employee to gain this promotion. This can
fall under the innovation adaptation to a stressor of classic strain theory due to the individual
striving for that success, however, rejecting the institutionalized means to acquire the goal
caused by a lack of available opportunities to gain a promotion. Robbery can also be explained
by Merton's classic strain theory, which can occur because of an innovation adaptation to strain
as well. if one values financial success a great deal, then that may be a goal he/she is striving
for. Thus, the individual can reject the institutional means of achiving wealth because some
view obtaining a job harder than using illegal actions, such as robbery (a violent crime).
Merton's classic strain theory has both strengths and weaknesses when referencing the
explanation of violent crimes. To start, classic strain theory really has an emphasis on economic
inequality being a main stressor, leading to violent crimes. Support for this prior statement has
been found showing that economic deprivation does seem to have an effect on community
diffcrences in crime rates (Toth, 2019). However, this strength also comes with a weakness
because it has otherwise been shown that economic deprivation is not as strongly correlated to
societal differences as it is does on community differences (Toth, 2019). This being stated, not
everyone views economic success as being valuable and, therefore, may not consider it to be a
strain. In this casc, being economically unsuccessful would not lead to violent crime. Another
weakness to Merton's theory is it does not account for various strains other than the separation
between goals and presumptions (Toth, 2019)-
After Merton's classic strain theory came Agnews general strain theory, which is micro level
as well. Agnow approaches the outlook on strains by broadening stressors beyond the goals
and institutionalized means of reaching said goals of socicty by arguing there are several
sources of stress an individual can experience. Agnows strain theory perspective arose during
a time in which issues with widening social class division occurred due to increasing societal
pressures. Within Agnow's "Pressured into Crime: Goncral Strain Theory," he discusses how
people engage in crime due to experiencing stressors that result from one of three nogative
relationships. Thosc include relations that prevent or threaten to prevent the achievement of
positively valued goals, remove or threaten to remove the achievement of positively valued
goals, and present or threaten to present negatively valued stimuli (Toth, 2019). The first
relation, that of which prevents or threatens to prevent the achievement of positively valued
goals, features three subtypes. The first usually includes the traditional concept of stress
relating to long-term goals and the means of achieving said goals stated by Morton's classic
strain theory, howevor, Agnow expanded this idca (Akors & Sollors, 2013). Agnow not only
included long-term goals, but also short term, as well as the fact that an individual may not
achieve said goals due to individual inabilities or lack of skills, rather than only duc to blocked
opportunitics (Akors & Sallors, 2013). The socond subtypo includes the strain an individual
fols whon ho/sho believes he/she deserves a reward but that reward is never produced (Akors
& Scllors, 2013). The strain comes from the resentment the person may fecl from this
disappointing circumstance. The third subtype comes from when an individual believes he/she
deserves more than the outcome he/she reccived (Akers & Sallors, 2013). An example of this
could be when one person fools as if he/she is putting more effort into a relationship the other
person, therefore, fooling as if he/she is not reaping any benefit from said relationship.
The second relation, that of which removes or threatens to remove the achievement of
positively valued goals, usually falls within the adolescence period. This occurs when one loses
"something) or someone of great worth' (Akors & Sellers, 2013). Losing someone can include
a family member passing away or the breaking up with a girlfriend/boyfriend. Losing
something can consist of gotting fired from a job or being suspended from school. The third
relation, that of which prevents or threatens to present negatively valucd stimuli, includes
events in which a person has to deal with the negative actions of others. These events can be
anything from child abuse to adverse school experiences (Akers and Sallors, 2013), An
individual can not necessarily escape from family or school during childhood and adolescents
so they may be lead to use illegitimato means in order to escape said events. Although strains
may develop from those three negative relations, strains can also be divided into two categorics:
objective and subjoctive. Objoctive strains are events that most people would find stressful.
These events include boing physically assaulted or doprived of food and sholter (Cullon,
Agnow, & Wilcox, 2014). Mossorschmict (1993) also states that questioning a malo's
masculino status can causo stross to most men. Objoctive strains can bo measured by
intervicwing a sample of people. Subjoctive strains pertain to how different people evaluate
the same events. Although an event may be objoctively stressful, an individual might only
mildly dislike the event, where another could strongly dislike it (Toth, 2019). The evaluation
of stressful events is due to factors, such as an individual's porsonality traits, goals, values, and
prior experiences (Cullen, Agnow, & Wilcox, 2014)). An example of a subjective strain is a
divorce. It was found by Wheaton (1990) that some positively viewed their divorce because of
the poor quality of their prior marriage.
Strains may also be further divided into three sub-categories: experience, vicarious, and
anticipated Experienced strains are stressors one has personally experienced. This type of strain
should "bear the strongest relationship to crime" (Cullen, Agnew, & Wilcox, 2014). Vicarious
strains are strains on an individual due to stressors experienced by those around him/her,
specifically those closest towards the individual, such as a family member or a friend (Toth,
2019). Anticipated strains are when one believes their current stressors) may continue into the
future or a new stressor may arise in the future (Cullen, Agnew, & Wilcox, 2014).
General strain theory also goes on to discuss how not all strains result in criminal activity. It is
explained that strains are more likely to result in crime if they are seen as high in magnitude,
unjust, associated with low social control, or creating some pressure or incentive for criminal
coping (Toth, 2019). High in magnitude refers to how severe the individual subjectively views
a stressor. If one views the stressor as more severe than the individual will have a stronger
emotional response to said stressor, thus causing the person to take a more severe action to
relieve him/herself of the strain he/she feels. An individual may view a stressor as more severe
if it is high in degree, frequent, recent, long in duration or expected to continue, or threatens
his/her core goals, needs, and values (Toth, 2019). if an individual views a stressor as "unjust,"
meaning an individual did not believe he/she deserved the strain he/she foels, then it can cause
the individual to become aggravated. One may deem the strain unjust if the one who inflicted
it intentionally chose to do so knowing the individual would dislike the action (Toth, 2019). If
a strain is associated with lowering the amount of social control on a person, he/she may react
in a negative way (Toth, 2019). There are actually several types of social control one may
experience: direct, emotional bond or attachment to conventional others, investment into
conventional institutions, and beliefs regarding crime. Direct social control is the extent to
which others set rules prohibiting crime, monitor the person's bchavior, and sanction violations'
(Toth, 2019). Emotional bond or attachment to conventional others consists of whether or not
an individual cares what othors think (Toth, 2019). If a person cares more about what others
think, then it is more likely that a strain can have a stronger effect on the individual. Investment
into conventional institutions consist of the time and resources one has put into conventional
ochaviors (Toth, 2019). If a person has invested more into these conventional bchaviors, then
he/she is more likely to not want to lose these investments through crime. Social control
stemming from beliefs regarding crime involves the individual's attitude towards the laws and
whether or not he/she finds them valid (Toth, 2019). Lastly, creating pressure or incentive for
criminal coping refers to how easily a stressor can be resolved by means of criminal activity,
rather than conventional means. Not only do these four factors increase the likelihood of crime,
but also if an individual experience two or more strains at a single time or very close together
in time (Toth, 2019).
Agnews general strain theory can explain the cause of violent crimes. If an individual
experiences more strain from the negative relationships he/she developed, as well as
experiencing strain from other negative life events, then the inclividual is more likely to be lead
to criminal activity, specifically violent criminal activity. For one, Agnew's theory can be used
to explain sexual assault crimes, such as the violent crime of rape. This can occur if a person
encounters an objective, experienced strain. If an inclividual endures sexual assault, which can
be categorized as an objoctive strain seeing as it is generally disliked by most people,
himself/herself and lacks the ability to cope with this strain in a legal manner, then this
individual is more likely to inflict sexual assault, possibly even rape, on another person. Assault
and battory can also be explained by Agnows general strain theory. This can be seen when one
experiences a vicarious strain. If someone close to the individual, either a family member or a
friend, is being harmed by another, then the individual could be lead into secking revenge,
which can include physically harming or throatoning to physically harm, the person negatively
affecting his/hor family member or friend. Agnows goneral strain theory has both strengths and
weakness when referencing tho explanation of violent crimes. For one, his theory does account
for other strains, rather than just disconnection between aspirations and expectations, that may
lead to violent criminal actions. It has also boon supported that delinquency, which can lead to
violent criminal behavior in the future, is higher among those who experience one or more of
the threo negative relationships, as well as other various negative life events (Toth, 2019).
However, just because an individual experiences strain, does not moan they will utilize illegal
means to overcome it. if one has the ability to copo in a legal manner, such as having the verbal
skills necessary to resolve a negative situation, then the individual will not be lead into taking
illegal means, such as violent crimes, in orcer to overcome the strain (Toth, 2019).
Agnew has identified some policy implications in order to reduce the amount of violent crimes
occurring, mostly focusing on family, as well as school, interventions. He discusses how these
interventions should include four different aspects. The first is to reduce the difficulties of an
individual's social environment by training parents in skills that can better supervision and
discipline of an the individual, specifying in better usage of rewards and punishments (Akers
& Sellers, 2013). The second is to train individuals in their adolescence to have better social
skills in order to reduce the provocation of negative reactions from others (Akers & Sellers,
2013). The third aspect is to increase support from programs, such as counscling, mediation,
and advocacy, for adolescents in order for them to have an outlet to turn to before inclining
towards violent criminal behavior (Akers & Sellers, 2013). The last aspect is to have anger
control, problem solving, social skills, and stress management training for the youth in order
for them to cope in a noncriminal way (Akers & Sellers, 2013). To conclude, although Merton's
classic strain theory and Agnews general strain theory have weakness to the perspectives, the
strengths are what causes it to be able to best describe why violent crime occurs. Both
perspectives stemming from the positivist theory, as well as are micro level, explain that violent
crime can result due to the strain of being blocked from having opportunities in order to achieve
a goal, having a negative relationship, or one of the other various sub types of strain
Specifically, rape, murder, assault and battery, and robbery are the four main violent crimes
that can be best explained by strain theory.
The question most consistently asked throughout time is; why do people commit violent
crimes? Various perspectives, derived from one of two original thories: classical or positivist,
have been pondered trying to discover an answer to this question One modern-day theory,
stemming from the positivist theory, that may be able to best explain the reasoning as to why
people commit violent crimes is strain thory. There are two takes on strain theory, Morton's
classic strain theory. and Agnew's general strain theory, that have been developed in order to
solve this puzzling question, both perspectives having their own strengths and weaknesses.
Within violent crimes, there are two types subtypes: expressive and instrumental. Expressive
crimes are not committed for an individual to bencfit or gain from the act but instead aro
committed out of rago, anger, or frustration (Siogel, 2017). Whercas instrumental crime has
moro of a purposo to the actions. A person may commit an instrumental crimo to improve
his/hor financial or social status (Sicgal, 2017). There are several factors that are drawn upon
whon discussing the cause of a violent crimo, such as personal traits, human instinct, exposure
to violence, substance abusa, and culture and national values (Siogol, 2017). The four main
violent crimes committed are rape, murder, assault and battery, and robbery. These violent
crimes are categorized as part one crimes, meaning those crimes are only four of the most
scrious offenses. Rape is non consensual sexual intercours inflicted by another on cither male
or fomale and is one of the most misunderstood crimes (Siogal, 2017). Murder is the unlawful
killing of a porson or poople with intention and is considered the most scrious crime (Siogol,
2017). Assault and battery are actually two separate crimes. Battery being actual physical
contact during the offense, such as punching, against the victim, while assault does not involve
physical contact, but rather intention or throat of harming the victim (Siogol, 2017). Lastly,
robbery is the taking of something valuable from an individual by use of force, throat, or
violence (Siegel, 2017). The occurrence of violent crimes can be explained by both Merton's
and Agnews strain theories.
The classic strain theory, presented by Merton in his work "Social Structure and Anomic" in
1938, developed during a time when issues dealing with widening social class divisions started
to arise from urbanization growth (Toth, 2019). It is a micro-level theory, which halps to explain
why individuals or groups are more likoly to engage in criminal activity (Toth, 2019).
Specifically, how strain is produced on disadvantaged minority individuals and groups, as well
as the lower class, because these people do not have equal access to legitimate opportunitics
for success (Akors & Sellers, 2013). This strain coming from blocked opportunity causes the
individual or group to lean towards using illegal means in order to achieve success. Merton
goes on to explain in "Social Structure and Anomic that there are five ways an individual can
adapt to the strain produced on them: conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, and
rebellion. Conformity, being the most common, is when an individual accopts the strain and
still strives for success within the institutionalized means available (Akers & Sellers, 2013).
Stability and continuity of a society aro still maintained through this adaptation (Toth, 2019).
Innovation is when a parson still strives for success, however, the individual rejects the
institutionalized means, therefore, leading him or hor to take acantage of illegal means in order
to reach his/her goal (Akors & Sallors, 2013). This adaptation occurs more often where there
is limited opportunitics for people to achieve success (Toth, 2019). Ritualism is when a person
does not intend on reaching his/her goal, however, the individual still accopts the
institutionalized means. The individual does not gain much from this adaptation, but simply
just goes through the motions (Toth, 2019). Retreatism is when one gives up on both the goal
itself, as well as the means to reach that goal (Akers & Scllors, 2013). This adaptation, being
the least common, is more of an escape mechanism in which Merton placed those being, but
not limited to, alcoholics, drug addicts, and the severcly mentally ill within (Akers & Sellers,
2013). Lastly, rebellion is when a person rejects the entire system, both the goal itself and the
means of reaching the goal, but replaces them with a new set of goals and means, these usually
contrasting those of conventional society (Toth, 2019).
Merton's classic strain theory explains the cause of violent crimes. if an individual experiences
more strain from being blocked from using institutional means to achieve his/her goals, then
the individual is more likely to be lead to criminal activity, specifically violent criminal activity.
To start a person might be lead to commit murder if he/she is experiencing strain from another
standing in his/her way. To specify by using an extreme circumstance, an individual may be
blocked from progressing in his/her workplace, also known as a promotion, due to another
employee. If the individual needs this promotion in order to increase his/her financial success
they might be lead to commit murder of said other employee to gain this promotion. This can
fall under the innovation adaptation to a stressor of classic strain theory due to the individual
striving for that success, however, rejecting the institutionalized means to acquire the goal
caused by a lack of available opportunities to gain a promotion. Robbery can also be explained
by Merton's classic strain theory, which can occur because of an innovation adaptation to strain
as well. if one values financial success a great deal, then that may be a goal he/she is striving
for. Thus, the individual can reject the institutional means of achiving wealth because some
view obtaining a job harder than using illegal actions, such as robbery (a violent crime).
Merton's classic strain theory has both strengths and weaknesses when referencing the
explanation of violent crimes. To start, classic strain theory really has an emphasis on economic
inequality being a main stressor, leading to violent crimes. Support for this prior statement has
been found showing that economic deprivation does seem to have an effect on community
diffcrences in crime rates (Toth, 2019). However, this strength also comes with a weakness
because it has otherwise been shown that economic deprivation is not as strongly correlated to
societal differences as it is does on community differences (Toth, 2019). This being stated, not
everyone views economic success as being valuable and, therefore, may not consider it to be a
strain. In this casc, being economically unsuccessful would not lead to violent crime. Another
weakness to Merton's theory is it does not account for various strains other than the separation
between goals and presumptions (Toth, 2019)-
After Merton's classic strain theory came Agnews general strain theory, which is micro level
as well. Agnow approaches the outlook on strains by broadening stressors beyond the goals
and institutionalized means of reaching said goals of socicty by arguing there are several
sources of stress an individual can experience. Agnows strain theory perspective arose during
a time in which issues with widening social class division occurred due to increasing societal
pressures. Within Agnow's "Pressured into Crime: Goncral Strain Theory," he discusses how
people engage in crime due to experiencing stressors that result from one of three nogative
relationships. Thosc include relations that prevent or threaten to prevent the achievement of
positively valued goals, remove or threaten to remove the achievement of positively valued
goals, and present or threaten to present negatively valued stimuli (Toth, 2019). The first
relation, that of which prevents or threatens to prevent the achievement of positively valued
goals, features three subtypes. The first usually includes the traditional concept of stress
relating to long-term goals and the means of achieving said goals stated by Morton's classic
strain theory, howevor, Agnow expanded this idca (Akors & Sollors, 2013). Agnow not only
included long-term goals, but also short term, as well as the fact that an individual may not
achieve said goals due to individual inabilities or lack of skills, rather than only duc to blocked
opportunitics (Akors & Sallors, 2013). The socond subtypo includes the strain an individual
fols whon ho/sho believes he/she deserves a reward but that reward is never produced (Akors
& Scllors, 2013). The strain comes from the resentment the person may fecl from this
disappointing circumstance. The third subtype comes from when an individual believes he/she
deserves more than the outcome he/she reccived (Akers & Sallors, 2013). An example of this
could be when one person fools as if he/she is putting more effort into a relationship the other
person, therefore, fooling as if he/she is not reaping any benefit from said relationship.
The second relation, that of which removes or threatens to remove the achievement of
positively valued goals, usually falls within the adolescence period. This occurs when one loses
"something) or someone of great worth' (Akors & Sellers, 2013). Losing someone can include
a family member passing away or the breaking up with a girlfriend/boyfriend. Losing
something can consist of gotting fired from a job or being suspended from school. The third
relation, that of which prevents or threatens to present negatively valucd stimuli, includes
events in which a person has to deal with the negative actions of others. These events can be
anything from child abuse to adverse school experiences (Akers and Sallors, 2013), An
individual can not necessarily escape from family or school during childhood and adolescents
so they may be lead to use illegitimato means in order to escape said events. Although strains
may develop from those three negative relations, strains can also be divided into two categorics:
objective and subjoctive. Objoctive strains are events that most people would find stressful.
These events include boing physically assaulted or doprived of food and sholter (Cullon,
Agnow, & Wilcox, 2014). Mossorschmict (1993) also states that questioning a malo's
masculino status can causo stross to most men. Objoctive strains can bo measured by
intervicwing a sample of people. Subjoctive strains pertain to how different people evaluate
the same events. Although an event may be objoctively stressful, an individual might only
mildly dislike the event, where another could strongly dislike it (Toth, 2019). The evaluation
of stressful events is due to factors, such as an individual's porsonality traits, goals, values, and
prior experiences (Cullen, Agnow, & Wilcox, 2014)). An example of a subjective strain is a
divorce. It was found by Wheaton (1990) that some positively viewed their divorce because of
the poor quality of their prior marriage.
Strains may also be further divided into three sub-categories: experience, vicarious, and
anticipated Experienced strains are stressors one has personally experienced. This type of strain
should "bear the strongest relationship to crime" (Cullen, Agnew, & Wilcox, 2014). Vicarious
strains are strains on an individual due to stressors experienced by those around him/her,
specifically those closest towards the individual, such as a family member or a friend (Toth,
2019). Anticipated strains are when one believes their current stressors) may continue into the
future or a new stressor may arise in the future (Cullen, Agnew, & Wilcox, 2014).
General strain theory also goes on to discuss how not all strains result in criminal activity. It is
explained that strains are more likely to result in crime if they are seen as high in magnitude,
unjust, associated with low social control, or creating some pressure or incentive for criminal
coping (Toth, 2019). High in magnitude refers to how severe the individual subjectively views
a stressor. If one views the stressor as more severe than the individual will have a stronger
emotional response to said stressor, thus causing the person to take a more severe action to
relieve him/herself of the strain he/she feels. An individual may view a stressor as more severe
if it is high in degree, frequent, recent, long in duration or expected to continue, or threatens
his/her core goals, needs, and values (Toth, 2019). if an individual views a stressor as "unjust,"
meaning an individual did not believe he/she deserved the strain he/she foels, then it can cause
the individual to become aggravated. One may deem the strain unjust if the one who inflicted
it intentionally chose to do so knowing the individual would dislike the action (Toth, 2019). If
a strain is associated with lowering the amount of social control on a person, he/she may react
in a negative way (Toth, 2019). There are actually several types of social control one may
experience: direct, emotional bond or attachment to conventional others, investment into
conventional institutions, and beliefs regarding crime. Direct social control is the extent to
which others set rules prohibiting crime, monitor the person's bchavior, and sanction violations'
(Toth, 2019). Emotional bond or attachment to conventional others consists of whether or not
an individual cares what othors think (Toth, 2019). If a person cares more about what others
think, then it is more likely that a strain can have a stronger effect on the individual. Investment
into conventional institutions consist of the time and resources one has put into conventional
ochaviors (Toth, 2019). If a person has invested more into these conventional bchaviors, then
he/she is more likely to not want to lose these investments through crime. Social control
stemming from beliefs regarding crime involves the individual's attitude towards the laws and
whether or not he/she finds them valid (Toth, 2019). Lastly, creating pressure or incentive for
criminal coping refers to how easily a stressor can be resolved by means of criminal activity,
rather than conventional means. Not only do these four factors increase the likelihood of crime,
but also if an individual experience two or more strains at a single time or very close together
in time (Toth, 2019).
Agnews general strain theory can explain the cause of violent crimes. If an individual
experiences more strain from the negative relationships he/she developed, as well as
experiencing strain from other negative life events, then the inclividual is more likely to be lead
to criminal activity, specifically violent criminal activity. For one, Agnew's theory can be used
to explain sexual assault crimes, such as the violent crime of rape. This can occur if a person
encounters an objective, experienced strain. If an inclividual endures sexual assault, which can
be categorized as an objoctive strain seeing as it is generally disliked by most people,
himself/herself and lacks the ability to cope with this strain in a legal manner, then this
individual is more likely to inflict sexual assault, possibly even rape, on another person. Assault
and battory can also be explained by Agnows general strain theory. This can be seen when one
experiences a vicarious strain. If someone close to the individual, either a family member or a
friend, is being harmed by another, then the individual could be lead into secking revenge,
which can include physically harming or throatoning to physically harm, the person negatively
affecting his/hor family member or friend. Agnows goneral strain theory has both strengths and
weakness when referencing tho explanation of violent crimes. For one, his theory does account
for other strains, rather than just disconnection between aspirations and expectations, that may
lead to violent criminal actions. It has also boon supported that delinquency, which can lead to
violent criminal behavior in the future, is higher among those who experience one or more of
the threo negative relationships, as well as other various negative life events (Toth, 2019).
However, just because an individual experiences strain, does not moan they will utilize illegal
means to overcome it. if one has the ability to copo in a legal manner, such as having the verbal
skills necessary to resolve a negative situation, then the individual will not be lead into taking
illegal means, such as violent crimes, in orcer to overcome the strain (Toth, 2019).
Agnew has identified some policy implications in order to reduce the amount of violent crimes
occurring, mostly focusing on family, as well as school, interventions. He discusses how these
interventions should include four different aspects. The first is to reduce the difficulties of an
individual's social environment by training parents in skills that can better supervision and
discipline of an the individual, specifying in better usage of rewards and punishments (Akers
& Sellers, 2013). The second is to train individuals in their adolescence to have better social
skills in order to reduce the provocation of negative reactions from others (Akers & Sellers,
2013). The third aspect is to increase support from programs, such as counscling, mediation,
and advocacy, for adolescents in order for them to have an outlet to turn to before inclining
towards violent criminal behavior (Akers & Sellers, 2013). The last aspect is to have anger
control, problem solving, social skills, and stress management training for the youth in order
for them to cope in a noncriminal way (Akers & Sellers, 2013). To conclude, although Merton's
classic strain theory and Agnews general strain theory have weakness to the perspectives, the
strengths are what causes it to be able to best describe why violent crime occurs. Both
perspectives stemming from the positivist theory, as well as are micro level, explain that violent
crime can result due to the strain of being blocked from having opportunities in order to achieve
a goal, having a negative relationship, or one of the other various sub types of strain
Specifically, rape, murder, assault and battery, and robbery are the four main violent crimes
that can be best explained by strain theory.
The question most consistently asked throughout time is; why do people commit violent
crimes? Various perspectives, derived from one of two original thories: classical or positivist,
have been pondered trying to discover an answer to this question One modern-day theory,
stemming from the positivist theory, that may be able to best explain the reasoning as to why
people commit violent crimes is strain thory. There are two takes on strain theory, Morton's
classic strain theory. and Agnew's general strain theory, that have been developed in order to
solve this puzzling question, both perspectives having their own strengths and weaknesses.
Within violent crimes, there are two types subtypes: expressive and instrumental. Expressive
crimes are not committed for an individual to bencfit or gain from the act but instead aro
committed out of rago, anger, or frustration (Siogel, 2017). Whercas instrumental crime has
moro of a purposo to the actions. A person may commit an instrumental crimo to improve
his/hor financial or social status (Sicgal, 2017). There are several factors that are drawn upon
whon discussing the cause of a violent crimo, such as personal traits, human instinct, exposure
to violence, substance abusa, and culture and national values (Siogol, 2017). The four main
violent crimes committed are rape, murder, assault and battery, and robbery. These violent
crimes are categorized as part one crimes, meaning those crimes are only four of the most
scrious offenses. Rape is non consensual sexual intercours inflicted by another on cither male
or fomale and is one of the most misunderstood crimes (Siogal, 2017). Murder is the unlawful
killing of a porson or poople with intention and is considered the most scrious crime (Siogol,
2017). Assault and battery are actually two separate crimes. Battery being actual physical
contact during the offense, such as punching, against the victim, while assault does not involve
physical contact, but rather intention or throat of harming the victim (Siogol, 2017). Lastly,
robbery is the taking of something valuable from an individual by use of force, throat, or
violence (Siegel, 2017). The occurrence of violent crimes can be explained by both Merton's
and Agnews strain theories.
The classic strain theory, presented by Merton in his work "Social Structure and Anomic" in
1938, developed during a time when issues dealing with widening social class divisions started
to arise from urbanization growth (Toth, 2019). It is a micro-level theory, which halps to explain
why individuals or groups are more likoly to engage in criminal activity (Toth, 2019).
Specifically, how strain is produced on disadvantaged minority individuals and groups, as well
as the lower class, because these people do not have equal access to legitimate opportunitics
for success (Akors & Sellers, 2013). This strain coming from blocked opportunity causes the
individual or group to lean towards using illegal means in order to achieve success. Merton
goes on to explain in "Social Structure and Anomic that there are five ways an individual can
adapt to the strain produced on them: conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, and
rebellion. Conformity, being the most common, is when an individual accopts the strain and
still strives for success within the institutionalized means available (Akers & Sellers, 2013).
Stability and continuity of a society aro still maintained through this adaptation (Toth, 2019).
Innovation is when a parson still strives for success, however, the individual rejects the
institutionalized means, therefore, leading him or hor to take acantage of illegal means in order
to reach his/her goal (Akors & Sallors, 2013). This adaptation occurs more often where there
is limited opportunitics for people to achieve success (Toth, 2019). Ritualism is when a person
does not intend on reaching his/her goal, however, the individual still accopts the
institutionalized means. The individual does not gain much from this adaptation, but simply
just goes through the motions (Toth, 2019). Retreatism is when one gives up on both the goal
itself, as well as the means to reach that goal (Akers & Scllors, 2013). This adaptation, being
the least common, is more of an escape mechanism in which Merton placed those being, but
not limited to, alcoholics, drug addicts, and the severcly mentally ill within (Akers & Sellers,
2013). Lastly, rebellion is when a person rejects the entire system, both the goal itself and the
means of reaching the goal, but replaces them with a new set of goals and means, these usually
contrasting those of conventional society (Toth, 2019).
Merton's classic strain theory explains the cause of violent crimes. if an individual experiences
more strain from being blocked from using institutional means to achieve his/her goals, then
the individual is more likely to be lead to criminal activity, specifically violent criminal activity.
To start a person might be lead to commit murder if he/she is experiencing strain from another
standing in his/her way. To specify by using an extreme circumstance, an individual may be
blocked from progressing in his/her workplace, also known as a promotion, due to another
employee. If the individual needs this promotion in order to increase his/her financial success
they might be lead to commit murder of said other employee to gain this promotion. This can
fall under the innovation adaptation to a stressor of classic strain theory due to the individual
striving for that success, however, rejecting the institutionalized means to acquire the goal
caused by a lack of available opportunities to gain a promotion. Robbery can also be explained
by Merton's classic strain theory, which can occur because of an innovation adaptation to strain
as well. if one values financial success a great deal, then that may be a goal he/she is striving
for. Thus, the individual can reject the institutional means of achiving wealth because some
view obtaining a job harder than using illegal actions, such as robbery (a violent crime).
Merton's classic strain theory has both strengths and weaknesses when referencing the
explanation of violent crimes. To start, classic strain theory really has an emphasis on economic
inequality being a main stressor, leading to violent crimes. Support for this prior statement has
been found showing that economic deprivation does seem to have an effect on community
diffcrences in crime rates (Toth, 2019). However, this strength also comes with a weakness
because it has otherwise been shown that economic deprivation is not as strongly correlated to
societal differences as it is does on community differences (Toth, 2019). This being stated, not
everyone views economic success as being valuable and, therefore, may not consider it to be a
strain. In this casc, being economically unsuccessful would not lead to violent crime. Another
weakness to Merton's theory is it does not account for various strains other than the separation
between goals and presumptions (Toth, 2019)-
After Merton's classic strain theory came Agnews general strain theory, which is micro level
as well. Agnow approaches the outlook on strains by broadening stressors beyond the goals
and institutionalized means of reaching said goals of socicty by arguing there are several
sources of stress an individual can experience. Agnows strain theory perspective arose during
a time in which issues with widening social class division occurred due to increasing societal
pressures. Within Agnow's "Pressured into Crime: Goncral Strain Theory," he discusses how
people engage in crime due to experiencing stressors that result from one of three nogative
relationships. Thosc include relations that prevent or threaten to prevent the achievement of
positively valued goals, remove or threaten to remove the achievement of positively valued
goals, and present or threaten to present negatively valued stimuli (Toth, 2019). The first
relation, that of which prevents or threatens to prevent the achievement of positively valued
goals, features three subtypes. The first usually includes the traditional concept of stress
relating to long-term goals and the means of achieving said goals stated by Morton's classic
strain theory, howevor, Agnow expanded this idca (Akors & Sollors, 2013). Agnow not only
included long-term goals, but also short term, as well as the fact that an individual may not
achieve said goals due to individual inabilities or lack of skills, rather than only duc to blocked
opportunitics (Akors & Sallors, 2013). The socond subtypo includes the strain an individual
fols whon ho/sho believes he/she deserves a reward but that reward is never produced (Akors
& Scllors, 2013). The strain comes from the resentment the person may fecl from this
disappointing circumstance. The third subtype comes from when an individual believes he/she
deserves more than the outcome he/she reccived (Akers & Sallors, 2013). An example of this
could be when one person fools as if he/she is putting more effort into a relationship the other
person, therefore, fooling as if he/she is not reaping any benefit from said relationship.
The second relation, that of which removes or threatens to remove the achievement of
positively valued goals, usually falls within the adolescence period. This occurs when one loses
"something) or someone of great worth' (Akors & Sellers, 2013). Losing someone can include
a family member passing away or the breaking up with a girlfriend/boyfriend. Losing
something can consist of gotting fired from a job or being suspended from school. The third
relation, that of which prevents or threatens to present negatively valucd stimuli, includes
events in which a person has to deal with the negative actions of others. These events can be
anything from child abuse to adverse school experiences (Akers and Sallors, 2013), An
individual can not necessarily escape from family or school during childhood and adolescents
so they may be lead to use illegitimato means in order to escape said events. Although strains
may develop from those three negative relations, strains can also be divided into two categorics:
objective and subjoctive. Objoctive strains are events that most people would find stressful.
These events include boing physically assaulted or doprived of food and sholter (Cullon,
Agnow, & Wilcox, 2014). Mossorschmict (1993) also states that questioning a malo's
masculino status can causo stross to most men. Objoctive strains can bo measured by
intervicwing a sample of people. Subjoctive strains pertain to how different people evaluate
the same events. Although an event may be objoctively stressful, an individual might only
mildly dislike the event, where another could strongly dislike it (Toth, 2019). The evaluation
of stressful events is due to factors, such as an individual's porsonality traits, goals, values, and
prior experiences (Cullen, Agnow, & Wilcox, 2014)). An example of a subjective strain is a
divorce. It was found by Wheaton (1990) that some positively viewed their divorce because of
the poor quality of their prior marriage.
Strains may also be further divided into three sub-categories: experience, vicarious, and
anticipated Experienced strains are stressors one has personally experienced. This type of strain
should "bear the strongest relationship to crime" (Cullen, Agnew, & Wilcox, 2014). Vicarious
strains are strains on an individual due to stressors experienced by those around him/her,
specifically those closest towards the individual, such as a family member or a friend (Toth,
2019). Anticipated strains are when one believes their current stressors) may continue into the
future or a new stressor may arise in the future (Cullen, Agnew, & Wilcox, 2014).
General strain theory also goes on to discuss how not all strains result in criminal activity. It is
explained that strains are more likely to result in crime if they are seen as high in magnitude,
unjust, associated with low social control, or creating some pressure or incentive for criminal
coping (Toth, 2019). High in magnitude refers to how severe the individual subjectively views
a stressor. If one views the stressor as more severe than the individual will have a stronger
emotional response to said stressor, thus causing the person to take a more severe action to
relieve him/herself of the strain he/she feels. An individual may view a stressor as more severe
if it is high in degree, frequent, recent, long in duration or expected to continue, or threatens
his/her core goals, needs, and values (Toth, 2019). if an individual views a stressor as "unjust,"
meaning an individual did not believe he/she deserved the strain he/she foels, then it can cause
the individual to become aggravated. One may deem the strain unjust if the one who inflicted
it intentionally chose to do so knowing the individual would dislike the action (Toth, 2019). If
a strain is associated with lowering the amount of social control on a person, he/she may react
in a negative way (Toth, 2019). There are actually several types of social control one may
experience: direct, emotional bond or attachment to conventional others, investment into
conventional institutions, and beliefs regarding crime. Direct social control is the extent to
which others set rules prohibiting crime, monitor the person's bchavior, and sanction violations'
(Toth, 2019). Emotional bond or attachment to conventional others consists of whether or not
an individual cares what othors think (Toth, 2019). If a person cares more about what others
think, then it is more likely that a strain can have a stronger effect on the individual. Investment
into conventional institutions consist of the time and resources one has put into conventional
ochaviors (Toth, 2019). If a person has invested more into these conventional bchaviors, then
he/she is more likely to not want to lose these investments through crime. Social control
stemming from beliefs regarding crime involves the individual's attitude towards the laws and
whether or not he/she finds them valid (Toth, 2019). Lastly, creating pressure or incentive for
criminal coping refers to how easily a stressor can be resolved by means of criminal activity,
rather than conventional means. Not only do these four factors increase the likelihood of crime,
but also if an individual experience two or more strains at a single time or very close together
in time (Toth, 2019).
Agnews general strain theory can explain the cause of violent crimes. If an individual
experiences more strain from the negative relationships he/she developed, as well as
experiencing strain from other negative life events, then the inclividual is more likely to be lead
to criminal activity, specifically violent criminal activity. For one, Agnew's theory can be used
to explain sexual assault crimes, such as the violent crime of rape. This can occur if a person
encounters an objective, experienced strain. If an inclividual endures sexual assault, which can
be categorized as an objoctive strain seeing as it is generally disliked by most people,
himself/herself and lacks the ability to cope with this strain in a legal manner, then this
individual is more likely to inflict sexual assault, possibly even rape, on another person. Assault
and battory can also be explained by Agnows general strain theory. This can be seen when one
experiences a vicarious strain. If someone close to the individual, either a family member or a
friend, is being harmed by another, then the individual could be lead into secking revenge,
which can include physically harming or throatoning to physically harm, the person negatively
affecting his/hor family member or friend. Agnows goneral strain theory has both strengths and
weakness when referencing tho explanation of violent crimes. For one, his theory does account
for other strains, rather than just disconnection between aspirations and expectations, that may
lead to violent criminal actions. It has also boon supported that delinquency, which can lead to
violent criminal behavior in the future, is higher among those who experience one or more of
the threo negative relationships, as well as other various negative life events (Toth, 2019).
However, just because an individual experiences strain, does not moan they will utilize illegal
means to overcome it. if one has the ability to copo in a legal manner, such as having the verbal
skills necessary to resolve a negative situation, then the individual will not be lead into taking
illegal means, such as violent crimes, in orcer to overcome the strain (Toth, 2019).
Agnew has identified some policy implications in order to reduce the amount of violent crimes
occurring, mostly focusing on family, as well as school, interventions. He discusses how these
interventions should include four different aspects. The first is to reduce the difficulties of an
individual's social environment by training parents in skills that can better supervision and
discipline of an the individual, specifying in better usage of rewards and punishments (Akers
& Sellers, 2013). The second is to train individuals in their adolescence to have better social
skills in order to reduce the provocation of negative reactions from others (Akers & Sellers,
2013). The third aspect is to increase support from programs, such as counscling, mediation,
and advocacy, for adolescents in order for them to have an outlet to turn to before inclining
towards violent criminal behavior (Akers & Sellers, 2013). The last aspect is to have anger
control, problem solving, social skills, and stress management training for the youth in order
for them to cope in a noncriminal way (Akers & Sellers, 2013). To conclude, although Merton's
classic strain theory and Agnews general strain theory have weakness to the perspectives, the
strengths are what causes it to be able to best describe why violent crime occurs. Both
perspectives stemming from the positivist theory, as well as are micro level, explain that violent
crime can result due to the strain of being blocked from having opportunities in order to achieve
a goal, having a negative relationship, or one of the other various sub types of strain
Specifically, rape, murder, assault and battery, and robbery are the four main violent crimes
that can be best explained by strain theory.
The question most consistently asked throughout time is; why do people commit violent
crimes? Various perspectives, derived from one of two original thories: classical or positivist,
have been pondered trying to discover an answer to this question One modern-day theory,
stemming from the positivist theory, that may be able to best explain the reasoning as to why
people commit violent crimes is strain thory. There are two takes on strain theory, Morton's
classic strain theory. and Agnew's general strain theory, that have been developed in order to
solve this puzzling question, both perspectives having their own strengths and weaknesses.
Within violent crimes, there are two types subtypes: expressive and instrumental. Expressive
crimes are not committed for an individual to bencfit or gain from the act but instead aro
committed out of rago, anger, or frustration (Siogel, 2017). Whercas instrumental crime has
moro of a purposo to the actions. A person may commit an instrumental crimo to improve
his/hor financial or social status (Sicgal, 2017). There are several factors that are drawn upon
whon discussing the cause of a violent crimo, such as personal traits, human instinct, exposure
to violence, substance abusa, and culture and national values (Siogol, 2017). The four main
violent crimes committed are rape, murder, assault and battery, and robbery. These violent
crimes are categorized as part one crimes, meaning those crimes are only four of the most
scrious offenses. Rape is non consensual sexual intercours inflicted by another on cither male
or fomale and is one of the most misunderstood crimes (Siogal, 2017). Murder is the unlawful
killing of a porson or poople with intention and is considered the most scrious crime (Siogol,
2017). Assault and battery are actually two separate crimes. Battery being actual physical
contact during the offense, such as punching, against the victim, while assault does not involve
physical contact, but rather intention or throat of harming the victim (Siogol, 2017). Lastly,
robbery is the taking of something valuable from an individual by use of force, throat, or
violence (Siegel, 2017). The occurrence of violent crimes can be explained by both Merton's
and Agnews strain theories.
The classic strain theory, presented by Merton in his work "Social Structure and Anomic" in
1938, developed during a time when issues dealing with widening social class divisions started
to arise from urbanization growth (Toth, 2019). It is a micro-level theory, which halps to explain
why individuals or groups are more likoly to engage in criminal activity (Toth, 2019).
Specifically, how strain is produced on disadvantaged minority individuals and groups, as well
as the lower class, because these people do not have equal access to legitimate opportunitics
for success (Akors & Sellers, 2013). This strain coming from blocked opportunity causes the
individual or group to lean towards using illegal means in order to achieve success. Merton
goes on to explain in "Social Structure and Anomic that there are five ways an individual can
adapt to the strain produced on them: conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, and
rebellion. Conformity, being the most common, is when an individual accopts the strain and
still strives for success within the institutionalized means available (Akers & Sellers, 2013).
Stability and continuity of a society aro still maintained through this adaptation (Toth, 2019).
Innovation is when a parson still strives for success, however, the individual rejects the
institutionalized means, therefore, leading him or hor to take acantage of illegal means in order
to reach his/her goal (Akors & Sallors, 2013). This adaptation occurs more often where there
is limited opportunitics for people to achieve success (Toth, 2019). Ritualism is when a person
does not intend on reaching his/her goal, however, the individual still accopts the
institutionalized means. The individual does not gain much from this adaptation, but simply
just goes through the motions (Toth, 2019). Retreatism is when one gives up on both the goal
itself, as well as the means to reach that goal (Akers & Scllors, 2013). This adaptation, being
the least common, is more of an escape mechanism in which Merton placed those being, but
not limited to, alcoholics, drug addicts, and the severcly mentally ill within (Akers & Sellers,
2013). Lastly, rebellion is when a person rejects the entire system, both the goal itself and the
means of reaching the goal, but replaces them with a new set of goals and means, these usually
contrasting those of conventional society (Toth, 2019).
Merton's classic strain theory explains the cause of violent crimes. if an individual experiences
more strain from being blocked from using institutional means to achieve his/her goals, then
the individual is more likely to be lead to criminal activity, specifically violent criminal activity.
To start a person might be lead to commit murder if he/she is experiencing strain from another
standing in his/her way. To specify by using an extreme circumstance, an individual may be
blocked from progressing in his/her workplace, also known as a promotion, due to another
employee. If the individual needs this promotion in order to increase his/her financial success
they might be lead to commit murder of said other employee to gain this promotion. This can
fall under the innovation adaptation to a stressor of classic strain theory due to the individual
striving for that success, however, rejecting the institutionalized means to acquire the goal
caused by a lack of available opportunities to gain a promotion. Robbery can also be explained
by Merton's classic strain theory, which can occur because of an innovation adaptation to strain
as well. if one values financial success a great deal, then that may be a goal he/she is striving
for. Thus, the individual can reject the institutional means of achiving wealth because some
view obtaining a job harder than using illegal actions, such as robbery (a violent crime).
Merton's classic strain theory has both strengths and weaknesses when referencing the
explanation of violent crimes. To start, classic strain theory really has an emphasis on economic
inequality being a main stressor, leading to violent crimes. Support for this prior statement has
been found showing that economic deprivation does seem to have an effect on community
diffcrences in crime rates (Toth, 2019). However, this strength also comes with a weakness
because it has otherwise been shown that economic deprivation is not as strongly correlated to
societal differences as it is does on community differences (Toth, 2019). This being stated, not
everyone views economic success as being valuable and, therefore, may not consider it to be a
strain. In this casc, being economically unsuccessful would not lead to violent crime. Another
weakness to Merton's theory is it does not account for various strains other than the separation
between goals and presumptions (Toth, 2019)-
After Merton's classic strain theory came Agnews general strain theory, which is micro level
as well. Agnow approaches the outlook on strains by broadening stressors beyond the goals
and institutionalized means of reaching said goals of socicty by arguing there are several
sources of stress an individual can experience. Agnows strain theory perspective arose during
a time in which issues with widening social class division occurred due to increasing societal
pressures. Within Agnow's "Pressured into Crime: Goncral Strain Theory," he discusses how
people engage in crime due to experiencing stressors that result from one of three nogative
relationships. Thosc include relations that prevent or threaten to prevent the achievement of
positively valued goals, remove or threaten to remove the achievement of positively valued
goals, and present or threaten to present negatively valued stimuli (Toth, 2019). The first
relation, that of which prevents or threatens to prevent the achievement of positively valued
goals, features three subtypes. The first usually includes the traditional concept of stress
relating to long-term goals and the means of achieving said goals stated by Morton's classic
strain theory, howevor, Agnow expanded this idca (Akors & Sollors, 2013). Agnow not only
included long-term goals, but also short term, as well as the fact that an individual may not
achieve said goals due to individual inabilities or lack of skills, rather than only duc to blocked
opportunitics (Akors & Sallors, 2013). The socond subtypo includes the strain an individual
fols whon ho/sho believes he/she deserves a reward but that reward is never produced (Akors
& Scllors, 2013). The strain comes from the resentment the person may fecl from this
disappointing circumstance. The third subtype comes from when an individual believes he/she
deserves more than the outcome he/she reccived (Akers & Sallors, 2013). An example of this
could be when one person fools as if he/she is putting more effort into a relationship the other
person, therefore, fooling as if he/she is not reaping any benefit from said relationship.
The second relation, that of which removes or threatens to remove the achievement of
positively valued goals, usually falls within the adolescence period. This occurs when one loses
"something) or someone of great worth' (Akors & Sellers, 2013). Losing someone can include
a family member passing away or the breaking up with a girlfriend/boyfriend. Losing
something can consist of gotting fired from a job or being suspended from school. The third
relation, that of which prevents or threatens to present negatively valucd stimuli, includes
events in which a person has to deal with the negative actions of others. These events can be
anything from child abuse to adverse school experiences (Akers and Sallors, 2013), An
individual can not necessarily escape from family or school during childhood and adolescents
so they may be lead to use illegitimato means in order to escape said events. Although strains
may develop from those three negative relations, strains can also be divided into two categorics:
objective and subjoctive. Objoctive strains are events that most people would find stressful.
These events include boing physically assaulted or doprived of food and sholter (Cullon,
Agnow, & Wilcox, 2014). Mossorschmict (1993) also states that questioning a malo's
masculino status can causo stross to most men. Objoctive strains can bo measured by
intervicwing a sample of people. Subjoctive strains pertain to how different people evaluate
the same events. Although an event may be objoctively stressful, an individual might only
mildly dislike the event, where another could strongly dislike it (Toth, 2019). The evaluation
of stressful events is due to factors, such as an individual's porsonality traits, goals, values, and
prior experiences (Cullen, Agnow, & Wilcox, 2014)). An example of a subjective strain is a
divorce. It was found by Wheaton (1990) that some positively viewed their divorce because of
the poor quality of their prior marriage.
Strains may also be further divided into three sub-categories: experience, vicarious, and
anticipated Experienced strains are stressors one has personally experienced. This type of strain
should "bear the strongest relationship to crime" (Cullen, Agnew, & Wilcox, 2014). Vicarious
strains are strains on an individual due to stressors experienced by those around him/her,
specifically those closest towards the individual, such as a family member or a friend (Toth,
2019). Anticipated strains are when one believes their current stressors) may continue into the
future or a new stressor may arise in the future (Cullen, Agnew, & Wilcox, 2014).
General strain theory also goes on to discuss how not all strains result in criminal activity. It is
explained that strains are more likely to result in crime if they are seen as high in magnitude,
unjust, associated with low social control, or creating some pressure or incentive for criminal
coping (Toth, 2019). High in magnitude refers to how severe the individual subjectively views
a stressor. If one views the stressor as more severe than the individual will have a stronger
emotional response to said stressor, thus causing the person to take a more severe action to
relieve him/herself of the strain he/she feels. An individual may view a stressor as more severe
if it is high in degree, frequent, recent, long in duration or expected to continue, or threatens
his/her core goals, needs, and values (Toth, 2019). if an individual views a stressor as "unjust,"
meaning an individual did not believe he/she deserved the strain he/she foels, then it can cause
the individual to become aggravated. One may deem the strain unjust if the one who inflicted
it intentionally chose to do so knowing the individual would dislike the action (Toth, 2019). If
a strain is associated with lowering the amount of social control on a person, he/she may react
in a negative way (Toth, 2019). There are actually several types of social control one may
experience: direct, emotional bond or attachment to conventional others, investment into
conventional institutions, and beliefs regarding crime. Direct social control is the extent to
which others set rules prohibiting crime, monitor the person's bchavior, and sanction violations'
(Toth, 2019). Emotional bond or attachment to conventional others consists of whether or not
an individual cares what othors think (Toth, 2019). If a person cares more about what others
think, then it is more likely that a strain can have a stronger effect on the individual. Investment
into conventional institutions consist of the time and resources one has put into conventional
ochaviors (Toth, 2019). If a person has invested more into these conventional bchaviors, then
he/she is more likely to not want to lose these investments through crime. Social control
stemming from beliefs regarding crime involves the individual's attitude towards the laws and
whether or not he/she finds them valid (Toth, 2019). Lastly, creating pressure or incentive for
criminal coping refers to how easily a stressor can be resolved by means of criminal activity,
rather than conventional means. Not only do these four factors increase the likelihood of crime,
but also if an individual experience two or more strains at a single time or very close together
in time (Toth, 2019).
Agnews general strain theory can explain the cause of violent crimes. If an individual
experiences more strain from the negative relationships he/she developed, as well as
experiencing strain from other negative life events, then the inclividual is more likely to be lead
to criminal activity, specifically violent criminal activity. For one, Agnew's theory can be used
to explain sexual assault crimes, such as the violent crime of rape. This can occur if a person
encounters an objective, experienced strain. If an inclividual endures sexual assault, which can
be categorized as an objoctive strain seeing as it is generally disliked by most people,
himself/herself and lacks the ability to cope with this strain in a legal manner, then this
individual is more likely to inflict sexual assault, possibly even rape, on another person. Assault
and battory can also be explained by Agnows general strain theory. This can be seen when one
experiences a vicarious strain. If someone close to the individual, either a family member or a
friend, is being harmed by another, then the individual could be lead into secking revenge,
which can include physically harming or throatoning to physically harm, the person negatively
affecting his/hor family member or friend. Agnows goneral strain theory has both strengths and
weakness when referencing tho explanation of violent crimes. For one, his theory does account
for other strains, rather than just disconnection between aspirations and expectations, that may
lead to violent criminal actions. It has also boon supported that delinquency, which can lead to
violent criminal behavior in the future, is higher among those who experience one or more of
the threo negative relationships, as well as other various negative life events (Toth, 2019).
However, just because an individual experiences strain, does not moan they will utilize illegal
means to overcome it. if one has the ability to copo in a legal manner, such as having the verbal
skills necessary to resolve a negative situation, then the individual will not be lead into taking
illegal means, such as violent crimes, in orcer to overcome the strain (Toth, 2019).
Agnew has identified some policy implications in order to reduce the amount of violent crimes
occurring, mostly focusing on family, as well as school, interventions. He discusses how these
interventions should include four different aspects. The first is to reduce the difficulties of an
individual's social environment by training parents in skills that can better supervision and
discipline of an the individual, specifying in better usage of rewards and punishments (Akers
& Sellers, 2013). The second is to train individuals in their adolescence to have better social
skills in order to reduce the provocation of negative reactions from others (Akers & Sellers,
2013). The third aspect is to increase support from programs, such as counscling, mediation,
and advocacy, for adolescents in order for them to have an outlet to turn to before inclining
towards violent criminal behavior (Akers & Sellers, 2013). The last aspect is to have anger
control, problem solving, social skills, and stress management training for the youth in order
for them to cope in a noncriminal way (Akers & Sellers, 2013). To conclude, although Merton's
classic strain theory and Agnews general strain theory have weakness to the perspectives, the
strengths are what causes it to be able to best describe why violent crime occurs. Both
perspectives stemming from the positivist theory, as well as are micro level, explain that violent
crime can result due to the strain of being blocked from having opportunities in order to achieve
a goal, having a negative relationship, or one of the other various sub types of strain
Specifically, rape, murder, assault and battery, and robbery are the four main violent crimes
that can be best explained by strain theory.
The question most consistently asked throughout time is; why do people commit violent
crimes? Various perspectives, derived from one of two original thories: classical or positivist,
have been pondered trying to discover an answer to this question One modern-day theory,
stemming from the positivist theory, that may be able to best explain the reasoning as to why
people commit violent crimes is strain thory. There are two takes on strain theory, Morton's
classic strain theory. and Agnew's general strain theory, that have been developed in order to
solve this puzzling question, both perspectives having their own strengths and weaknesses.
Within violent crimes, there are two types subtypes: expressive and instrumental. Expressive
crimes are not committed for an individual to bencfit or gain from the act but instead aro
committed out of rago, anger, or frustration (Siogel, 2017). Whercas instrumental crime has
moro of a purposo to the actions. A person may commit an instrumental crimo to improve
his/hor financial or social status (Sicgal, 2017). There are several factors that are drawn upon
whon discussing the cause of a violent crimo, such as personal traits, human instinct, exposure
to violence, substance abusa, and culture and national values (Siogol, 2017). The four main
violent crimes committed are rape, murder, assault and battery, and robbery. These violent
crimes are categorized as part one crimes, meaning those crimes are only four of the most
scrious offenses. Rape is non consensual sexual intercours inflicted by another on cither male
or fomale and is one of the most misunderstood crimes (Siogal, 2017). Murder is the unlawful
killing of a porson or poople with intention and is considered the most scrious crime (Siogol,
2017). Assault and battery are actually two separate crimes. Battery being actual physical
contact during the offense, such as punching, against the victim, while assault does not involve
physical contact, but rather intention or throat of harming the victim (Siogol, 2017). Lastly,
robbery is the taking of something valuable from an individual by use of force, throat, or
violence (Siegel, 2017). The occurrence of violent crimes can be explained by both Merton's
and Agnews strain theories.
The classic strain theory, presented by Merton in his work "Social Structure and Anomic" in
1938, developed during a time when issues dealing with widening social class divisions started
to arise from urbanization growth (Toth, 2019). It is a micro-level theory, which halps to explain
why individuals or groups are more likoly to engage in criminal activity (Toth, 2019).
Specifically, how strain is produced on disadvantaged minority individuals and groups, as well
as the lower class, because these people do not have equal access to legitimate opportunitics
for success (Akors & Sellers, 2013). This strain coming from blocked opportunity causes the
individual or group to lean towards using illegal means in order to achieve success. Merton
goes on to explain in "Social Structure and Anomic that there are five ways an individual can
adapt to the strain produced on them: conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, and
rebellion. Conformity, being the most common, is when an individual accopts the strain and
still strives for success within the institutionalized means available (Akers & Sellers, 2013).
Stability and continuity of a society aro still maintained through this adaptation (Toth, 2019).
Innovation is when a parson still strives for success, however, the individual rejects the
institutionalized means, therefore, leading him or hor to take acantage of illegal means in order
to reach his/her goal (Akors & Sallors, 2013). This adaptation occurs more often where there
is limited opportunitics for people to achieve success (Toth, 2019). Ritualism is when a person
does not intend on reaching his/her goal, however, the individual still accopts the
institutionalized means. The individual does not gain much from this adaptation, but simply
just goes through the motions (Toth, 2019). Retreatism is when one gives up on both the goal
itself, as well as the means to reach that goal (Akers & Scllors, 2013). This adaptation, being
the least common, is more of an escape mechanism in which Merton placed those being, but
not limited to, alcoholics, drug addicts, and the severcly mentally ill within (Akers & Sellers,
2013). Lastly, rebellion is when a person rejects the entire system, both the goal itself and the
means of reaching the goal, but replaces them with a new set of goals and means, these usually
contrasting those of conventional society (Toth, 2019).
Merton's classic strain theory explains the cause of violent crimes. if an individual experiences
more strain from being blocked from using institutional means to achieve his/her goals, then
the individual is more likely to be lead to criminal activity, specifically violent criminal activity.
To start a person might be lead to commit murder if he/she is experiencing strain from another
standing in his/her way. To specify by using an extreme circumstance, an individual may be
blocked from progressing in his/her workplace, also known as a promotion, due to another
employee. If the individual needs this promotion in order to increase his/her financial success
they might be lead to commit murder of said other employee to gain this promotion. This can
fall under the innovation adaptation to a stressor of classic strain theory due to the individual
striving for that success, however, rejecting the institutionalized means to acquire the goal
caused by a lack of available opportunities to gain a promotion. Robbery can also be explained
by Merton's classic strain theory, which can occur because of an innovation adaptation to strain
as well. if one values financial success a great deal, then that may be a goal he/she is striving
for. Thus, the individual can reject the institutional means of achiving wealth because some
view obtaining a job harder than using illegal actions, such as robbery (a violent crime).
Merton's classic strain theory has both strengths and weaknesses when referencing the
explanation of violent crimes. To start, classic strain theory really has an emphasis on economic
inequality being a main stressor, leading to violent crimes. Support for this prior statement has
been found showing that economic deprivation does seem to have an effect on community
diffcrences in crime rates (Toth, 2019). However, this strength also comes with a weakness
because it has otherwise been shown that economic deprivation is not as strongly correlated to
societal differences as it is does on community differences (Toth, 2019). This being stated, not
everyone views economic success as being valuable and, therefore, may not consider it to be a
strain. In this casc, being economically unsuccessful would not lead to violent crime. Another
weakness to Merton's theory is it does not account for various strains other than the separation
between goals and presumptions (Toth, 2019)-
After Merton's classic strain theory came Agnews general strain theory, which is micro level
as well. Agnow approaches the outlook on strains by broadening stressors beyond the goals
and institutionalized means of reaching said goals of socicty by arguing there are several
sources of stress an individual can experience. Agnows strain theory perspective arose during
a time in which issues with widening social class division occurred due to increasing societal
pressures. Within Agnow's "Pressured into Crime: Goncral Strain Theory," he discusses how
people engage in crime due to experiencing stressors that result from one of three nogative
relationships. Thosc include relations that prevent or threaten to prevent the achievement of
positively valued goals, remove or threaten to remove the achievement of positively valued
goals, and present or threaten to present negatively valued stimuli (Toth, 2019). The first
relation, that of which prevents or threatens to prevent the achievement of positively valued
goals, features three subtypes. The first usually includes the traditional concept of stress
relating to long-term goals and the means of achieving said goals stated by Morton's classic
strain theory, howevor, Agnow expanded this idca (Akors & Sollors, 2013). Agnow not only
included long-term goals, but also short term, as well as the fact that an individual may not
achieve said goals due to individual inabilities or lack of skills, rather than only duc to blocked
opportunitics (Akors & Sallors, 2013). The socond subtypo includes the strain an individual
fols whon ho/sho believes he/she deserves a reward but that reward is never produced (Akors
& Scllors, 2013). The strain comes from the resentment the person may fecl from this
disappointing circumstance. The third subtype comes from when an individual believes he/she
deserves more than the outcome he/she reccived (Akers & Sallors, 2013). An example of this
could be when one person fools as if he/she is putting more effort into a relationship the other
person, therefore, fooling as if he/she is not reaping any benefit from said relationship.
The second relation, that of which removes or threatens to remove the achievement of
positively valued goals, usually falls within the adolescence period. This occurs when one loses
"something) or someone of great worth' (Akors & Sellers, 2013). Losing someone can include
a family member passing away or the breaking up with a girlfriend/boyfriend. Losing
something can consist of gotting fired from a job or being suspended from school. The third
relation, that of which prevents or threatens to present negatively valucd stimuli, includes
events in which a person has to deal with the negative actions of others. These events can be
anything from child abuse to adverse school experiences (Akers and Sallors, 2013), An
individual can not necessarily escape from family or school during childhood and adolescents
so they may be lead to use illegitimato means in order to escape said events. Although strains
may develop from those three negative relations, strains can also be divided into two categorics:
objective and subjoctive. Objoctive strains are events that most people would find stressful.
These events include boing physically assaulted or doprived of food and sholter (Cullon,
Agnow, & Wilcox, 2014). Mossorschmict (1993) also states that questioning a malo's
masculino status can causo stross to most men. Objoctive strains can bo measured by
intervicwing a sample of people. Subjoctive strains pertain to how different people evaluate
the same events. Although an event may be objoctively stressful, an individual might only
mildly dislike the event, where another could strongly dislike it (Toth, 2019). The evaluation
of stressful events is due to factors, such as an individual's porsonality traits, goals, values, and
prior experiences (Cullen, Agnow, & Wilcox, 2014)). An example of a subjective strain is a
divorce. It was found by Wheaton (1990) that some positively viewed their divorce because of
the poor quality of their prior marriage.
Strains may also be further divided into three sub-categories: experience, vicarious, and
anticipated Experienced strains are stressors one has personally experienced. This type of strain
should "bear the strongest relationship to crime" (Cullen, Agnew, & Wilcox, 2014). Vicarious
strains are strains on an individual due to stressors experienced by those around him/her,
specifically those closest towards the individual, such as a family member or a friend (Toth,
2019). Anticipated strains are when one believes their current stressors) may continue into the
future or a new stressor may arise in the future (Cullen, Agnew, & Wilcox, 2014).
General strain theory also goes on to discuss how not all strains result in criminal activity. It is
explained that strains are more likely to result in crime if they are seen as high in magnitude,
unjust, associated with low social control, or creating some pressure or incentive for criminal
coping (Toth, 2019). High in magnitude refers to how severe the individual subjectively views
a stressor. If one views the stressor as more severe than the individual will have a stronger
emotional response to said stressor, thus causing the person to take a more severe action to
relieve him/herself of the strain he/she feels. An individual may view a stressor as more severe
if it is high in degree, frequent, recent, long in duration or expected to continue, or threatens
his/her core goals, needs, and values (Toth, 2019). if an individual views a stressor as "unjust,"
meaning an individual did not believe he/she deserved the strain he/she foels, then it can cause
the individual to become aggravated. One may deem the strain unjust if the one who inflicted
it intentionally chose to do so knowing the individual would dislike the action (Toth, 2019). If
a strain is associated with lowering the amount of social control on a person, he/she may react
in a negative way (Toth, 2019). There are actually several types of social control one may
experience: direct, emotional bond or attachment to conventional others, investment into
conventional institutions, and beliefs regarding crime. Direct social control is the extent to
which others set rules prohibiting crime, monitor the person's bchavior, and sanction violations'
(Toth, 2019). Emotional bond or attachment to conventional others consists of whether or not
an individual cares what othors think (Toth, 2019). If a person cares more about what others
think, then it is more likely that a strain can have a stronger effect on the individual. Investment
into conventional institutions consist of the time and resources one has put into conventional
ochaviors (Toth, 2019). If a person has invested more into these conventional bchaviors, then
he/she is more likely to not want to lose these investments through crime. Social control
stemming from beliefs regarding crime involves the individual's attitude towards the laws and
whether or not he/she finds them valid (Toth, 2019). Lastly, creating pressure or incentive for
criminal coping refers to how easily a stressor can be resolved by means of criminal activity,
rather than conventional means. Not only do these four factors increase the likelihood of crime,
but also if an individual experience two or more strains at a single time or very close together
in time (Toth, 2019).
Agnews general strain theory can explain the cause of violent crimes. If an individual
experiences more strain from the negative relationships he/she developed, as well as
experiencing strain from other negative life events, then the inclividual is more likely to be lead
to criminal activity, specifically violent criminal activity. For one, Agnew's theory can be used
to explain sexual assault crimes, such as the violent crime of rape. This can occur if a person
encounters an objective, experienced strain. If an inclividual endures sexual assault, which can
be categorized as an objoctive strain seeing as it is generally disliked by most people,
himself/herself and lacks the ability to cope with this strain in a legal manner, then this
individual is more likely to inflict sexual assault, possibly even rape, on another person. Assault
and battory can also be explained by Agnows general strain theory. This can be seen when one
experiences a vicarious strain. If someone close to the individual, either a family member or a
friend, is being harmed by another, then the individual could be lead into secking revenge,
which can include physically harming or throatoning to physically harm, the person negatively
affecting his/hor family member or friend. Agnows goneral strain theory has both strengths and
weakness when referencing tho explanation of violent crimes. For one, his theory does account
for other strains, rather than just disconnection between aspirations and expectations, that may
lead to violent criminal actions. It has also boon supported that delinquency, which can lead to
violent criminal behavior in the future, is higher among those who experience one or more of
the threo negative relationships, as well as other various negative life events (Toth, 2019).
However, just because an individual experiences strain, does not moan they will utilize illegal
means to overcome it. if one has the ability to copo in a legal manner, such as having the verbal
skills necessary to resolve a negative situation, then the individual will not be lead into taking
illegal means, such as violent crimes, in orcer to overcome the strain (Toth, 2019).
Agnew has identified some policy implications in order to reduce the amount of violent crimes
occurring, mostly focusing on family, as well as school, interventions. He discusses how these
interventions should include four different aspects. The first is to reduce the difficulties of an
individual's social environment by training parents in skills that can better supervision and
discipline of an the individual, specifying in better usage of rewards and punishments (Akers
& Sellers, 2013). The second is to train individuals in their adolescence to have better social
skills in order to reduce the provocation of negative reactions from others (Akers & Sellers,
2013). The third aspect is to increase support from programs, such as counscling, mediation,
and advocacy, for adolescents in order for them to have an outlet to turn to before inclining
towards violent criminal behavior (Akers & Sellers, 2013). The last aspect is to have anger
control, problem solving, social skills, and stress management training for the youth in order
for them to cope in a noncriminal way (Akers & Sellers, 2013). To conclude, although Merton's
classic strain theory and Agnews general strain theory have weakness to the perspectives, the
strengths are what causes it to be able to best describe why violent crime occurs. Both
perspectives stemming from the positivist theory, as well as are micro level, explain that violent
crime can result due to the strain of being blocked from having opportunities in order to achieve
a goal, having a negative relationship, or one of the other various sub types of strain
Specifically, rape, murder, assault and battery, and robbery are the four main violent crimes
that can be best explained by strain theory.
The question most consistently asked throughout time is; why do people commit violent
crimes? Various perspectives, derived from one of two original thories: classical or positivist,
have been pondered trying to discover an answer to this question One modern-day theory,
stemming from the positivist theory, that may be able to best explain the reasoning as to why
people commit violent crimes is strain thory. There are two takes on strain theory, Morton's
classic strain theory. and Agnew's general strain theory, that have been developed in order to
solve this puzzling question, both perspectives having their own strengths and weaknesses.
Within violent crimes, there are two types subtypes: expressive and instrumental. Expressive
crimes are not committed for an individual to bencfit or gain from the act but instead aro
committed out of rago, anger, or frustration (Siogel, 2017). Whercas instrumental crime has
moro of a purposo to the actions. A person may commit an instrumental crimo to improve
his/hor financial or social status (Sicgal, 2017). There are several factors that are drawn upon
whon discussing the cause of a violent crimo, such as personal traits, human instinct, exposure
to violence, substance abusa, and culture and national values (Siogol, 2017). The four main
violent crimes committed are rape, murder, assault and battery, and robbery. These violent
crimes are categorized as part one crimes, meaning those crimes are only four of the most
scrious offenses. Rape is non consensual sexual intercours inflicted by another on cither male
or fomale and is one of the most misunderstood crimes (Siogal, 2017). Murder is the unlawful
killing of a porson or poople with intention and is considered the most scrious crime (Siogol,
2017). Assault and battery are actually two separate crimes. Battery being actual physical
contact during the offense, such as punching, against the victim, while assault does not involve
physical contact, but rather intention or throat of harming the victim (Siogol, 2017). Lastly,
robbery is the taking of something valuable from an individual by use of force, throat, or
violence (Siegel, 2017). The occurrence of violent crimes can be explained by both Merton's
and Agnews strain theories.
The classic strain theory, presented by Merton in his work "Social Structure and Anomic" in
1938, developed during a time when issues dealing with widening social class divisions started
to arise from urbanization growth (Toth, 2019). It is a micro-level theory, which halps to explain
why individuals or groups are more likoly to engage in criminal activity (Toth, 2019).
Specifically, how strain is produced on disadvantaged minority individuals and groups, as well
as the lower class, because these people do not have equal access to legitimate opportunitics
for success (Akors & Sellers, 2013). This strain coming from blocked opportunity causes the
individual or group to lean towards using illegal means in order to achieve success. Merton
goes on to explain in "Social Structure and Anomic that there are five ways an individual can
adapt to the strain produced on them: conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, and
rebellion. Conformity, being the most common, is when an individual accopts the strain and
still strives for success within the institutionalized means available (Akers & Sellers, 2013).
Stability and continuity of a society aro still maintained through this adaptation (Toth, 2019).
Innovation is when a parson still strives for success, however, the individual rejects the
institutionalized means, therefore, leading him or hor to take acantage of illegal means in order
to reach his/her goal (Akors & Sallors, 2013). This adaptation occurs more often where there
is limited opportunitics for people to achieve success (Toth, 2019). Ritualism is when a person
does not intend on reaching his/her goal, however, the individual still accopts the
institutionalized means. The individual does not gain much from this adaptation, but simply
just goes through the motions (Toth, 2019). Retreatism is when one gives up on both the goal
itself, as well as the means to reach that goal (Akers & Scllors, 2013). This adaptation, being
the least common, is more of an escape mechanism in which Merton placed those being, but
not limited to, alcoholics, drug addicts, and the severcly mentally ill within (Akers & Sellers,
2013). Lastly, rebellion is when a person rejects the entire system, both the goal itself and the
means of reaching the goal, but replaces them with a new set of goals and means, these usually
contrasting those of conventional society (Toth, 2019).
Merton's classic strain theory explains the cause of violent crimes. if an individual experiences
more strain from being blocked from using institutional means to achieve his/her goals, then
the individual is more likely to be lead to criminal activity, specifically violent criminal activity.
To start a person might be lead to commit murder if he/she is experiencing strain from another
standing in his/her way. To specify by using an extreme circumstance, an individual may be
blocked from progressing in his/her workplace, also known as a promotion, due to another
employee. If the individual needs this promotion in order to increase his/her financial success
they might be lead to commit murder of said other employee to gain this promotion. This can
fall under the innovation adaptation to a stressor of classic strain theory due to the individual
striving for that success, however, rejecting the institutionalized means to acquire the goal
caused by a lack of available opportunities to gain a promotion. Robbery can also be explained
by Merton's classic strain theory, which can occur because of an innovation adaptation to strain
as well. if one values financial success a great deal, then that may be a goal he/she is striving
for. Thus, the individual can reject the institutional means of achiving wealth because some
view obtaining a job harder than using illegal actions, such as robbery (a violent crime).
Merton's classic strain theory has both strengths and weaknesses when referencing the
explanation of violent crimes. To start, classic strain theory really has an emphasis on economic
inequality being a main stressor, leading to violent crimes. Support for this prior statement has
been found showing that economic deprivation does seem to have an effect on community
diffcrences in crime rates (Toth, 2019). However, this strength also comes with a weakness
because it has otherwise been shown that economic deprivation is not as strongly correlated to
societal differences as it is does on community differences (Toth, 2019). This being stated, not
everyone views economic success as being valuable and, therefore, may not consider it to be a
strain. In this casc, being economically unsuccessful would not lead to violent crime. Another
weakness to Merton's theory is it does not account for various strains other than the separation
between goals and presumptions (Toth, 2019)-
After Merton's classic strain theory came Agnews general strain theory, which is micro level
as well. Agnow approaches the outlook on strains by broadening stressors beyond the goals
and institutionalized means of reaching said goals of socicty by arguing there are several
sources of stress an individual can experience. Agnows strain theory perspective arose during
a time in which issues with widening social class division occurred due to increasing societal
pressures. Within Agnow's "Pressured into Crime: Goncral Strain Theory," he discusses how
people engage in crime due to experiencing stressors that result from one of three nogative
relationships. Thosc include relations that prevent or threaten to prevent the achievement of
positively valued goals, remove or threaten to remove the achievement of positively valued
goals, and present or threaten to present negatively valued stimuli (Toth, 2019). The first
relation, that of which prevents or threatens to prevent the achievement of positively valued
goals, features three subtypes. The first usually includes the traditional concept of stress
relating to long-term goals and the means of achieving said goals stated by Morton's classic
strain theory, howevor, Agnow expanded this idca (Akors & Sollors, 2013). Agnow not only
included long-term goals, but also short term, as well as the fact that an individual may not
achieve said goals due to individual inabilities or lack of skills, rather than only duc to blocked
opportunitics (Akors & Sallors, 2013). The socond subtypo includes the strain an individual
fols whon ho/sho believes he/she deserves a reward but that reward is never produced (Akors
& Scllors, 2013). The strain comes from the resentment the person may fecl from this
disappointing circumstance. The third subtype comes from when an individual believes he/she
deserves more than the outcome he/she reccived (Akers & Sallors, 2013). An example of this
could be when one person fools as if he/she is putting more effort into a relationship the other
person, therefore, fooling as if he/she is not reaping any benefit from said relationship.
The second relation, that of which removes or threatens to remove the achievement of
positively valued goals, usually falls within the adolescence period. This occurs when one loses
"something) or someone of great worth' (Akors & Sellers, 2013). Losing someone can include
a family member passing away or the breaking up with a girlfriend/boyfriend. Losing
something can consist of gotting fired from a job or being suspended from school. The third
relation, that of which prevents or threatens to present negatively valucd stimuli, includes
events in which a person has to deal with the negative actions of others. These events can be
anything from child abuse to adverse school experiences (Akers and Sallors, 2013), An
individual can not necessarily escape from family or school during childhood and adolescents
so they may be lead to use illegitimato means in order to escape said events. Although strains
may develop from those three negative relations, strains can also be divided into two categorics:
objective and subjoctive. Objoctive strains are events that most people would find stressful.
These events include boing physically assaulted or doprived of food and sholter (Cullon,
Agnow, & Wilcox, 2014). Mossorschmict (1993) also states that questioning a malo's
masculino status can causo stross to most men. Objoctive strains can bo measured by
intervicwing a sample of people. Subjoctive strains pertain to how different people evaluate
the same events. Although an event may be objoctively stressful, an individual might only
mildly dislike the event, where another could strongly dislike it (Toth, 2019). The evaluation
of stressful events is due to factors, such as an individual's porsonality traits, goals, values, and
prior experiences (Cullen, Agnow, & Wilcox, 2014)). An example of a subjective strain is a
divorce. It was found by Wheaton (1990) that some positively viewed their divorce because of
the poor quality of their prior marriage.
Strains may also be further divided into three sub-categories: experience, vicarious, and
anticipated Experienced strains are stressors one has personally experienced. This type of strain
should "bear the strongest relationship to crime" (Cullen, Agnew, & Wilcox, 2014). Vicarious
strains are strains on an individual due to stressors experienced by those around him/her,
specifically those closest towards the individual, such as a family member or a friend (Toth,
2019). Anticipated strains are when one believes their current stressors) may continue into the
future or a new stressor may arise in the future (Cullen, Agnew, & Wilcox, 2014).
General strain theory also goes on to discuss how not all strains result in criminal activity. It is
explained that strains are more likely to result in crime if they are seen as high in magnitude,
unjust, associated with low social control, or creating some pressure or incentive for criminal
coping (Toth, 2019). High in magnitude refers to how severe the individual subjectively views
a stressor. If one views the stressor as more severe than the individual will have a stronger
emotional response to said stressor, thus causing the person to take a more severe action to
relieve him/herself of the strain he/she feels. An individual may view a stressor as more severe
if it is high in degree, frequent, recent, long in duration or expected to continue, or threatens
his/her core goals, needs, and values (Toth, 2019). if an individual views a stressor as "unjust,"
meaning an individual did not believe he/she deserved the strain he/she foels, then it can cause
the individual to become aggravated. One may deem the strain unjust if the one who inflicted
it intentionally chose to do so knowing the individual would dislike the action (Toth, 2019). If
a strain is associated with lowering the amount of social control on a person, he/she may react
in a negative way (Toth, 2019). There are actually several types of social control one may
experience: direct, emotional bond or attachment to conventional others, investment into
conventional institutions, and beliefs regarding crime. Direct social control is the extent to
which others set rules prohibiting crime, monitor the person's bchavior, and sanction violations'
(Toth, 2019). Emotional bond or attachment to conventional others consists of whether or not
an individual cares what othors think (Toth, 2019). If a person cares more about what others
think, then it is more likely that a strain can have a stronger effect on the individual. Investment
into conventional institutions consist of the time and resources one has put into conventional
ochaviors (Toth, 2019). If a person has invested more into these conventional bchaviors, then
he/she is more likely to not want to lose these investments through crime. Social control
stemming from beliefs regarding crime involves the individual's attitude towards the laws and
whether or not he/she finds them valid (Toth, 2019). Lastly, creating pressure or incentive for
criminal coping refers to how easily a stressor can be resolved by means of criminal activity,
rather than conventional means. Not only do these four factors increase the likelihood of crime,
but also if an individual experience two or more strains at a single time or very close together
in time (Toth, 2019).
Agnews general strain theory can explain the cause of violent crimes. If an individual
experiences more strain from the negative relationships he/she developed, as well as
experiencing strain from other negative life events, then the inclividual is more likely to be lead
to criminal activity, specifically violent criminal activity. For one, Agnew's theory can be used
to explain sexual assault crimes, such as the violent crime of rape. This can occur if a person
encounters an objective, experienced strain. If an inclividual endures sexual assault, which can
be categorized as an objoctive strain seeing as it is generally disliked by most people,
himself/herself and lacks the ability to cope with this strain in a legal manner, then this
individual is more likely to inflict sexual assault, possibly even rape, on another person. Assault
and battory can also be explained by Agnows general strain theory. This can be seen when one
experiences a vicarious strain. If someone close to the individual, either a family member or a
friend, is being harmed by another, then the individual could be lead into secking revenge,
which can include physically harming or throatoning to physically harm, the person negatively
affecting his/hor family member or friend. Agnows goneral strain theory has both strengths and
weakness when referencing tho explanation of violent crimes. For one, his theory does account
for other strains, rather than just disconnection between aspirations and expectations, that may
lead to violent criminal actions. It has also boon supported that delinquency, which can lead to
violent criminal behavior in the future, is higher among those who experience one or more of
the threo negative relationships, as well as other various negative life events (Toth, 2019).
However, just because an individual experiences strain, does not moan they will utilize illegal
means to overcome it. if one has the ability to copo in a legal manner, such as having the verbal
skills necessary to resolve a negative situation, then the individual will not be lead into taking
illegal means, such as violent crimes, in orcer to overcome the strain (Toth, 2019).
Agnew has identified some policy implications in order to reduce the amount of violent crimes
occurring, mostly focusing on family, as well as school, interventions. He discusses how these
interventions should include four different aspects. The first is to reduce the difficulties of an
individual's social environment by training parents in skills that can better supervision and
discipline of an the individual, specifying in better usage of rewards and punishments (Akers
& Sellers, 2013). The second is to train individuals in their adolescence to have better social
skills in order to reduce the provocation of negative reactions from others (Akers & Sellers,
2013). The third aspect is to increase support from programs, such as counscling, mediation,
and advocacy, for adolescents in order for them to have an outlet to turn to before inclining
towards violent criminal behavior (Akers & Sellers, 2013). The last aspect is to have anger
control, problem solving, social skills, and stress management training for the youth in order
for them to cope in a noncriminal way (Akers & Sellers, 2013). To conclude, although Merton's
classic strain theory and Agnews general strain theory have weakness to the perspectives, the
strengths are what causes it to be able to best describe why violent crime occurs. Both
perspectives stemming from the positivist theory, as well as are micro level, explain that violent
crime can result due to the strain of being blocked from having opportunities in order to achieve
a goal, having a negative relationship, or one of the other various sub types of strain
Specifically, rape, murder, assault and battery, and robbery are the four main violent crimes
that can be best explained by strain theory.
The question most consistently asked throughout time is; why do people commit violent
crimes? Various perspectives, derived from one of two original thories: classical or positivist,
have been pondered trying to discover an answer to this question One modern-day theory,
stemming from the positivist theory, that may be able to best explain the reasoning as to why
people commit violent crimes is strain thory. There are two takes on strain theory, Morton's
classic strain theory. and Agnew's general strain theory, that have been developed in order to
solve this puzzling question, both perspectives having their own strengths and weaknesses.
Within violent crimes, there are two types subtypes: expressive and instrumental. Expressive
crimes are not committed for an individual to bencfit or gain from the act but instead aro
committed out of rago, anger, or frustration (Siogel, 2017). Whercas instrumental crime has
moro of a purposo to the actions. A person may commit an instrumental crimo to improve
his/hor financial or social status (Sicgal, 2017). There are several factors that are drawn upon
whon discussing the cause of a violent crimo, such as personal traits, human instinct, exposure
to violence, substance abusa, and culture and national values (Siogol, 2017). The four main
violent crimes committed are rape, murder, assault and battery, and robbery. These violent
crimes are categorized as part one crimes, meaning those crimes are only four of the most
scrious offenses. Rape is non consensual sexual intercours inflicted by another on cither male
or fomale and is one of the most misunderstood crimes (Siogal, 2017). Murder is the unlawful
killing of a porson or poople with intention and is considered the most scrious crime (Siogol,
2017). Assault and battery are actually two separate crimes. Battery being actual physical
contact during the offense, such as punching, against the victim, while assault does not involve
physical contact, but rather intention or throat of harming the victim (Siogol, 2017). Lastly,
robbery is the taking of something valuable from an individual by use of force, throat, or
violence (Siegel, 2017). The occurrence of violent crimes can be explained by both Merton's
and Agnews strain theories.
The classic strain theory, presented by Merton in his work "Social Structure and Anomic" in
1938, developed during a time when issues dealing with widening social class divisions started
to arise from urbanization growth (Toth, 2019). It is a micro-level theory, which halps to explain
why individuals or groups are more likoly to engage in criminal activity (Toth, 2019).
Specifically, how strain is produced on disadvantaged minority individuals and groups, as well
as the lower class, because these people do not have equal access to legitimate opportunitics
for success (Akors & Sellers, 2013). This strain coming from blocked opportunity causes the
individual or group to lean towards using illegal means in order to achieve success. Merton
goes on to explain in "Social Structure and Anomic that there are five ways an individual can
adapt to the strain produced on them: conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, and
rebellion. Conformity, being the most common, is when an individual accopts the strain and
still strives for success within the institutionalized means available (Akers & Sellers, 2013).
Stability and continuity of a society aro still maintained through this adaptation (Toth, 2019).
Innovation is when a parson still strives for success, however, the individual rejects the
institutionalized means, therefore, leading him or hor to take acantage of illegal means in order
to reach his/her goal (Akors & Sallors, 2013). This adaptation occurs more often where there
is limited opportunitics for people to achieve success (Toth, 2019). Ritualism is when a person
does not intend on reaching his/her goal, however, the individual still accopts the
institutionalized means. The individual does not gain much from this adaptation, but simply
just goes through the motions (Toth, 2019). Retreatism is when one gives up on both the goal
itself, as well as the means to reach that goal (Akers & Scllors, 2013). This adaptation, being
the least common, is more of an escape mechanism in which Merton placed those being, but
not limited to, alcoholics, drug addicts, and the severcly mentally ill within (Akers & Sellers,
2013). Lastly, rebellion is when a person rejects the entire system, both the goal itself and the
means of reaching the goal, but replaces them with a new set of goals and means, these usually
contrasting those of conventional society (Toth, 2019).
Merton's classic strain theory explains the cause of violent crimes. if an individual experiences
more strain from being blocked from using institutional means to achieve his/her goals, then
the individual is more likely to be lead to criminal activity, specifically violent criminal activity.
To start a person might be lead to commit murder if he/she is experiencing strain from another
standing in his/her way. To specify by using an extreme circumstance, an individual may be
blocked from progressing in his/her workplace, also known as a promotion, due to another
employee. If the individual needs this promotion in order to increase his/her financial success
they might be lead to commit murder of said other employee to gain this promotion. This can
fall under the innovation adaptation to a stressor of classic strain theory due to the individual
striving for that success, however, rejecting the institutionalized means to acquire the goal
caused by a lack of available opportunities to gain a promotion. Robbery can also be explained
by Merton's classic strain theory, which can occur because of an innovation adaptation to strain
as well. if one values financial success a great deal, then that may be a goal he/she is striving
for. Thus, the individual can reject the institutional means of achiving wealth because some
view obtaining a job harder than using illegal actions, such as robbery (a violent crime).
Merton's classic strain theory has both strengths and weaknesses when referencing the
explanation of violent crimes. To start, classic strain theory really has an emphasis on economic
inequality being a main stressor, leading to violent crimes. Support for this prior statement has
been found showing that economic deprivation does seem to have an effect on community
diffcrences in crime rates (Toth, 2019). However, this strength also comes with a weakness
because it has otherwise been shown that economic deprivation is not as strongly correlated to
societal differences as it is does on community differences (Toth, 2019). This being stated, not
everyone views economic success as being valuable and, therefore, may not consider it to be a
strain. In this casc, being economically unsuccessful would not lead to violent crime. Another
weakness to Merton's theory is it does not account for various strains other than the separation
between goals and presumptions (Toth, 2019)-
After Merton's classic strain theory came Agnews general strain theory, which is micro level
as well. Agnow approaches the outlook on strains by broadening stressors beyond the goals
and institutionalized means of reaching said goals of socicty by arguing there are several
sources of stress an individual can experience. Agnows strain theory perspective arose during
a time in which issues with widening social class division occurred due to increasing societal
pressures. Within Agnow's "Pressured into Crime: Goncral Strain Theory," he discusses how
people engage in crime due to experiencing stressors that result from one of three nogative
relationships. Thosc include relations that prevent or threaten to prevent the achievement of
positively valued goals, remove or threaten to remove the achievement of positively valued
goals, and present or threaten to present negatively valued stimuli (Toth, 2019). The first
relation, that of which prevents or threatens to prevent the achievement of positively valued
goals, features three subtypes. The first usually includes the traditional concept of stress
relating to long-term goals and the means of achieving said goals stated by Morton's classic
strain theory, howevor, Agnow expanded this idca (Akors & Sollors, 2013). Agnow not only
included long-term goals, but also short term, as well as the fact that an individual may not
achieve said goals due to individual inabilities or lack of skills, rather than only duc to blocked
opportunitics (Akors & Sallors, 2013). The socond subtypo includes the strain an individual
fols whon ho/sho believes he/she deserves a reward but that reward is never produced (Akors
& Scllors, 2013). The strain comes from the resentment the person may fecl from this
disappointing circumstance. The third subtype comes from when an individual believes he/she
deserves more than the outcome he/she reccived (Akers & Sallors, 2013). An example of this
could be when one person fools as if he/she is putting more effort into a relationship the other
person, therefore, fooling as if he/she is not reaping any benefit from said relationship.
The second relation, that of which removes or threatens to remove the achievement of
positively valued goals, usually falls within the adolescence period. This occurs when one loses
"something) or someone of great worth' (Akors & Sellers, 2013). Losing someone can include
a family member passing away or the breaking up with a girlfriend/boyfriend. Losing
something can consist of gotting fired from a job or being suspended from school. The third
relation, that of which prevents or threatens to present negatively valucd stimuli, includes
events in which a person has to deal with the negative actions of others. These events can be
anything from child abuse to adverse school experiences (Akers and Sallors, 2013), An
individual can not necessarily escape from family or school during childhood and adolescents
so they may be lead to use illegitimato means in order to escape said events. Although strains
may develop from those three negative relations, strains can also be divided into two categorics:
objective and subjoctive. Objoctive strains are events that most people would find stressful.
These events include boing physically assaulted or doprived of food and sholter (Cullon,
Agnow, & Wilcox, 2014). Mossorschmict (1993) also states that questioning a malo's
masculino status can causo stross to most men. Objoctive strains can bo measured by
intervicwing a sample of people. Subjoctive strains pertain to how different people evaluate
the same events. Although an event may be objoctively stressful, an individual might only
mildly dislike the event, where another could strongly dislike it (Toth, 2019). The evaluation
of stressful events is due to factors, such as an individual's porsonality traits, goals, values, and
prior experiences (Cullen, Agnow, & Wilcox, 2014)). An example of a subjective strain is a
divorce. It was found by Wheaton (1990) that some positively viewed their divorce because of
the poor quality of their prior marriage.
Strains may also be further divided into three sub-categories: experience, vicarious, and
anticipated Experienced strains are stressors one has personally experienced. This type of strain
should "bear the strongest relationship to crime" (Cullen, Agnew, & Wilcox, 2014). Vicarious
strains are strains on an individual due to stressors experienced by those around him/her,
specifically those closest towards the individual, such as a family member or a friend (Toth,
2019). Anticipated strains are when one believes their current stressors) may continue into the
future or a new stressor may arise in the future (Cullen, Agnew, & Wilcox, 2014).
General strain theory also goes on to discuss how not all strains result in criminal activity. It is
explained that strains are more likely to result in crime if they are seen as high in magnitude,
unjust, associated with low social control, or creating some pressure or incentive for criminal
coping (Toth, 2019). High in magnitude refers to how severe the individual subjectively views
a stressor. If one views the stressor as more severe than the individual will have a stronger
emotional response to said stressor, thus causing the person to take a more severe action to
relieve him/herself of the strain he/she feels. An individual may view a stressor as more severe
if it is high in degree, frequent, recent, long in duration or expected to continue, or threatens
his/her core goals, needs, and values (Toth, 2019). if an individual views a stressor as "unjust,"
meaning an individual did not believe he/she deserved the strain he/she foels, then it can cause
the individual to become aggravated. One may deem the strain unjust if the one who inflicted
it intentionally chose to do so knowing the individual would dislike the action (Toth, 2019). If
a strain is associated with lowering the amount of social control on a person, he/she may react
in a negative way (Toth, 2019). There are actually several types of social control one may
experience: direct, emotional bond or attachment to conventional others, investment into
conventional institutions, and beliefs regarding crime. Direct social control is the extent to
which others set rules prohibiting crime, monitor the person's bchavior, and sanction violations'
(Toth, 2019). Emotional bond or attachment to conventional others consists of whether or not
an individual cares what othors think (Toth, 2019). If a person cares more about what others
think, then it is more likely that a strain can have a stronger effect on the individual. Investment
into conventional institutions consist of the time and resources one has put into conventional
ochaviors (Toth, 2019). If a person has invested more into these conventional bchaviors, then
he/she is more likely to not want to lose these investments through crime. Social control
stemming from beliefs regarding crime involves the individual's attitude towards the laws and
whether or not he/she finds them valid (Toth, 2019). Lastly, creating pressure or incentive for
criminal coping refers to how easily a stressor can be resolved by means of criminal activity,
rather than conventional means. Not only do these four factors increase the likelihood of crime,
but also if an individual experience two or more strains at a single time or very close together
in time (Toth, 2019).
Agnews general strain theory can explain the cause of violent crimes. If an individual
experiences more strain from the negative relationships he/she developed, as well as
experiencing strain from other negative life events, then the inclividual is more likely to be lead
to criminal activity, specifically violent criminal activity. For one, Agnew's theory can be used
to explain sexual assault crimes, such as the violent crime of rape. This can occur if a person
encounters an objective, experienced strain. If an inclividual endures sexual assault, which can
be categorized as an objoctive strain seeing as it is generally disliked by most people,
himself/herself and lacks the ability to cope with this strain in a legal manner, then this
individual is more likely to inflict sexual assault, possibly even rape, on another person. Assault
and battory can also be explained by Agnows general strain theory. This can be seen when one
experiences a vicarious strain. If someone close to the individual, either a family member or a
friend, is being harmed by another, then the individual could be lead into secking revenge,
which can include physically harming or throatoning to physically harm, the person negatively
affecting his/hor family member or friend. Agnows goneral strain theory has both strengths and
weakness when referencing tho explanation of violent crimes. For one, his theory does account
for other strains, rather than just disconnection between aspirations and expectations, that may
lead to violent criminal actions. It has also boon supported that delinquency, which can lead to
violent criminal behavior in the future, is higher among those who experience one or more of
the threo negative relationships, as well as other various negative life events (Toth, 2019).
However, just because an individual experiences strain, does not moan they will utilize illegal
means to overcome it. if one has the ability to copo in a legal manner, such as having the verbal
skills necessary to resolve a negative situation, then the individual will not be lead into taking
illegal means, such as violent crimes, in orcer to overcome the strain (Toth, 2019).
Agnew has identified some policy implications in order to reduce the amount of violent crimes
occurring, mostly focusing on family, as well as school, interventions. He discusses how these
interventions should include four different aspects. The first is to reduce the difficulties of an
individual's social environment by training parents in skills that can better supervision and
discipline of an the individual, specifying in better usage of rewards and punishments (Akers
& Sellers, 2013). The second is to train individuals in their adolescence to have better social
skills in order to reduce the provocation of negative reactions from others (Akers & Sellers,
2013). The third aspect is to increase support from programs, such as counscling, mediation,
and advocacy, for adolescents in order for them to have an outlet to turn to before inclining
towards violent criminal behavior (Akers & Sellers, 2013). The last aspect is to have anger
control, problem solving, social skills, and stress management training for the youth in order
for them to cope in a noncriminal way (Akers & Sellers, 2013). To conclude, although Merton's
classic strain theory and Agnews general strain theory have weakness to the perspectives, the
strengths are what causes it to be able to best describe why violent crime occurs. Both
perspectives stemming from the positivist theory, as well as are micro level, explain that violent
crime can result due to the strain of being blocked from having opportunities in order to achieve
a goal, having a negative relationship, or one of the other various sub types of strain
Specifically, rape, murder, assault and battery, and robbery are the four main violent crimes
that can be best explained by strain theory.
The question most consistently asked throughout time is; why do people commit violent
crimes? Various perspectives, derived from one of two original thories: classical or positivist,
have been pondered trying to discover an answer to this question One modern-day theory,
stemming from the positivist theory, that may be able to best explain the reasoning as to why
people commit violent crimes is strain thory. There are two takes on strain theory, Morton's
classic strain theory. and Agnew's general strain theory, that have been developed in order to
solve this puzzling question, both perspectives having their own strengths and weaknesses.
Within violent crimes, there are two types subtypes: expressive and instrumental. Expressive
crimes are not committed for an individual to bencfit or gain from the act but instead aro
committed out of rago, anger, or frustration (Siogel, 2017). Whercas instrumental crime has
moro of a purposo to the actions. A person may commit an instrumental crimo to improve
his/hor financial or social status (Sicgal, 2017). There are several factors that are drawn upon
whon discussing the cause of a violent crimo, such as personal traits, human instinct, exposure
to violence, substance abusa, and culture and national values (Siogol, 2017). The four main
violent crimes committed are rape, murder, assault and battery, and robbery. These violent
crimes are categorized as part one crimes, meaning those crimes are only four of the most
scrious offenses. Rape is non consensual sexual intercours inflicted by another on cither male
or fomale and is one of the most misunderstood crimes (Siogal, 2017). Murder is the unlawful
killing of a porson or poople with intention and is considered the most scrious crime (Siogol,
2017). Assault and battery are actually two separate crimes. Battery being actual physical
contact during the offense, such as punching, against the victim, while assault does not involve
physical contact, but rather intention or throat of harming the victim (Siogol, 2017). Lastly,
robbery is the taking of something valuable from an individual by use of force, throat, or
violence (Siegel, 2017). The occurrence of violent crimes can be explained by both Merton's
and Agnews strain theories.
The classic strain theory, presented by Merton in his work "Social Structure and Anomic" in
1938, developed during a time when issues dealing with widening social class divisions started
to arise from urbanization growth (Toth, 2019). It is a micro-level theory, which halps to explain
why individuals or groups are more likoly to engage in criminal activity (Toth, 2019).
Specifically, how strain is produced on disadvantaged minority individuals and groups, as well
as the lower class, because these people do not have equal access to legitimate opportunitics
for success (Akors & Sellers, 2013). This strain coming from blocked opportunity causes the
individual or group to lean towards using illegal means in order to achieve success. Merton
goes on to explain in "Social Structure and Anomic that there are five ways an individual can
adapt to the strain produced on them: conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, and
rebellion. Conformity, being the most common, is when an individual accopts the strain and
still strives for success within the institutionalized means available (Akers & Sellers, 2013).
Stability and continuity of a society aro still maintained through this adaptation (Toth, 2019).
Innovation is when a parson still strives for success, however, the individual rejects the
institutionalized means, therefore, leading him or hor to take acantage of illegal means in order
to reach his/her goal (Akors & Sallors, 2013). This adaptation occurs more often where there
is limited opportunitics for people to achieve success (Toth, 2019). Ritualism is when a person
does not intend on reaching his/her goal, however, the individual still accopts the
institutionalized means. The individual does not gain much from this adaptation, but simply
just goes through the motions (Toth, 2019). Retreatism is when one gives up on both the goal
itself, as well as the means to reach that goal (Akers & Scllors, 2013). This adaptation, being
the least common, is more of an escape mechanism in which Merton placed those being, but
not limited to, alcoholics, drug addicts, and the severcly mentally ill within (Akers & Sellers,
2013). Lastly, rebellion is when a person rejects the entire system, both the goal itself and the
means of reaching the goal, but replaces them with a new set of goals and means, these usually
contrasting those of conventional society (Toth, 2019).
Merton's classic strain theory explains the cause of violent crimes. if an individual experiences
more strain from being blocked from using institutional means to achieve his/her goals, then
the individual is more likely to be lead to criminal activity, specifically violent criminal activity.
To start a person might be lead to commit murder if he/she is experiencing strain from another
standing in his/her way. To specify by using an extreme circumstance, an individual may be
blocked from progressing in his/her workplace, also known as a promotion, due to another
employee. If the individual needs this promotion in order to increase his/her financial success
they might be lead to commit murder of said other employee to gain this promotion. This can
fall under the innovation adaptation to a stressor of classic strain theory due to the individual
striving for that success, however, rejecting the institutionalized means to acquire the goal
caused by a lack of available opportunities to gain a promotion. Robbery can also be explained
by Merton's classic strain theory, which can occur because of an innovation adaptation to strain
as well. if one values financial success a great deal, then that may be a goal he/she is striving
for. Thus, the individual can reject the institutional means of achiving wealth because some
view obtaining a job harder than using illegal actions, such as robbery (a violent crime).
Merton's classic strain theory has both strengths and weaknesses when referencing the
explanation of violent crimes. To start, classic strain theory really has an emphasis on economic
inequality being a main stressor, leading to violent crimes. Support for this prior statement has
been found showing that economic deprivation does seem to have an effect on community
diffcrences in crime rates (Toth, 2019). However, this strength also comes with a weakness
because it has otherwise been shown that economic deprivation is not as strongly correlated to
societal differences as it is does on community differences (Toth, 2019). This being stated, not
everyone views economic success as being valuable and, therefore, may not consider it to be a
strain. In this casc, being economically unsuccessful would not lead to violent crime. Another
weakness to Merton's theory is it does not account for various strains other than the separation
between goals and presumptions (Toth, 2019)-
After Merton's classic strain theory came Agnews general strain theory, which is micro level
as well. Agnow approaches the outlook on strains by broadening stressors beyond the goals
and institutionalized means of reaching said goals of socicty by arguing there are several
sources of stress an individual can experience. Agnows strain theory perspective arose during
a time in which issues with widening social class division occurred due to increasing societal
pressures. Within Agnow's "Pressured into Crime: Goncral Strain Theory," he discusses how
people engage in crime due to experiencing stressors that result from one of three nogative
relationships. Thosc include relations that prevent or threaten to prevent the achievement of
positively valued goals, remove or threaten to remove the achievement of positively valued
goals, and present or threaten to present negatively valued stimuli (Toth, 2019). The first
relation, that of which prevents or threatens to prevent the achievement of positively valued
goals, features three subtypes. The first usually includes the traditional concept of stress
relating to long-term goals and the means of achieving said goals stated by Morton's classic
strain theory, howevor, Agnow expanded this idca (Akors & Sollors, 2013). Agnow not only
included long-term goals, but also short term, as well as the fact that an individual may not
achieve said goals due to individual inabilities or lack of skills, rather than only duc to blocked
opportunitics (Akors & Sallors, 2013). The socond subtypo includes the strain an individual
fols whon ho/sho believes he/she deserves a reward but that reward is never produced (Akors
& Scllors, 2013). The strain comes from the resentment the person may fecl from this
disappointing circumstance. The third subtype comes from when an individual believes he/she
deserves more than the outcome he/she reccived (Akers & Sallors, 2013). An example of this
could be when one person fools as if he/she is putting more effort into a relationship the other
person, therefore, fooling as if he/she is not reaping any benefit from said relationship.
The second relation, that of which removes or threatens to remove the achievement of
positively valued goals, usually falls within the adolescence period. This occurs when one loses
"something) or someone of great worth' (Akors & Sellers, 2013). Losing someone can include
a family member passing away or the breaking up with a girlfriend/boyfriend. Losing
something can consist of gotting fired from a job or being suspended from school. The third
relation, that of which prevents or threatens to present negatively valucd stimuli, includes
events in which a person has to deal with the negative actions of others. These events can be
anything from child abuse to adverse school experiences (Akers and Sallors, 2013), An
individual can not necessarily escape from family or school during childhood and adolescents
so they may be lead to use illegitimato means in order to escape said events. Although strains
may develop from those three negative relations, strains can also be divided into two categorics:
objective and subjoctive. Objoctive strains are events that most people would find stressful.
These events include boing physically assaulted or doprived of food and sholter (Cullon,
Agnow, & Wilcox, 2014). Mossorschmict (1993) also states that questioning a malo's
masculino status can causo stross to most men. Objoctive strains can bo measured by
intervicwing a sample of people. Subjoctive strains pertain to how different people evaluate
the same events. Although an event may be objoctively stressful, an individual might only
mildly dislike the event, where another could strongly dislike it (Toth, 2019). The evaluation
of stressful events is due to factors, such as an individual's porsonality traits, goals, values, and
prior experiences (Cullen, Agnow, & Wilcox, 2014)). An example of a subjective strain is a
divorce. It was found by Wheaton (1990) that some positively viewed their divorce because of
the poor quality of their prior marriage.
Strains may also be further divided into three sub-categories: experience, vicarious, and
anticipated Experienced strains are stressors one has personally experienced. This type of strain
should "bear the strongest relationship to crime" (Cullen, Agnew, & Wilcox, 2014). Vicarious
strains are strains on an individual due to stressors experienced by those around him/her,
specifically those closest towards the individual, such as a family member or a friend (Toth,
2019). Anticipated strains are when one believes their current stressors) may continue into the
future or a new stressor may arise in the future (Cullen, Agnew, & Wilcox, 2014).
General strain theory also goes on to discuss how not all strains result in criminal activity. It is
explained that strains are more likely to result in crime if they are seen as high in magnitude,
unjust, associated with low social control, or creating some pressure or incentive for criminal
coping (Toth, 2019). High in magnitude refers to how severe the individual subjectively views
a stressor. If one views the stressor as more severe than the individual will have a stronger
emotional response to said stressor, thus causing the person to take a more severe action to
relieve him/herself of the strain he/she feels. An individual may view a stressor as more severe
if it is high in degree, frequent, recent, long in duration or expected to continue, or threatens
his/her core goals, needs, and values (Toth, 2019). if an individual views a stressor as "unjust,"
meaning an individual did not believe he/she deserved the strain he/she foels, then it can cause
the individual to become aggravated. One may deem the strain unjust if the one who inflicted
it intentionally chose to do so knowing the individual would dislike the action (Toth, 2019). If
a strain is associated with lowering the amount of social control on a person, he/she may react
in a negative way (Toth, 2019). There are actually several types of social control one may
experience: direct, emotional bond or attachment to conventional others, investment into
conventional institutions, and beliefs regarding crime. Direct social control is the extent to
which others set rules prohibiting crime, monitor the person's bchavior, and sanction violations'
(Toth, 2019). Emotional bond or attachment to conventional others consists of whether or not
an individual cares what othors think (Toth, 2019). If a person cares more about what others
think, then it is more likely that a strain can have a stronger effect on the individual. Investment
into conventional institutions consist of the time and resources one has put into conventional
ochaviors (Toth, 2019). If a person has invested more into these conventional bchaviors, then
he/she is more likely to not want to lose these investments through crime. Social control
stemming from beliefs regarding crime involves the individual's attitude towards the laws and
whether or not he/she finds them valid (Toth, 2019). Lastly, creating pressure or incentive for
criminal coping refers to how easily a stressor can be resolved by means of criminal activity,
rather than conventional means. Not only do these four factors increase the likelihood of crime,
but also if an individual experience two or more strains at a single time or very close together
in time (Toth, 2019).
Agnews general strain theory can explain the cause of violent crimes. If an individual
experiences more strain from the negative relationships he/she developed, as well as
experiencing strain from other negative life events, then the inclividual is more likely to be lead
to criminal activity, specifically violent criminal activity. For one, Agnew's theory can be used
to explain sexual assault crimes, such as the violent crime of rape. This can occur if a person
encounters an objective, experienced strain. If an inclividual endures sexual assault, which can
be categorized as an objoctive strain seeing as it is generally disliked by most people,
himself/herself and lacks the ability to cope with this strain in a legal manner, then this
individual is more likely to inflict sexual assault, possibly even rape, on another person. Assault
and battory can also be explained by Agnows general strain theory. This can be seen when one
experiences a vicarious strain. If someone close to the individual, either a family member or a
friend, is being harmed by another, then the individual could be lead into secking revenge,
which can include physically harming or throatoning to physically harm, the person negatively
affecting his/hor family member or friend. Agnows goneral strain theory has both strengths and
weakness when referencing tho explanation of violent crimes. For one, his theory does account
for other strains, rather than just disconnection between aspirations and expectations, that may
lead to violent criminal actions. It has also boon supported that delinquency, which can lead to
violent criminal behavior in the future, is higher among those who experience one or more of
the threo negative relationships, as well as other various negative life events (Toth, 2019).
However, just because an individual experiences strain, does not moan they will utilize illegal
means to overcome it. if one has the ability to copo in a legal manner, such as having the verbal
skills necessary to resolve a negative situation, then the individual will not be lead into taking
illegal means, such as violent crimes, in orcer to overcome the strain (Toth, 2019).
Agnew has identified some policy implications in order to reduce the amount of violent crimes
occurring, mostly focusing on family, as well as school, interventions. He discusses how these
interventions should include four different aspects. The first is to reduce the difficulties of an
individual's social environment by training parents in skills that can better supervision and
discipline of an the individual, specifying in better usage of rewards and punishments (Akers
& Sellers, 2013). The second is to train individuals in their adolescence to have better social
skills in order to reduce the provocation of negative reactions from others (Akers & Sellers,
2013). The third aspect is to increase support from programs, such as counscling, mediation,
and advocacy, for adolescents in order for them to have an outlet to turn to before inclining
towards violent criminal behavior (Akers & Sellers, 2013). The last aspect is to have anger
control, problem solving, social skills, and stress management training for the youth in order
for them to cope in a noncriminal way (Akers & Sellers, 2013). To conclude, although Merton's
classic strain theory and Agnews general strain theory have weakness to the perspectives, the
strengths are what causes it to be able to best describe why violent crime occurs. Both
perspectives stemming from the positivist theory, as well as are micro level, explain that violent
crime can result due to the strain of being blocked from having opportunities in order to achieve
a goal, having a negative relationship, or one of the other various sub types of strain
Specifically, rape, murder, assault and battery, and robbery are the four main violent crimes
that can be best explained by strain theory.
The question most consistently asked throughout time is; why do people commit violent
crimes? Various perspectives, derived from one of two original thories: classical or positivist,
have been pondered trying to discover an answer to this question One modern-day theory,
stemming from the positivist theory, that may be able to best explain the reasoning as to why
people commit violent crimes is strain thory. There are two takes on strain theory, Morton's
classic strain theory. and Agnew's general strain theory, that have been developed in order to
solve this puzzling question, both perspectives having their own strengths and weaknesses.
Within violent crimes, there are two types subtypes: expressive and instrumental. Expressive
crimes are not committed for an individual to bencfit or gain from the act but instead aro
committed out of rago, anger, or frustration (Siogel, 2017). Whercas instrumental crime has
moro of a purposo to the actions. A person may commit an instrumental crimo to improve
his/hor financial or social status (Sicgal, 2017). There are several factors that are drawn upon
whon discussing the cause of a violent crimo, such as personal traits, human instinct, exposure
to violence, substance abusa, and culture and national values (Siogol, 2017). The four main
violent crimes committed are rape, murder, assault and battery, and robbery. These violent
crimes are categorized as part one crimes, meaning those crimes are only four of the most
scrious offenses. Rape is non consensual sexual intercours inflicted by another on cither male
or fomale and is one of the most misunderstood crimes (Siogal, 2017). Murder is the unlawful
killing of a porson or poople with intention and is considered the most scrious crime (Siogol,
2017). Assault and battery are actually two separate crimes. Battery being actual physical
contact during the offense, such as punching, against the victim, while assault does not involve
physical contact, but rather intention or throat of harming the victim (Siogol, 2017). Lastly,
robbery is the taking of something valuable from an individual by use of force, throat, or
violence (Siegel, 2017). The occurrence of violent crimes can be explained by both Merton's
and Agnews strain theories.
The classic strain theory, presented by Merton in his work "Social Structure and Anomic" in
1938, developed during a time when issues dealing with widening social class divisions started
to arise from urbanization growth (Toth, 2019). It is a micro-level theory, which halps to explain
why individuals or groups are more likoly to engage in criminal activity (Toth, 2019).
Specifically, how strain is produced on disadvantaged minority individuals and groups, as well
as the lower class, because these people do not have equal access to legitimate opportunitics
for success (Akors & Sellers, 2013). This strain coming from blocked opportunity causes the
individual or group to lean towards using illegal means in order to achieve success. Merton
goes on to explain in "Social Structure and Anomic that there are five ways an individual can
adapt to the strain produced on them: conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, and
rebellion. Conformity, being the most common, is when an individual accopts the strain and
still strives for success within the institutionalized means available (Akers & Sellers, 2013).
Stability and continuity of a society aro still maintained through this adaptation (Toth, 2019).
Innovation is when a parson still strives for success, however, the individual rejects the
institutionalized means, therefore, leading him or hor to take acantage of illegal means in order
to reach his/her goal (Akors & Sallors, 2013). This adaptation occurs more often where there
is limited opportunitics for people to achieve success (Toth, 2019). Ritualism is when a person
does not intend on reaching his/her goal, however, the individual still accopts the
institutionalized means. The individual does not gain much from this adaptation, but simply
just goes through the motions (Toth, 2019). Retreatism is when one gives up on both the goal
itself, as well as the means to reach that goal (Akers & Scllors, 2013). This adaptation, being
the least common, is more of an escape mechanism in which Merton placed those being, but
not limited to, alcoholics, drug addicts, and the severcly mentally ill within (Akers & Sellers,
2013). Lastly, rebellion is when a person rejects the entire system, both the goal itself and the
means of reaching the goal, but replaces them with a new set of goals and means, these usually
contrasting those of conventional society (Toth, 2019).
Merton's classic strain theory explains the cause of violent crimes. if an individual experiences
more strain from being blocked from using institutional means to achieve his/her goals, then
the individual is more likely to be lead to criminal activity, specifically violent criminal activity.
To start a person might be lead to commit murder if he/she is experiencing strain from another
standing in his/her way. To specify by using an extreme circumstance, an individual may be
blocked from progressing in his/her workplace, also known as a promotion, due to another
employee. If the individual needs this promotion in order to increase his/her financial success
they might be lead to commit murder of said other employee to gain this promotion. This can
fall under the innovation adaptation to a stressor of classic strain theory due to the individual
striving for that success, however, rejecting the institutionalized means to acquire the goal
caused by a lack of available opportunities to gain a promotion. Robbery can also be explained
by Merton's classic strain theory, which can occur because of an innovation adaptation to strain
as well. if one values financial success a great deal, then that may be a goal he/she is striving
for. Thus, the individual can reject the institutional means of achiving wealth because some
view obtaining a job harder than using illegal actions, such as robbery (a violent crime).
Merton's classic strain theory has both strengths and weaknesses when referencing the
explanation of violent crimes. To start, classic strain theory really has an emphasis on economic
inequality being a main stressor, leading to violent crimes. Support for this prior statement has
been found showing that economic deprivation does seem to have an effect on community
diffcrences in crime rates (Toth, 2019). However, this strength also comes with a weakness
because it has otherwise been shown that economic deprivation is not as strongly correlated to
societal differences as it is does on community differences (Toth, 2019). This being stated, not
everyone views economic success as being valuable and, therefore, may not consider it to be a
strain. In this casc, being economically unsuccessful would not lead to violent crime. Another
weakness to Merton's theory is it does not account for various strains other than the separation
between goals and presumptions (Toth, 2019)-
After Merton's classic strain theory came Agnews general strain theory, which is micro level
as well. Agnow approaches the outlook on strains by broadening stressors beyond the goals
and institutionalized means of reaching said goals of socicty by arguing there are several
sources of stress an individual can experience. Agnows strain theory perspective arose during
a time in which issues with widening social class division occurred due to increasing societal
pressures. Within Agnow's "Pressured into Crime: Goncral Strain Theory," he discusses how
people engage in crime due to experiencing stressors that result from one of three nogative
relationships. Thosc include relations that prevent or threaten to prevent the achievement of
positively valued goals, remove or threaten to remove the achievement of positively valued
goals, and present or threaten to present negatively valued stimuli (Toth, 2019). The first
relation, that of which prevents or threatens to prevent the achievement of positively valued
goals, features three subtypes. The first usually includes the traditional concept of stress
relating to long-term goals and the means of achieving said goals stated by Morton's classic
strain theory, howevor, Agnow expanded this idca (Akors & Sollors, 2013). Agnow not only
included long-term goals, but also short term, as well as the fact that an individual may not
achieve said goals due to individual inabilities or lack of skills, rather than only duc to blocked
opportunitics (Akors & Sallors, 2013). The socond subtypo includes the strain an individual
fols whon ho/sho believes he/she deserves a reward but that reward is never produced (Akors
& Scllors, 2013). The strain comes from the resentment the person may fecl from this
disappointing circumstance. The third subtype comes from when an individual believes he/she
deserves more than the outcome he/she reccived (Akers & Sallors, 2013). An example of this
could be when one person fools as if he/she is putting more effort into a relationship the other
person, therefore, fooling as if he/she is not reaping any benefit from said relationship.
The second relation, that of which removes or threatens to remove the achievement of
positively valued goals, usually falls within the adolescence period. This occurs when one loses
"something) or someone of great worth' (Akors & Sellers, 2013). Losing someone can include
a family member passing away or the breaking up with a girlfriend/boyfriend. Losing
something can consist of gotting fired from a job or being suspended from school. The third
relation, that of which prevents or threatens to present negatively valucd stimuli, includes
events in which a person has to deal with the negative actions of others. These events can be
anything from child abuse to adverse school experiences (Akers and Sallors, 2013), An
individual can not necessarily escape from family or school during childhood and adolescents
so they may be lead to use illegitimato means in order to escape said events. Although strains
may develop from those three negative relations, strains can also be divided into two categorics:
objective and subjoctive. Objoctive strains are events that most people would find stressful.
These events include boing physically assaulted or doprived of food and sholter (Cullon,
Agnow, & Wilcox, 2014). Mossorschmict (1993) also states that questioning a malo's
masculino status can causo stross to most men. Objoctive strains can bo measured by
intervicwing a sample of people. Subjoctive strains pertain to how different people evaluate
the same events. Although an event may be objoctively stressful, an individual might only
mildly dislike the event, where another could strongly dislike it (Toth, 2019). The evaluation
of stressful events is due to factors, such as an individual's porsonality traits, goals, values, and
prior experiences (Cullen, Agnow, & Wilcox, 2014)). An example of a subjective strain is a
divorce. It was found by Wheaton (1990) that some positively viewed their divorce because of
the poor quality of their prior marriage.
Strains may also be further divided into three sub-categories: experience, vicarious, and
anticipated Experienced strains are stressors one has personally experienced. This type of strain
should "bear the strongest relationship to crime" (Cullen, Agnew, & Wilcox, 2014). Vicarious
strains are strains on an individual due to stressors experienced by those around him/her,
specifically those closest towards the individual, such as a family member or a friend (Toth,
2019). Anticipated strains are when one believes their current stressors) may continue into the
future or a new stressor may arise in the future (Cullen, Agnew, & Wilcox, 2014).
General strain theory also goes on to discuss how not all strains result in criminal activity. It is
explained that strains are more likely to result in crime if they are seen as high in magnitude,
unjust, associated with low social control, or creating some pressure or incentive for criminal
coping (Toth, 2019). High in magnitude refers to how severe the individual subjectively views
a stressor. If one views the stressor as more severe than the individual will have a stronger
emotional response to said stressor, thus causing the person to take a more severe action to
relieve him/herself of the strain he/she feels. An individual may view a stressor as more severe
if it is high in degree, frequent, recent, long in duration or expected to continue, or threatens
his/her core goals, needs, and values (Toth, 2019). if an individual views a stressor as "unjust,"
meaning an individual did not believe he/she deserved the strain he/she foels, then it can cause
the individual to become aggravated. One may deem the strain unjust if the one who inflicted
it intentionally chose to do so knowing the individual would dislike the action (Toth, 2019). If
a strain is associated with lowering the amount of social control on a person, he/she may react
in a negative way (Toth, 2019). There are actually several types of social control one may
experience: direct, emotional bond or attachment to conventional others, investment into
conventional institutions, and beliefs regarding crime. Direct social control is the extent to
which others set rules prohibiting crime, monitor the person's bchavior, and sanction violations'
(Toth, 2019). Emotional bond or attachment to conventional others consists of whether or not
an individual cares what othors think (Toth, 2019). If a person cares more about what others
think, then it is more likely that a strain can have a stronger effect on the individual. Investment
into conventional institutions consist of the time and resources one has put into conventional
ochaviors (Toth, 2019). If a person has invested more into these conventional bchaviors, then
he/she is more likely to not want to lose these investments through crime. Social control
stemming from beliefs regarding crime involves the individual's attitude towards the laws and
whether or not he/she finds them valid (Toth, 2019). Lastly, creating pressure or incentive for
criminal coping refers to how easily a stressor can be resolved by means of criminal activity,
rather than conventional means. Not only do these four factors increase the likelihood of crime,
but also if an individual experience two or more strains at a single time or very close together
in time (Toth, 2019).
Agnews general strain theory can explain the cause of violent crimes. If an individual
experiences more strain from the negative relationships he/she developed, as well as
experiencing strain from other negative life events, then the inclividual is more likely to be lead
to criminal activity, specifically violent criminal activity. For one, Agnew's theory can be used
to explain sexual assault crimes, such as the violent crime of rape. This can occur if a person
encounters an objective, experienced strain. If an inclividual endures sexual assault, which can
be categorized as an objoctive strain seeing as it is generally disliked by most people,
himself/herself and lacks the ability to cope with this strain in a legal manner, then this
individual is more likely to inflict sexual assault, possibly even rape, on another person. Assault
and battory can also be explained by Agnows general strain theory. This can be seen when one
experiences a vicarious strain. If someone close to the individual, either a family member or a
friend, is being harmed by another, then the individual could be lead into secking revenge,
which can include physically harming or throatoning to physically harm, the person negatively
affecting his/hor family member or friend. Agnows goneral strain theory has both strengths and
weakness when referencing tho explanation of violent crimes. For one, his theory does account
for other strains, rather than just disconnection between aspirations and expectations, that may
lead to violent criminal actions. It has also boon supported that delinquency, which can lead to
violent criminal behavior in the future, is higher among those who experience one or more of
the threo negative relationships, as well as other various negative life events (Toth, 2019).
However, just because an individual experiences strain, does not moan they will utilize illegal
means to overcome it. if one has the ability to copo in a legal manner, such as having the verbal
skills necessary to resolve a negative situation, then the individual will not be lead into taking
illegal means, such as violent crimes, in orcer to overcome the strain (Toth, 2019).
Agnew has identified some policy implications in order to reduce the amount of violent crimes
occurring, mostly focusing on family, as well as school, interventions. He discusses how these
interventions should include four different aspects. The first is to reduce the difficulties of an
individual's social environment by training parents in skills that can better supervision and
discipline of an the individual, specifying in better usage of rewards and punishments (Akers
& Sellers, 2013). The second is to train individuals in their adolescence to have better social
skills in order to reduce the provocation of negative reactions from others (Akers & Sellers,
2013). The third aspect is to increase support from programs, such as counscling, mediation,
and advocacy, for adolescents in order for them to have an outlet to turn to before inclining
towards violent criminal behavior (Akers & Sellers, 2013). The last aspect is to have anger
control, problem solving, social skills, and stress management training for the youth in order
for them to cope in a noncriminal way (Akers & Sellers, 2013). To conclude, although Merton's
classic strain theory and Agnews general strain theory have weakness to the perspectives, the
strengths are what causes it to be able to best describe why violent crime occurs. Both
perspectives stemming from the positivist theory, as well as are micro level, explain that violent
crime can result due to the strain of being blocked from having opportunities in order to achieve
a goal, having a negative relationship, or one of the other various sub types of strain
Specifically, rape, murder, assault and battery, and robbery are the four main violent crimes
that can be best explained by strain theory.
The question most consistently asked throughout time is; why do people commit violent
crimes? Various perspectives, derived from one of two original thories: classical or positivist,
have been pondered trying to discover an answer to this question One modern-day theory,
stemming from the positivist theory, that may be able to best explain the reasoning as to why
people commit violent crimes is strain thory. There are two takes on strain theory, Morton's
classic strain theory. and Agnew's general strain theory, that have been developed in order to
solve this puzzling question, both perspectives having their own strengths and weaknesses.
Within violent crimes, there are two types subtypes: expressive and instrumental. Expressive
crimes are not committed for an individual to bencfit or gain from the act but instead aro
committed out of rago, anger, or frustration (Siogel, 2017). Whercas instrumental crime has
moro of a purposo to the actions. A person may commit an instrumental crimo to improve
his/hor financial or social status (Sicgal, 2017). There are several factors that are drawn upon
whon discussing the cause of a violent crimo, such as personal traits, human instinct, exposure
to violence, substance abusa, and culture and national values (Siogol, 2017). The four main
violent crimes committed are rape, murder, assault and battery, and robbery. These violent
crimes are categorized as part one crimes, meaning those crimes are only four of the most
scrious offenses. Rape is non consensual sexual intercours inflicted by another on cither male
or fomale and is one of the most misunderstood crimes (Siogal, 2017). Murder is the unlawful
killing of a porson or poople with intention and is considered the most scrious crime (Siogol,
2017). Assault and battery are actually two separate crimes. Battery being actual physical
contact during the offense, such as punching, against the victim, while assault does not involve
physical contact, but rather intention or throat of harming the victim (Siogol, 2017). Lastly,
robbery is the taking of something valuable from an individual by use of force, throat, or
violence (Siegel, 2017). The occurrence of violent crimes can be explained by both Merton's
and Agnews strain theories.
The classic strain theory, presented by Merton in his work "Social Structure and Anomic" in
1938, developed during a time when issues dealing with widening social class divisions started
to arise from urbanization growth (Toth, 2019). It is a micro-level theory, which halps to explain
why individuals or groups are more likoly to engage in criminal activity (Toth, 2019).
Specifically, how strain is produced on disadvantaged minority individuals and groups, as well
as the lower class, because these people do not have equal access to legitimate opportunitics
for success (Akors & Sellers, 2013). This strain coming from blocked opportunity causes the
individual or group to lean towards using illegal means in order to achieve success. Merton
goes on to explain in "Social Structure and Anomic that there are five ways an individual can
adapt to the strain produced on them: conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, and
rebellion. Conformity, being the most common, is when an individual accopts the strain and
still strives for success within the institutionalized means available (Akers & Sellers, 2013).
Stability and continuity of a society aro still maintained through this adaptation (Toth, 2019).
Innovation is when a parson still strives for success, however, the individual rejects the
institutionalized means, therefore, leading him or hor to take acantage of illegal means in order
to reach his/her goal (Akors & Sallors, 2013). This adaptation occurs more often where there
is limited opportunitics for people to achieve success (Toth, 2019). Ritualism is when a person
does not intend on reaching his/her goal, however, the individual still accopts the
institutionalized means. The individual does not gain much from this adaptation, but simply
just goes through the motions (Toth, 2019). Retreatism is when one gives up on both the goal
itself, as well as the means to reach that goal (Akers & Scllors, 2013). This adaptation, being
the least common, is more of an escape mechanism in which Merton placed those being, but
not limited to, alcoholics, drug addicts, and the severcly mentally ill within (Akers & Sellers,
2013). Lastly, rebellion is when a person rejects the entire system, both the goal itself and the
means of reaching the goal, but replaces them with a new set of goals and means, these usually
contrasting those of conventional society (Toth, 2019).
Merton's classic strain theory explains the cause of violent crimes. if an individual experiences
more strain from being blocked from using institutional means to achieve his/her goals, then
the individual is more likely to be lead to criminal activity, specifically violent criminal activity.
To start a person might be lead to commit murder if he/she is experiencing strain from another
standing in his/her way. To specify by using an extreme circumstance, an individual may be
blocked from progressing in his/her workplace, also known as a promotion, due to another
employee. If the individual needs this promotion in order to increase his/her financial success
they might be lead to commit murder of said other employee to gain this promotion. This can
fall under the innovation adaptation to a stressor of classic strain theory due to the individual
striving for that success, however, rejecting the institutionalized means to acquire the goal
caused by a lack of available opportunities to gain a promotion. Robbery can also be explained
by Merton's classic strain theory, which can occur because of an innovation adaptation to strain
as well. if one values financial success a great deal, then that may be a goal he/she is striving
for. Thus, the individual can reject the institutional means of achiving wealth because some
view obtaining a job harder than using illegal actions, such as robbery (a violent crime).
Merton's classic strain theory has both strengths and weaknesses when referencing the
explanation of violent crimes. To start, classic strain theory really has an emphasis on economic
inequality being a main stressor, leading to violent crimes. Support for this prior statement has
been found showing that economic deprivation does seem to have an effect on community
diffcrences in crime rates (Toth, 2019). However, this strength also comes with a weakness
because it has otherwise been shown that economic deprivation is not as strongly correlated to
societal differences as it is does on community differences (Toth, 2019). This being stated, not
everyone views economic success as being valuable and, therefore, may not consider it to be a
strain. In this casc, being economically unsuccessful would not lead to violent crime. Another
weakness to Merton's theory is it does not account for various strains other than the separation
between goals and presumptions (Toth, 2019)-
After Merton's classic strain theory came Agnews general strain theory, which is micro level
as well. Agnow approaches the outlook on strains by broadening stressors beyond the goals
and institutionalized means of reaching said goals of socicty by arguing there are several
sources of stress an individual can experience. Agnows strain theory perspective arose during
a time in which issues with widening social class division occurred due to increasing societal
pressures. Within Agnow's "Pressured into Crime: Goncral Strain Theory," he discusses how
people engage in crime due to experiencing stressors that result from one of three nogative
relationships. Thosc include relations that prevent or threaten to prevent the achievement of
positively valued goals, remove or threaten to remove the achievement of positively valued
goals, and present or threaten to present negatively valued stimuli (Toth, 2019). The first
relation, that of which prevents or threatens to prevent the achievement of positively valued
goals, features three subtypes. The first usually includes the traditional concept of stress
relating to long-term goals and the means of achieving said goals stated by Morton's classic
strain theory, howevor, Agnow expanded this idca (Akors & Sollors, 2013). Agnow not only
included long-term goals, but also short term, as well as the fact that an individual may not
achieve said goals due to individual inabilities or lack of skills, rather than only duc to blocked
opportunitics (Akors & Sallors, 2013). The socond subtypo includes the strain an individual
fols whon ho/sho believes he/she deserves a reward but that reward is never produced (Akors
& Scllors, 2013). The strain comes from the resentment the person may fecl from this
disappointing circumstance. The third subtype comes from when an individual believes he/she
deserves more than the outcome he/she reccived (Akers & Sallors, 2013). An example of this
could be when one person fools as if he/she is putting more effort into a relationship the other
person, therefore, fooling as if he/she is not reaping any benefit from said relationship.
The second relation, that of which removes or threatens to remove the achievement of
positively valued goals, usually falls within the adolescence period. This occurs when one loses
"something) or someone of great worth' (Akors & Sellers, 2013). Losing someone can include
a family member passing away or the breaking up with a girlfriend/boyfriend. Losing
something can consist of gotting fired from a job or being suspended from school. The third
relation, that of which prevents or threatens to present negatively valucd stimuli, includes
events in which a person has to deal with the negative actions of others. These events can be
anything from child abuse to adverse school experiences (Akers and Sallors, 2013), An
individual can not necessarily escape from family or school during childhood and adolescents
so they may be lead to use illegitimato means in order to escape said events. Although strains
may develop from those three negative relations, strains can also be divided into two categorics:
objective and subjoctive. Objoctive strains are events that most people would find stressful.
These events include boing physically assaulted or doprived of food and sholter (Cullon,
Agnow, & Wilcox, 2014). Mossorschmict (1993) also states that questioning a malo's
masculino status can causo stross to most men. Objoctive strains can bo measured by
intervicwing a sample of people. Subjoctive strains pertain to how different people evaluate
the same events. Although an event may be objoctively stressful, an individual might only
mildly dislike the event, where another could strongly dislike it (Toth, 2019). The evaluation
of stressful events is due to factors, such as an individual's porsonality traits, goals, values, and
prior experiences (Cullen, Agnow, & Wilcox, 2014)). An example of a subjective strain is a
divorce. It was found by Wheaton (1990) that some positively viewed their divorce because of
the poor quality of their prior marriage.
Strains may also be further divided into three sub-categories: experience, vicarious, and
anticipated Experienced strains are stressors one has personally experienced. This type of strain
should "bear the strongest relationship to crime" (Cullen, Agnew, & Wilcox, 2014). Vicarious
strains are strains on an individual due to stressors experienced by those around him/her,
specifically those closest towards the individual, such as a family member or a friend (Toth,
2019). Anticipated strains are when one believes their current stressors) may continue into the
future or a new stressor may arise in the future (Cullen, Agnew, & Wilcox, 2014).
General strain theory also goes on to discuss how not all strains result in criminal activity. It is
explained that strains are more likely to result in crime if they are seen as high in magnitude,
unjust, associated with low social control, or creating some pressure or incentive for criminal
coping (Toth, 2019). High in magnitude refers to how severe the individual subjectively views
a stressor. If one views the stressor as more severe than the individual will have a stronger
emotional response to said stressor, thus causing the person to take a more severe action to
relieve him/herself of the strain he/she feels. An individual may view a stressor as more severe
if it is high in degree, frequent, recent, long in duration or expected to continue, or threatens
his/her core goals, needs, and values (Toth, 2019). if an individual views a stressor as "unjust,"
meaning an individual did not believe he/she deserved the strain he/she foels, then it can cause
the individual to become aggravated. One may deem the strain unjust if the one who inflicted
it intentionally chose to do so knowing the individual would dislike the action (Toth, 2019). If
a strain is associated with lowering the amount of social control on a person, he/she may react
in a negative way (Toth, 2019). There are actually several types of social control one may
experience: direct, emotional bond or attachment to conventional others, investment into
conventional institutions, and beliefs regarding crime. Direct social control is the extent to
which others set rules prohibiting crime, monitor the person's bchavior, and sanction violations'
(Toth, 2019). Emotional bond or attachment to conventional others consists of whether or not
an individual cares what othors think (Toth, 2019). If a person cares more about what others
think, then it is more likely that a strain can have a stronger effect on the individual. Investment
into conventional institutions consist of the time and resources one has put into conventional
ochaviors (Toth, 2019). If a person has invested more into these conventional bchaviors, then
he/she is more likely to not want to lose these investments through crime. Social control
stemming from beliefs regarding crime involves the individual's attitude towards the laws and
whether or not he/she finds them valid (Toth, 2019). Lastly, creating pressure or incentive for
criminal coping refers to how easily a stressor can be resolved by means of criminal activity,
rather than conventional means. Not only do these four factors increase the likelihood of crime,
but also if an individual experience two or more strains at a single time or very close together
in time (Toth, 2019).
Agnews general strain theory can explain the cause of violent crimes. If an individual
experiences more strain from the negative relationships he/she developed, as well as
experiencing strain from other negative life events, then the inclividual is more likely to be lead
to criminal activity, specifically violent criminal activity. For one, Agnew's theory can be used
to explain sexual assault crimes, such as the violent crime of rape. This can occur if a person
encounters an objective, experienced strain. If an inclividual endures sexual assault, which can
be categorized as an objoctive strain seeing as it is generally disliked by most people,
himself/herself and lacks the ability to cope with this strain in a legal manner, then this
individual is more likely to inflict sexual assault, possibly even rape, on another person. Assault
and battory can also be explained by Agnows general strain theory. This can be seen when one
experiences a vicarious strain. If someone close to the individual, either a family member or a
friend, is being harmed by another, then the individual could be lead into secking revenge,
which can include physically harming or throatoning to physically harm, the person negatively
affecting his/hor family member or friend. Agnows goneral strain theory has both strengths and
weakness when referencing tho explanation of violent crimes. For one, his theory does account
for other strains, rather than just disconnection between aspirations and expectations, that may
lead to violent criminal actions. It has also boon supported that delinquency, which can lead to
violent criminal behavior in the future, is higher among those who experience one or more of
the threo negative relationships, as well as other various negative life events (Toth, 2019).
However, just because an individual experiences strain, does not moan they will utilize illegal
means to overcome it. if one has the ability to copo in a legal manner, such as having the verbal
skills necessary to resolve a negative situation, then the individual will not be lead into taking
illegal means, such as violent crimes, in orcer to overcome the strain (Toth, 2019).
Agnew has identified some policy implications in order to reduce the amount of violent crimes
occurring, mostly focusing on family, as well as school, interventions. He discusses how these
interventions should include four different aspects. The first is to reduce the difficulties of an
individual's social environment by training parents in skills that can better supervision and
discipline of an the individual, specifying in better usage of rewards and punishments (Akers
& Sellers, 2013). The second is to train individuals in their adolescence to have better social
skills in order to reduce the provocation of negative reactions from others (Akers & Sellers,
2013). The third aspect is to increase support from programs, such as counscling, mediation,
and advocacy, for adolescents in order for them to have an outlet to turn to before inclining
towards violent criminal behavior (Akers & Sellers, 2013). The last aspect is to have anger
control, problem solving, social skills, and stress management training for the youth in order
for them to cope in a noncriminal way (Akers & Sellers, 2013). To conclude, although Merton's
classic strain theory and Agnews general strain theory have weakness to the perspectives, the
strengths are what causes it to be able to best describe why violent crime occurs. Both
perspectives stemming from the positivist theory, as well as are micro level, explain that violent
crime can result due to the strain of being blocked from having opportunities in order to achieve
a goal, having a negative relationship, or one of the other various sub types of strain
Specifically, rape, murder, assault and battery, and robbery are the four main violent crimes
that can be best explained by strain theory.
The question most consistently asked throughout time is; why do people commit violent
crimes? Various perspectives, derived from one of two original thories: classical or positivist,
have been pondered trying to discover an answer to this question One modern-day theory,
stemming from the positivist theory, that may be able to best explain the reasoning as to why
people commit violent crimes is strain thory. There are two takes on strain theory, Morton's
classic strain theory. and Agnew's general strain theory, that have been developed in order to
solve this puzzling question, both perspectives having their own strengths and weaknesses.
Within violent crimes, there are two types subtypes: expressive and instrumental. Expressive
crimes are not committed for an individual to bencfit or gain from the act but instead aro
committed out of rago, anger, or frustration (Siogel, 2017). Whercas instrumental crime has
moro of a purposo to the actions. A person may commit an instrumental crimo to improve
his/hor financial or social status (Sicgal, 2017). There are several factors that are drawn upon
whon discussing the cause of a violent crimo, such as personal traits, human instinct, exposure
to violence, substance abusa, and culture and national values (Siogol, 2017). The four main
violent crimes committed are rape, murder, assault and battery, and robbery. These violent
crimes are categorized as part one crimes, meaning those crimes are only four of the most
scrious offenses. Rape is non consensual sexual intercours inflicted by another on cither male
or fomale and is one of the most misunderstood crimes (Siogal, 2017). Murder is the unlawful
killing of a porson or poople with intention and is considered the most scrious crime (Siogol,
2017). Assault and battery are actually two separate crimes. Battery being actual physical
contact during the offense, such as punching, against the victim, while assault does not involve
physical contact, but rather intention or throat of harming the victim (Siogol, 2017). Lastly,
robbery is the taking of something valuable from an individual by use of force, throat, or
violence (Siegel, 2017). The occurrence of violent crimes can be explained by both Merton's
and Agnews strain theories.
The classic strain theory, presented by Merton in his work "Social Structure and Anomic" in
1938, developed during a time when issues dealing with widening social class divisions started
to arise from urbanization growth (Toth, 2019). It is a micro-level theory, which halps to explain
why individuals or groups are more likoly to engage in criminal activity (Toth, 2019).
Specifically, how strain is produced on disadvantaged minority individuals and groups, as well
as the lower class, because these people do not have equal access to legitimate opportunitics
for success (Akors & Sellers, 2013). This strain coming from blocked opportunity causes the
individual or group to lean towards using illegal means in order to achieve success. Merton
goes on to explain in "Social Structure and Anomic that there are five ways an individual can
adapt to the strain produced on them: conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, and
rebellion. Conformity, being the most common, is when an individual accopts the strain and
still strives for success within the institutionalized means available (Akers & Sellers, 2013).
Stability and continuity of a society aro still maintained through this adaptation (Toth, 2019).
Innovation is when a parson still strives for success, however, the individual rejects the
institutionalized means, therefore, leading him or hor to take acantage of illegal means in order
to reach his/her goal (Akors & Sallors, 2013). This adaptation occurs more often where there
is limited opportunitics for people to achieve success (Toth, 2019). Ritualism is when a person
does not intend on reaching his/her goal, however, the individual still accopts the
institutionalized means. The individual does not gain much from this adaptation, but simply
just goes through the motions (Toth, 2019). Retreatism is when one gives up on both the goal
itself, as well as the means to reach that goal (Akers & Scllors, 2013). This adaptation, being
the least common, is more of an escape mechanism in which Merton placed those being, but
not limited to, alcoholics, drug addicts, and the severcly mentally ill within (Akers & Sellers,
2013). Lastly, rebellion is when a person rejects the entire system, both the goal itself and the
means of reaching the goal, but replaces them with a new set of goals and means, these usually
contrasting those of conventional society (Toth, 2019).
Merton's classic strain theory explains the cause of violent crimes. if an individual experiences
more strain from being blocked from using institutional means to achieve his/her goals, then
the individual is more likely to be lead to criminal activity, specifically violent criminal activity.
To start a person might be lead to commit murder if he/she is experiencing strain from another
standing in his/her way. To specify by using an extreme circumstance, an individual may be
blocked from progressing in his/her workplace, also known as a promotion, due to another
employee. If the individual needs this promotion in order to increase his/her financial success
they might be lead to commit murder of said other employee to gain this promotion. This can
fall under the innovation adaptation to a stressor of classic strain theory due to the individual
striving for that success, however, rejecting the institutionalized means to acquire the goal
caused by a lack of available opportunities to gain a promotion. Robbery can also be explained
by Merton's classic strain theory, which can occur because of an innovation adaptation to strain
as well. if one values financial success a great deal, then that may be a goal he/she is striving
for. Thus, the individual can reject the institutional means of achiving wealth because some
view obtaining a job harder than using illegal actions, such as robbery (a violent crime).
Merton's classic strain theory has both strengths and weaknesses when referencing the
explanation of violent crimes. To start, classic strain theory really has an emphasis on economic
inequality being a main stressor, leading to violent crimes. Support for this prior statement has
been found showing that economic deprivation does seem to have an effect on community
diffcrences in crime rates (Toth, 2019). However, this strength also comes with a weakness
because it has otherwise been shown that economic deprivation is not as strongly correlated to
societal differences as it is does on community differences (Toth, 2019). This being stated, not
everyone views economic success as being valuable and, therefore, may not consider it to be a
strain. In this casc, being economically unsuccessful would not lead to violent crime. Another
weakness to Merton's theory is it does not account for various strains other than the separation
between goals and presumptions (Toth, 2019)-
After Merton's classic strain theory came Agnews general strain theory, which is micro level
as well. Agnow approaches the outlook on strains by broadening stressors beyond the goals
and institutionalized means of reaching said goals of socicty by arguing there are several
sources of stress an individual can experience. Agnows strain theory perspective arose during
a time in which issues with widening social class division occurred due to increasing societal
pressures. Within Agnow's "Pressured into Crime: Goncral Strain Theory," he discusses how
people engage in crime due to experiencing stressors that result from one of three nogative
relationships. Thosc include relations that prevent or threaten to prevent the achievement of
positively valued goals, remove or threaten to remove the achievement of positively valued
goals, and present or threaten to present negatively valued stimuli (Toth, 2019). The first
relation, that of which prevents or threatens to prevent the achievement of positively valued
goals, features three subtypes. The first usually includes the traditional concept of stress
relating to long-term goals and the means of achieving said goals stated by Morton's classic
strain theory, howevor, Agnow expanded this idca (Akors & Sollors, 2013). Agnow not only
included long-term goals, but also short term, as well as the fact that an individual may not
achieve said goals due to individual inabilities or lack of skills, rather than only duc to blocked
opportunitics (Akors & Sallors, 2013). The socond subtypo includes the strain an individual
fols whon ho/sho believes he/she deserves a reward but that reward is never produced (Akors
& Scllors, 2013). The strain comes from the resentment the person may fecl from this
disappointing circumstance. The third subtype comes from when an individual believes he/she
deserves more than the outcome he/she reccived (Akers & Sallors, 2013). An example of this
could be when one person fools as if he/she is putting more effort into a relationship the other
person, therefore, fooling as if he/she is not reaping any benefit from said relationship.
The second relation, that of which removes or threatens to remove the achievement of
positively valued goals, usually falls within the adolescence period. This occurs when one loses
"something) or someone of great worth' (Akors & Sellers, 2013). Losing someone can include
a family member passing away or the breaking up with a girlfriend/boyfriend. Losing
something can consist of gotting fired from a job or being suspended from school. The third
relation, that of which prevents or threatens to present negatively valucd stimuli, includes
events in which a person has to deal with the negative actions of others. These events can be
anything from child abuse to adverse school experiences (Akers and Sallors, 2013), An
individual can not necessarily escape from family or school during childhood and adolescents
so they may be lead to use illegitimato means in order to escape said events. Although strains
may develop from those three negative relations, strains can also be divided into two categorics:
objective and subjoctive. Objoctive strains are events that most people would find stressful.
These events include boing physically assaulted or doprived of food and sholter (Cullon,
Agnow, & Wilcox, 2014). Mossorschmict (1993) also states that questioning a malo's
masculino status can causo stross to most men. Objoctive strains can bo measured by
intervicwing a sample of people. Subjoctive strains pertain to how different people evaluate
the same events. Although an event may be objoctively stressful, an individual might only
mildly dislike the event, where another could strongly dislike it (Toth, 2019). The evaluation
of stressful events is due to factors, such as an individual's porsonality traits, goals, values, and
prior experiences (Cullen, Agnow, & Wilcox, 2014)). An example of a subjective strain is a
divorce. It was found by Wheaton (1990) that some positively viewed their divorce because of
the poor quality of their prior marriage.
Strains may also be further divided into three sub-categories: experience, vicarious, and
anticipated Experienced strains are stressors one has personally experienced. This type of strain
should "bear the strongest relationship to crime" (Cullen, Agnew, & Wilcox, 2014). Vicarious
strains are strains on an individual due to stressors experienced by those around him/her,
specifically those closest towards the individual, such as a family member or a friend (Toth,
2019). Anticipated strains are when one believes their current stressors) may continue into the
future or a new stressor may arise in the future (Cullen, Agnew, & Wilcox, 2014).
General strain theory also goes on to discuss how not all strains result in criminal activity. It is
explained that strains are more likely to result in crime if they are seen as high in magnitude,
unjust, associated with low social control, or creating some pressure or incentive for criminal
coping (Toth, 2019). High in magnitude refers to how severe the individual subjectively views
a stressor. If one views the stressor as more severe than the individual will have a stronger
emotional response to said stressor, thus causing the person to take a more severe action to
relieve him/herself of the strain he/she feels. An individual may view a stressor as more severe
if it is high in degree, frequent, recent, long in duration or expected to continue, or threatens
his/her core goals, needs, and values (Toth, 2019). if an individual views a stressor as "unjust,"
meaning an individual did not believe he/she deserved the strain he/she foels, then it can cause
the individual to become aggravated. One may deem the strain unjust if the one who inflicted
it intentionally chose to do so knowing the individual would dislike the action (Toth, 2019). If
a strain is associated with lowering the amount of social control on a person, he/she may react
in a negative way (Toth, 2019). There are actually several types of social control one may
experience: direct, emotional bond or attachment to conventional others, investment into
conventional institutions, and beliefs regarding crime. Direct social control is the extent to
which others set rules prohibiting crime, monitor the person's bchavior, and sanction violations'
(Toth, 2019). Emotional bond or attachment to conventional others consists of whether or not
an individual cares what othors think (Toth, 2019). If a person cares more about what others
think, then it is more likely that a strain can have a stronger effect on the individual. Investment
into conventional institutions consist of the time and resources one has put into conventional
ochaviors (Toth, 2019). If a person has invested more into these conventional bchaviors, then
he/she is more likely to not want to lose these investments through crime. Social control
stemming from beliefs regarding crime involves the individual's attitude towards the laws and
whether or not he/she finds them valid (Toth, 2019). Lastly, creating pressure or incentive for
criminal coping refers to how easily a stressor can be resolved by means of criminal activity,
rather than conventional means. Not only do these four factors increase the likelihood of crime,
but also if an individual experience two or more strains at a single time or very close together
in time (Toth, 2019).
Agnews general strain theory can explain the cause of violent crimes. If an individual
experiences more strain from the negative relationships he/she developed, as well as
experiencing strain from other negative life events, then the inclividual is more likely to be lead
to criminal activity, specifically violent criminal activity. For one, Agnew's theory can be used
to explain sexual assault crimes, such as the violent crime of rape. This can occur if a person
encounters an objective, experienced strain. If an inclividual endures sexual assault, which can
be categorized as an objoctive strain seeing as it is generally disliked by most people,
himself/herself and lacks the ability to cope with this strain in a legal manner, then this
individual is more likely to inflict sexual assault, possibly even rape, on another person. Assault
and battory can also be explained by Agnows general strain theory. This can be seen when one
experiences a vicarious strain. If someone close to the individual, either a family member or a
friend, is being harmed by another, then the individual could be lead into secking revenge,
which can include physically harming or throatoning to physically harm, the person negatively
affecting his/hor family member or friend. Agnows goneral strain theory has both strengths and
weakness when referencing tho explanation of violent crimes. For one, his theory does account
for other strains, rather than just disconnection between aspirations and expectations, that may
lead to violent criminal actions. It has also boon supported that delinquency, which can lead to
violent criminal behavior in the future, is higher among those who experience one or more of
the threo negative relationships, as well as other various negative life events (Toth, 2019).
However, just because an individual experiences strain, does not moan they will utilize illegal
means to overcome it. if one has the ability to copo in a legal manner, such as having the verbal
skills necessary to resolve a negative situation, then the individual will not be lead into taking
illegal means, such as violent crimes, in orcer to overcome the strain (Toth, 2019).
Agnew has identified some policy implications in order to reduce the amount of violent crimes
occurring, mostly focusing on family, as well as school, interventions. He discusses how these
interventions should include four different aspects. The first is to reduce the difficulties of an
individual's social environment by training parents in skills that can better supervision and
discipline of an the individual, specifying in better usage of rewards and punishments (Akers
& Sellers, 2013). The second is to train individuals in their adolescence to have better social
skills in order to reduce the provocation of negative reactions from others (Akers & Sellers,
2013). The third aspect is to increase support from programs, such as counscling, mediation,
and advocacy, for adolescents in order for them to have an outlet to turn to before inclining
towards violent criminal behavior (Akers & Sellers, 2013). The last aspect is to have anger
control, problem solving, social skills, and stress management training for the youth in order
for them to cope in a noncriminal way (Akers & Sellers, 2013). To conclude, although Merton's
classic strain theory and Agnews general strain theory have weakness to the perspectives, the
strengths are what causes it to be able to best describe why violent crime occurs. Both
perspectives stemming from the positivist theory, as well as are micro level, explain that violent
crime can result due to the strain of being blocked from having opportunities in order to achieve
a goal, having a negative relationship, or one of the other various sub types of strain
Specifically, rape, murder, assault and battery, and robbery are the four main violent crimes
that can be best explained by strain theory.
The question most consistently asked throughout time is; why do people commit violent
crimes? Various perspectives, derived from one of two original thories: classical or positivist,
have been pondered trying to discover an answer to this question One modern-day theory,
stemming from the positivist theory, that may be able to best explain the reasoning as to why
people commit violent crimes is strain thory. There are two takes on strain theory, Morton's
classic strain theory. and Agnew's general strain theory, that have been developed in order to
solve this puzzling question, both perspectives having their own strengths and weaknesses.
Within violent crimes, there are two types subtypes: expressive and instrumental. Expressive
crimes are not committed for an individual to bencfit or gain from the act but instead aro
committed out of rago, anger, or frustration (Siogel, 2017). Whercas instrumental crime has
moro of a purposo to the actions. A person may commit an instrumental crimo to improve
his/hor financial or social status (Sicgal, 2017). There are several factors that are drawn upon
whon discussing the cause of a violent crimo, such as personal traits, human instinct, exposure
to violence, substance abusa, and culture and national values (Siogol, 2017). The four main
violent crimes committed are rape, murder, assault and battery, and robbery. These violent
crimes are categorized as part one crimes, meaning those crimes are only four of the most
scrious offenses. Rape is non consensual sexual intercours inflicted by another on cither male
or fomale and is one of the most misunderstood crimes (Siogal, 2017). Murder is the unlawful
killing of a porson or poople with intention and is considered the most scrious crime (Siogol,
2017). Assault and battery are actually two separate crimes. Battery being actual physical
contact during the offense, such as punching, against the victim, while assault does not involve
physical contact, but rather intention or throat of harming the victim (Siogol, 2017). Lastly,
robbery is the taking of something valuable from an individual by use of force, throat, or
violence (Siegel, 2017). The occurrence of violent crimes can be explained by both Merton's
and Agnews strain theories.
The classic strain theory, presented by Merton in his work "Social Structure and Anomic" in
1938, developed during a time when issues dealing with widening social class divisions started
to arise from urbanization growth (Toth, 2019). It is a micro-level theory, which halps to explain
why individuals or groups are more likoly to engage in criminal activity (Toth, 2019).
Specifically, how strain is produced on disadvantaged minority individuals and groups, as well
as the lower class, because these people do not have equal access to legitimate opportunitics
for success (Akors & Sellers, 2013). This strain coming from blocked opportunity causes the
individual or group to lean towards using illegal means in order to achieve success. Merton
goes on to explain in "Social Structure and Anomic that there are five ways an individual can
adapt to the strain produced on them: conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, and
rebellion. Conformity, being the most common, is when an individual accopts the strain and
still strives for success within the institutionalized means available (Akers & Sellers, 2013).
Stability and continuity of a society aro still maintained through this adaptation (Toth, 2019).
Innovation is when a parson still strives for success, however, the individual rejects the
institutionalized means, therefore, leading him or hor to take acantage of illegal means in order
to reach his/her goal (Akors & Sallors, 2013). This adaptation occurs more often where there
is limited opportunitics for people to achieve success (Toth, 2019). Ritualism is when a person
does not intend on reaching his/her goal, however, the individual still accopts the
institutionalized means. The individual does not gain much from this adaptation, but simply
just goes through the motions (Toth, 2019). Retreatism is when one gives up on both the goal
itself, as well as the means to reach that goal (Akers & Scllors, 2013). This adaptation, being
the least common, is more of an escape mechanism in which Merton placed those being, but
not limited to, alcoholics, drug addicts, and the severcly mentally ill within (Akers & Sellers,
2013). Lastly, rebellion is when a person rejects the entire system, both the goal itself and the
means of reaching the goal, but replaces them with a new set of goals and means, these usually
contrasting those of conventional society (Toth, 2019).
Merton's classic strain theory explains the cause of violent crimes. if an individual experiences
more strain from being blocked from using institutional means to achieve his/her goals, then
the individual is more likely to be lead to criminal activity, specifically violent criminal activity.
To start a person might be lead to commit murder if he/she is experiencing strain from another
standing in his/her way. To specify by using an extreme circumstance, an individual may be
blocked from progressing in his/her workplace, also known as a promotion, due to another
employee. If the individual needs this promotion in order to increase his/her financial success
they might be lead to commit murder of said other employee to gain this promotion. This can
fall under the innovation adaptation to a stressor of classic strain theory due to the individual
striving for that success, however, rejecting the institutionalized means to acquire the goal
caused by a lack of available opportunities to gain a promotion. Robbery can also be explained
by Merton's classic strain theory, which can occur because of an innovation adaptation to strain
as well. if one values financial success a great deal, then that may be a goal he/she is striving
for. Thus, the individual can reject the institutional means of achiving wealth because some
view obtaining a job harder than using illegal actions, such as robbery (a violent crime).
Merton's classic strain theory has both strengths and weaknesses when referencing the
explanation of violent crimes. To start, classic strain theory really has an emphasis on economic
inequality being a main stressor, leading to violent crimes. Support for this prior statement has
been found showing that economic deprivation does seem to have an effect on community
diffcrences in crime rates (Toth, 2019). However, this strength also comes with a weakness
because it has otherwise been shown that economic deprivation is not as strongly correlated to
societal differences as it is does on community differences (Toth, 2019). This being stated, not
everyone views economic success as being valuable and, therefore, may not consider it to be a
strain. In this casc, being economically unsuccessful would not lead to violent crime. Another
weakness to Merton's theory is it does not account for various strains other than the separation
between goals and presumptions (Toth, 2019)-
After Merton's classic strain theory came Agnews general strain theory, which is micro level
as well. Agnow approaches the outlook on strains by broadening stressors beyond the goals
and institutionalized means of reaching said goals of socicty by arguing there are several
sources of stress an individual can experience. Agnows strain theory perspective arose during
a time in which issues with widening social class division occurred due to increasing societal
pressures. Within Agnow's "Pressured into Crime: Goncral Strain Theory," he discusses how
people engage in crime due to experiencing stressors that result from one of three nogative
relationships. Thosc include relations that prevent or threaten to prevent the achievement of
positively valued goals, remove or threaten to remove the achievement of positively valued
goals, and present or threaten to present negatively valued stimuli (Toth, 2019). The first
relation, that of which prevents or threatens to prevent the achievement of positively valued
goals, features three subtypes. The first usually includes the traditional concept of stress
relating to long-term goals and the means of achieving said goals stated by Morton's classic
strain theory, howevor, Agnow expanded this idca (Akors & Sollors, 2013). Agnow not only
included long-term goals, but also short term, as well as the fact that an individual may not
achieve said goals due to individual inabilities or lack of skills, rather than only duc to blocked
opportunitics (Akors & Sallors, 2013). The socond subtypo includes the strain an individual
fols whon ho/sho believes he/she deserves a reward but that reward is never produced (Akors
& Scllors, 2013). The strain comes from the resentment the person may fecl from this
disappointing circumstance. The third subtype comes from when an individual believes he/she
deserves more than the outcome he/she reccived (Akers & Sallors, 2013). An example of this
could be when one person fools as if he/she is putting more effort into a relationship the other
person, therefore, fooling as if he/she is not reaping any benefit from said relationship.
The second relation, that of which removes or threatens to remove the achievement of
positively valued goals, usually falls within the adolescence period. This occurs when one loses
"something) or someone of great worth' (Akors & Sellers, 2013). Losing someone can include
a family member passing away or the breaking up with a girlfriend/boyfriend. Losing
something can consist of gotting fired from a job or being suspended from school. The third
relation, that of which prevents or threatens to present negatively valucd stimuli, includes
events in which a person has to deal with the negative actions of others. These events can be
anything from child abuse to adverse school experiences (Akers and Sallors, 2013), An
individual can not necessarily escape from family or school during childhood and adolescents
so they may be lead to use illegitimato means in order to escape said events. Although strains
may develop from those three negative relations, strains can also be divided into two categorics:
objective and subjoctive. Objoctive strains are events that most people would find stressful.
These events include boing physically assaulted or doprived of food and sholter (Cullon,
Agnow, & Wilcox, 2014). Mossorschmict (1993) also states that questioning a malo's
masculino status can causo stross to most men. Objoctive strains can bo measured by
intervicwing a sample of people. Subjoctive strains pertain to how different people evaluate
the same events. Although an event may be objoctively stressful, an individual might only
mildly dislike the event, where another could strongly dislike it (Toth, 2019). The evaluation
of stressful events is due to factors, such as an individual's porsonality traits, goals, values, and
prior experiences (Cullen, Agnow, & Wilcox, 2014)). An example of a subjective strain is a
divorce. It was found by Wheaton (1990) that some positively viewed their divorce because of
the poor quality of their prior marriage.
Strains may also be further divided into three sub-categories: experience, vicarious, and
anticipated Experienced strains are stressors one has personally experienced. This type of strain
should "bear the strongest relationship to crime" (Cullen, Agnew, & Wilcox, 2014). Vicarious
strains are strains on an individual due to stressors experienced by those around him/her,
specifically those closest towards the individual, such as a family member or a friend (Toth,
2019). Anticipated strains are when one believes their current stressors) may continue into the
future or a new stressor may arise in the future (Cullen, Agnew, & Wilcox, 2014).
General strain theory also goes on to discuss how not all strains result in criminal activity. It is
explained that strains are more likely to result in crime if they are seen as high in magnitude,
unjust, associated with low social control, or creating some pressure or incentive for criminal
coping (Toth, 2019). High in magnitude refers to how severe the individual subjectively views
a stressor. If one views the stressor as more severe than the individual will have a stronger
emotional response to said stressor, thus causing the person to take a more severe action to
relieve him/herself of the strain he/she feels. An individual may view a stressor as more severe
if it is high in degree, frequent, recent, long in duration or expected to continue, or threatens
his/her core goals, needs, and values (Toth, 2019). if an individual views a stressor as "unjust,"
meaning an individual did not believe he/she deserved the strain he/she foels, then it can cause
the individual to become aggravated. One may deem the strain unjust if the one who inflicted
it intentionally chose to do so knowing the individual would dislike the action (Toth, 2019). If
a strain is associated with lowering the amount of social control on a person, he/she may react
in a negative way (Toth, 2019). There are actually several types of social control one may
experience: direct, emotional bond or attachment to conventional others, investment into
conventional institutions, and beliefs regarding crime. Direct social control is the extent to
which others set rules prohibiting crime, monitor the person's bchavior, and sanction violations'
(Toth, 2019). Emotional bond or attachment to conventional others consists of whether or not
an individual cares what othors think (Toth, 2019). If a person cares more about what others
think, then it is more likely that a strain can have a stronger effect on the individual. Investment
into conventional institutions consist of the time and resources one has put into conventional
ochaviors (Toth, 2019). If a person has invested more into these conventional bchaviors, then
he/she is more likely to not want to lose these investments through crime. Social control
stemming from beliefs regarding crime involves the individual's attitude towards the laws and
whether or not he/she finds them valid (Toth, 2019). Lastly, creating pressure or incentive for
criminal coping refers to how easily a stressor can be resolved by means of criminal activity,
rather than conventional means. Not only do these four factors increase the likelihood of crime,
but also if an individual experience two or more strains at a single time or very close together
in time (Toth, 2019).
Agnews general strain theory can explain the cause of violent crimes. If an individual
experiences more strain from the negative relationships he/she developed, as well as
experiencing strain from other negative life events, then the inclividual is more likely to be lead
to criminal activity, specifically violent criminal activity. For one, Agnew's theory can be used
to explain sexual assault crimes, such as the violent crime of rape. This can occur if a person
encounters an objective, experienced strain. If an inclividual endures sexual assault, which can
be categorized as an objoctive strain seeing as it is generally disliked by most people,
himself/herself and lacks the ability to cope with this strain in a legal manner, then this
individual is more likely to inflict sexual assault, possibly even rape, on another person. Assault
and battory can also be explained by Agnows general strain theory. This can be seen when one
experiences a vicarious strain. If someone close to the individual, either a family member or a
friend, is being harmed by another, then the individual could be lead into secking revenge,
which can include physically harming or throatoning to physically harm, the person negatively
affecting his/hor family member or friend. Agnows goneral strain theory has both strengths and
weakness when referencing tho explanation of violent crimes. For one, his theory does account
for other strains, rather than just disconnection between aspirations and expectations, that may
lead to violent criminal actions. It has also boon supported that delinquency, which can lead to
violent criminal behavior in the future, is higher among those who experience one or more of
the threo negative relationships, as well as other various negative life events (Toth, 2019).
However, just because an individual experiences strain, does not moan they will utilize illegal
means to overcome it. if one has the ability to copo in a legal manner, such as having the verbal
skills necessary to resolve a negative situation, then the individual will not be lead into taking
illegal means, such as violent crimes, in orcer to overcome the strain (Toth, 2019).
Agnew has identified some policy implications in order to reduce the amount of violent crimes
occurring, mostly focusing on family, as well as school, interventions. He discusses how these
interventions should include four different aspects. The first is to reduce the difficulties of an
individual's social environment by training parents in skills that can better supervision and
discipline of an the individual, specifying in better usage of rewards and punishments (Akers
& Sellers, 2013). The second is to train individuals in their adolescence to have better social
skills in order to reduce the provocation of negative reactions from others (Akers & Sellers,
2013). The third aspect is to increase support from programs, such as counscling, mediation,
and advocacy, for adolescents in order for them to have an outlet to turn to before inclining
towards violent criminal behavior (Akers & Sellers, 2013). The last aspect is to have anger
control, problem solving, social skills, and stress management training for the youth in order
for them to cope in a noncriminal way (Akers & Sellers, 2013). To conclude, although Merton's
classic strain theory and Agnews general strain theory have weakness to the perspectives, the
strengths are what causes it to be able to best describe why violent crime occurs. Both
perspectives stemming from the positivist theory, as well as are micro level, explain that violent
crime can result due to the strain of being blocked from having opportunities in order to achieve
a goal, having a negative relationship, or one of the other various sub types of strain
Specifically, rape, murder, assault and battery, and robbery are the four main violent crimes
that can be best explained by strain theory.
The question most consistently asked throughout time is; why do people commit violent
crimes? Various perspectives, derived from one of two original thories: classical or positivist,
have been pondered trying to discover an answer to this question One modern-day theory,
stemming from the positivist theory, that may be able to best explain the reasoning as to why
people commit violent crimes is strain thory. There are two takes on strain theory, Morton's
classic strain theory. and Agnew's general strain theory, that have been developed in order to
solve this puzzling question, both perspectives having their own strengths and weaknesses.
Within violent crimes, there are two types subtypes: expressive and instrumental. Expressive
crimes are not committed for an individual to bencfit or gain from the act but instead aro
committed out of rago, anger, or frustration (Siogel, 2017). Whercas instrumental crime has
moro of a purposo to the actions. A person may commit an instrumental crimo to improve
his/hor financial or social status (Sicgal, 2017). There are several factors that are drawn upon
whon discussing the cause of a violent crimo, such as personal traits, human instinct, exposure
to violence, substance abusa, and culture and national values (Siogol, 2017). The four main
violent crimes committed are rape, murder, assault and battery, and robbery. These violent
crimes are categorized as part one crimes, meaning those crimes are only four of the most
scrious offenses. Rape is non consensual sexual intercours inflicted by another on cither male
or fomale and is one of the most misunderstood crimes (Siogal, 2017). Murder is the unlawful
killing of a porson or poople with intention and is considered the most scrious crime (Siogol,
2017). Assault and battery are actually two separate crimes. Battery being actual physical
contact during the offense, such as punching, against the victim, while assault does not involve
physical contact, but rather intention or throat of harming the victim (Siogol, 2017). Lastly,
robbery is the taking of something valuable from an individual by use of force, throat, or
violence (Siegel, 2017). The occurrence of violent crimes can be explained by both Merton's
and Agnews strain theories.
The classic strain theory, presented by Merton in his work "Social Structure and Anomic" in
1938, developed during a time when issues dealing with widening social class divisions started
to arise from urbanization growth (Toth, 2019). It is a micro-level theory, which halps to explain
why individuals or groups are more likoly to engage in criminal activity (Toth, 2019).
Specifically, how strain is produced on disadvantaged minority individuals and groups, as well
as the lower class, because these people do not have equal access to legitimate opportunitics
for success (Akors & Sellers, 2013). This strain coming from blocked opportunity causes the
individual or group to lean towards using illegal means in order to achieve success. Merton
goes on to explain in "Social Structure and Anomic that there are five ways an individual can
adapt to the strain produced on them: conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, and
rebellion. Conformity, being the most common, is when an individual accopts the strain and
still strives for success within the institutionalized means available (Akers & Sellers, 2013).
Stability and continuity of a society aro still maintained through this adaptation (Toth, 2019).
Innovation is when a parson still strives for success, however, the individual rejects the
institutionalized means, therefore, leading him or hor to take acantage of illegal means in order
to reach his/her goal (Akors & Sallors, 2013). This adaptation occurs more often where there
is limited opportunitics for people to achieve success (Toth, 2019). Ritualism is when a person
does not intend on reaching his/her goal, however, the individual still accopts the
institutionalized means. The individual does not gain much from this adaptation, but simply
just goes through the motions (Toth, 2019). Retreatism is when one gives up on both the goal
itself, as well as the means to reach that goal (Akers & Scllors, 2013). This adaptation, being
the least common, is more of an escape mechanism in which Merton placed those being, but
not limited to, alcoholics, drug addicts, and the severcly mentally ill within (Akers & Sellers,
2013). Lastly, rebellion is when a person rejects the entire system, both the goal itself and the
means of reaching the goal, but replaces them with a new set of goals and means, these usually
contrasting those of conventional society (Toth, 2019).
Merton's classic strain theory explains the cause of violent crimes. if an individual experiences
more strain from being blocked from using institutional means to achieve his/her goals, then
the individual is more likely to be lead to criminal activity, specifically violent criminal activity.
To start a person might be lead to commit murder if he/she is experiencing strain from another
standing in his/her way. To specify by using an extreme circumstance, an individual may be
blocked from progressing in his/her workplace, also known as a promotion, due to another
employee. If the individual needs this promotion in order to increase his/her financial success
they might be lead to commit murder of said other employee to gain this promotion. This can
fall under the innovation adaptation to a stressor of classic strain theory due to the individual
striving for that success, however, rejecting the institutionalized means to acquire the goal
caused by a lack of available opportunities to gain a promotion. Robbery can also be explained
by Merton's classic strain theory, which can occur because of an innovation adaptation to strain
as well. if one values financial success a great deal, then that may be a goal he/she is striving
for. Thus, the individual can reject the institutional means of achiving wealth because some
view obtaining a job harder than using illegal actions, such as robbery (a violent crime).
Merton's classic strain theory has both strengths and weaknesses when referencing the
explanation of violent crimes. To start, classic strain theory really has an emphasis on economic
inequality being a main stressor, leading to violent crimes. Support for this prior statement has
been found showing that economic deprivation does seem to have an effect on community
diffcrences in crime rates (Toth, 2019). However, this strength also comes with a weakness
because it has otherwise been shown that economic deprivation is not as strongly correlated to
societal differences as it is does on community differences (Toth, 2019). This being stated, not
everyone views economic success as being valuable and, therefore, may not consider it to be a
strain. In this casc, being economically unsuccessful would not lead to violent crime. Another
weakness to Merton's theory is it does not account for various strains other than the separation
between goals and presumptions (Toth, 2019)-
After Merton's classic strain theory came Agnews general strain theory, which is micro level
as well. Agnow approaches the outlook on strains by broadening stressors beyond the goals
and institutionalized means of reaching said goals of socicty by arguing there are several
sources of stress an individual can experience. Agnows strain theory perspective arose during
a time in which issues with widening social class division occurred due to increasing societal
pressures. Within Agnow's "Pressured into Crime: Goncral Strain Theory," he discusses how
people engage in crime due to experiencing stressors that result from one of three nogative
relationships. Thosc include relations that prevent or threaten to prevent the achievement of
positively valued goals, remove or threaten to remove the achievement of positively valued
goals, and present or threaten to present negatively valued stimuli (Toth, 2019). The first
relation, that of which prevents or threatens to prevent the achievement of positively valued
goals, features three subtypes. The first usually includes the traditional concept of stress
relating to long-term goals and the means of achieving said goals stated by Morton's classic
strain theory, howevor, Agnow expanded this idca (Akors & Sollors, 2013). Agnow not only
included long-term goals, but also short term, as well as the fact that an individual may not
achieve said goals due to individual inabilities or lack of skills, rather than only duc to blocked
opportunitics (Akors & Sallors, 2013). The socond subtypo includes the strain an individual
fols whon ho/sho believes he/she deserves a reward but that reward is never produced (Akors
& Scllors, 2013). The strain comes from the resentment the person may fecl from this
disappointing circumstance. The third subtype comes from when an individual believes he/she
deserves more than the outcome he/she reccived (Akers & Sallors, 2013). An example of this
could be when one person fools as if he/she is putting more effort into a relationship the other
person, therefore, fooling as if he/she is not reaping any benefit from said relationship.
The second relation, that of which removes or threatens to remove the achievement of
positively valued goals, usually falls within the adolescence period. This occurs when one loses
"something) or someone of great worth' (Akors & Sellers, 2013). Losing someone can include
a family member passing away or the breaking up with a girlfriend/boyfriend. Losing
something can consist of gotting fired from a job or being suspended from school. The third
relation, that of which prevents or threatens to present negatively valucd stimuli, includes
events in which a person has to deal with the negative actions of others. These events can be
anything from child abuse to adverse school experiences (Akers and Sallors, 2013), An
individual can not necessarily escape from family or school during childhood and adolescents
so they may be lead to use illegitimato means in order to escape said events. Although strains
may develop from those three negative relations, strains can also be divided into two categorics:
objective and subjoctive. Objoctive strains are events that most people would find stressful.
These events include boing physically assaulted or doprived of food and sholter (Cullon,
Agnow, & Wilcox, 2014). Mossorschmict (1993) also states that questioning a malo's
masculino status can causo stross to most men. Objoctive strains can bo measured by
intervicwing a sample of people. Subjoctive strains pertain to how different people evaluate
the same events. Although an event may be objoctively stressful, an individual might only
mildly dislike the event, where another could strongly dislike it (Toth, 2019). The evaluation
of stressful events is due to factors, such as an individual's porsonality traits, goals, values, and
prior experiences (Cullen, Agnow, & Wilcox, 2014)). An example of a subjective strain is a
divorce. It was found by Wheaton (1990) that some positively viewed their divorce because of
the poor quality of their prior marriage.
Strains may also be further divided into three sub-categories: experience, vicarious, and
anticipated Experienced strains are stressors one has personally experienced. This type of strain
should "bear the strongest relationship to crime" (Cullen, Agnew, & Wilcox, 2014). Vicarious
strains are strains on an individual due to stressors experienced by those around him/her,
specifically those closest towards the individual, such as a family member or a friend (Toth,
2019). Anticipated strains are when one believes their current stressors) may continue into the
future or a new stressor may arise in the future (Cullen, Agnew, & Wilcox, 2014).
General strain theory also goes on to discuss how not all strains result in criminal activity. It is
explained that strains are more likely to result in crime if they are seen as high in magnitude,
unjust, associated with low social control, or creating some pressure or incentive for criminal
coping (Toth, 2019). High in magnitude refers to how severe the individual subjectively views
a stressor. If one views the stressor as more severe than the individual will have a stronger
emotional response to said stressor, thus causing the person to take a more severe action to
relieve him/herself of the strain he/she feels. An individual may view a stressor as more severe
if it is high in degree, frequent, recent, long in duration or expected to continue, or threatens
his/her core goals, needs, and values (Toth, 2019). if an individual views a stressor as "unjust,"
meaning an individual did not believe he/she deserved the strain he/she foels, then it can cause
the individual to become aggravated. One may deem the strain unjust if the one who inflicted
it intentionally chose to do so knowing the individual would dislike the action (Toth, 2019). If
a strain is associated with lowering the amount of social control on a person, he/she may react
in a negative way (Toth, 2019). There are actually several types of social control one may
experience: direct, emotional bond or attachment to conventional others, investment into
conventional institutions, and beliefs regarding crime. Direct social control is the extent to
which others set rules prohibiting crime, monitor the person's bchavior, and sanction violations'
(Toth, 2019). Emotional bond or attachment to conventional others consists of whether or not
an individual cares what othors think (Toth, 2019). If a person cares more about what others
think, then it is more likely that a strain can have a stronger effect on the individual. Investment
into conventional institutions consist of the time and resources one has put into conventional
ochaviors (Toth, 2019). If a person has invested more into these conventional bchaviors, then
he/she is more likely to not want to lose these investments through crime. Social control
stemming from beliefs regarding crime involves the individual's attitude towards the laws and
whether or not he/she finds them valid (Toth, 2019). Lastly, creating pressure or incentive for
criminal coping refers to how easily a stressor can be resolved by means of criminal activity,
rather than conventional means. Not only do these four factors increase the likelihood of crime,
but also if an individual experience two or more strains at a single time or very close together
in time (Toth, 2019).
Agnews general strain theory can explain the cause of violent crimes. If an individual
experiences more strain from the negative relationships he/she developed, as well as
experiencing strain from other negative life events, then the inclividual is more likely to be lead
to criminal activity, specifically violent criminal activity. For one, Agnew's theory can be used
to explain sexual assault crimes, such as the violent crime of rape. This can occur if a person
encounters an objective, experienced strain. If an inclividual endures sexual assault, which can
be categorized as an objoctive strain seeing as it is generally disliked by most people,
himself/herself and lacks the ability to cope with this strain in a legal manner, then this
individual is more likely to inflict sexual assault, possibly even rape, on another person. Assault
and battory can also be explained by Agnows general strain theory. This can be seen when one
experiences a vicarious strain. If someone close to the individual, either a family member or a
friend, is being harmed by another, then the individual could be lead into secking revenge,
which can include physically harming or throatoning to physically harm, the person negatively
affecting his/hor family member or friend. Agnows goneral strain theory has both strengths and
weakness when referencing tho explanation of violent crimes. For one, his theory does account
for other strains, rather than just disconnection between aspirations and expectations, that may
lead to violent criminal actions. It has also boon supported that delinquency, which can lead to
violent criminal behavior in the future, is higher among those who experience one or more of
the threo negative relationships, as well as other various negative life events (Toth, 2019).
However, just because an individual experiences strain, does not moan they will utilize illegal
means to overcome it. if one has the ability to copo in a legal manner, such as having the verbal
skills necessary to resolve a negative situation, then the individual will not be lead into taking
illegal means, such as violent crimes, in orcer to overcome the strain (Toth, 2019).
Agnew has identified some policy implications in order to reduce the amount of violent crimes
occurring, mostly focusing on family, as well as school, interventions. He discusses how these
interventions should include four different aspects. The first is to reduce the difficulties of an
individual's social environment by training parents in skills that can better supervision and
discipline of an the individual, specifying in better usage of rewards and punishments (Akers
& Sellers, 2013). The second is to train individuals in their adolescence to have better social
skills in order to reduce the provocation of negative reactions from others (Akers & Sellers,
2013). The third aspect is to increase support from programs, such as counscling, mediation,
and advocacy, for adolescents in order for them to have an outlet to turn to before inclining
towards violent criminal behavior (Akers & Sellers, 2013). The last aspect is to have anger
control, problem solving, social skills, and stress management training for the youth in order
for them to cope in a noncriminal way (Akers & Sellers, 2013). To conclude, although Merton's
classic strain theory and Agnews general strain theory have weakness to the perspectives, the
strengths are what causes it to be able to best describe why violent crime occurs. Both
perspectives stemming from the positivist theory, as well as are micro level, explain that violent
crime can result due to the strain of being blocked from having opportunities in order to achieve
a goal, having a negative relationship, or one of the other various sub types of strain
Specifically, rape, murder, assault and battery, and robbery are the four main violent crimes
that can be best explained by strain theory.
