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Abnormal Psychology Midterm Study Guide
This resource has been provided to help you be successful in studying for the Topic 4 Midterm. It
is recommended you complete this document as you read the assigned chapters for Topics 1-4.
1. Discuss the “four Ds” of abnormal psychology; how does culture play a role in labeling a
behavior as deviant?
Distress-He seems to be experiencing emotional distress, though he might not openly
admit it.
Deviance-Variance from common patterns of behavior. - behaviors that stray from what
society considers “normal.” Example ( Alex’s behavior is certainly deviating from his
usual patterns and from what’s expected of a college student.)
Danger-While there’s no immediate threat, prolonged isolation and neglect of
responsibilities could lead to more serious consequences.
Dysfunction-When Life Goes Off the Rails, Our third D, Dysfunction, is where the
rubber meets the road. Take the case of Michael, a once-sociable marketing executive
who now struggles to leave his house due to severe panic attacks. His behavior is deviant
(most people don’t have trouble leaving their homes), it causes him distress (he’s
frustrated and anxious about his situation), and it’s clearly dysfunctional (he can’t work
or maintain relationships). This trifecta of Ds paints a clear picture of a potential anxiety
disorder.( His academic performance and social relationships are clearly suffering.)
2. Define abnormal psychology- The scientific study of abnormal behavior undertaken to
describe, predict, explain, and change abnormal patterns of functioning. Multiple
Choice Questions (Examples)
1. What is the best definition of abnormal psychology?
A) The study of human development and learning
B) The scientific study of normal behavior and emotions
C) The scientific study of abnormal behavior undertaken to describe, predict, explain,
andchange abnormal patterns of functioning ✅
D) The study of brain anatomy and intelligence
2. Which of the following is NOT one of the goals of abnormal psychology?
A) Describe abnormal behavior
B) Predict abnormal behavior
C) Explain abnormal behavior
D) Ignore abnormal behavior ✅
True/False Questions
3. Abnormal psychology aims to describe, predict, explain, and change abnormal patterns of
functioning.
Answer: True ✅
4. Abnormal psychology only describes abnormal behavior and does not attempt to change
it.
Answer: False ✅
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3. Familiarize yourself with theorist Jerome Frank. What are the three essential features of
therapy?
A sufferer who seeks relief from the healer.
A trained, socially accepted healer, whose expertise is accepted by the sufferer
and his or her social group.
A series of contacts between the healer and the sufferer, through which the healer
... tries to produce certain changes in the sufferer's emotional state, attitudes, and
behavior.
4. Discuss the role of the following people in the history of abnormal psychology: Pinel,
Tuke, Dix, Kraepelin, Rush, Socrates, Hippocrates, Aristotle and Plato. List ancient views
of “treatments” for mental disorders (include trephining, humors, and Bedlam in your
answer).
-Pinel: The first chief physician for the asylum located in France. Argued that the
mentally challenged people should not be in chains and receive beatings, rather
than, they should show sympathy and kindness
-Tuke: Founder of York Retreat and treated patients with a combination of rest,
talk, prayer, and manual work.
- Boston schoolteacher who made human care more of a public and political
concern in the U.S. Believed in moral treatment
-Kraeplein: A German researcher who published a book arguing that physical
factors (e.g. fatigue) are responsible for mental dysfunction
-Rush: Father of American psychiatry; developed humane approaches to
treatment
- Often called the father of medicine, taught illnesses as
natural causes. Saw mental illness as uprising from internal
physical illness -Aristotle/Plato: shared ideas with Hippocrates about the internal
focus on abnormality
5. List the advantages and disadvantages of the following non-experimental methods: a)
self-report (including surveys and questionnaires), b) tests and other assessments, c)
physiological measures, d) observations (including naturalistic observations), and e) case
studies.
a) Self-Report Methods (Surveys and Questionnaires)
Advantages:
• Easy and inexpensive to collect large amounts of data.
• Can reach many people quickly.
• Allows researchers to study thoughts, feelings, and attitudes directly from participants.
Disadvantages:
• Social desirability bias: participants may give answers they think are “acceptable” rather
than truthful.
• Response bias or inaccuracy: people may not remember accurately or may misunderstand
questions.
Dix:
Hippocrates:
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• Limited depth: lacks detailed, in-depth information about individual experiences.
• Can provide objective, standardized measurements (e.g., IQ tests, personality
inventories).
• Useful for diagnosis and treatment planning.
• Allows comparison across individuals using established norms. Disadvantages:
• May be culturally biased or not valid for all populations.
• Results can be affected by test anxiety or situational factors.
• Does not always capture the complexity of human behavior or emotions.
• Provides objective and precise data about biological processes.
• Can reveal physical correlates of mental states (e.g., brain activity linked to anxiety).
Less influenced by participant bias or self-report errors. Disadvantages:
• Can be expensive and require specialized equipment.
• May be invasive or uncomfortable for participants.
• Results can be hard to interpret — biological responses don’t always clearly explain
behavior.
• Allows researchers to see real behavior in context, not just what people say they do.
• Useful for studying behaviors that can’t be easily measured through tests or surveys.
Can reveal patterns and social interactions in natural settings. Disadvantages:
• Observer bias: researcher’s expectations can influence what they notice or record.
• Reactivity (Hawthorne effect): people may change behavior when they know they’re
being observed.
• Time-consuming and may lack control over outside variables.
• Provides in-depth, detailed information about one person or a small group.
• Can help generate hypotheses for further research.
• Useful for studying rare or unusual cases (e.g., Phineas Gage). Disadvantages:
• Lack of generalizability: findings may not apply to others.
• Subjectivity: researcher bias can influence interpretation.
• Cannot establish cause and effect relationships.
✅ Example Study Question:
Question: What is one advantage and one disadvantage of using case studies in abnormal
psychology research?
b)
Tests and Other Assessments
Advantages
:
c
)
Physiological Measure
s
(
e.g., heart rate, brain imaging, hormone levels
)
Advantages
:
d)
Observations (Including Naturalistic Observations)
Advantages
:
e)
Case Studie
s
Advantages
:
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Answer:
• Advantage: Provides rich, detailed data about an individual’s experience.
Disadvantage: Findings may not generalize to other people
6. Describe the main features of experimental research, including a) independent vs.
dependent variables, b) experimental vs. control groups, and c) random assignment vs.
random sample.
-Independent variables: The variable in an experiment that is manipulated to determine
if it has effect on another variable
-dependent variable: the variable in an experiment that is expected to change as the
independent is manipulated
-Experimental group: In an experiment, the participants who are exposed to the
independent variable under investigation
-Control group: A group of participants who are not exposed to the independent variable
-Random assignment: A selection process that ensures that participants are randomly
placed either in the control or in the experimental group.
7. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of correlational studies
Correlational Studies Definition:
A correlational study examines the relationship between two or more variables to
determine whether they are associated (correlated).
👉 It does not involve manipulating variables — it simply measures them as they
naturally occur.
Strengths of Correlational Studies
1. Shows Relationships Between Variables o Helps researchers identify whether
variables are related (e.g., stress levels and depression).
2. Useful When Experiments Are Unethical or Impossible o Some variables can’t be
ethically manipulated (e.g., childhood trauma, mental illness).
3. Can Help Predict Behavior
o If two variables are strongly related, one can help predict the other (e.g., substance
abuse and risk of relapse).
4. Often Quick and Inexpensive o Data can be collected from surveys, archives, or
existing datasets.
Weaknesses of Correlational Studies
1. Cannot Determine Cause and Effect (No Causation!) o Correlation does not
mean one variable causes the other — there may be a third variable influencing
both.
2. Possible Third-Variable Problem o A hidden variable may explain the relationship
(e.g., poverty might explain the link between stress and illness).
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3. Directionality Problem o Even if two variables are related, it’s unclear which
causes which (e.g., does depression cause isolation, or does isolation cause
depression?).
4. Potential for Misinterpretation o People often assume a correlation means
causation, which can lead to false conclusions.
✅
Example Study Question and Answer:
Question: What is a major limitation of correlational research?
Answer: Correlational research cannot determine cause-and-effect relationships between
variables.
Question: What is one strength of correlational studies?
Answer: They can identify and measure the strength and direction of relationships
between variables.
8.
Distinguish cross-sectional from longitudinal studies (incidence and prevalence).
Cross-Sectional vs. Longitudinal Studies
Both are non-experimental research designs used to study patterns of behavior, mental
disorders, or health over time.
1. Cross-Sectional Studies
• Examine different groups of people at a single point in time.
• Often used to measure prevalence (how common a disorder is at a given time). Key
Features:
• Quick and relatively inexpensive.
• Provides a “snapshot” of a population.
• Can compare different age groups or demographics at once. Strengths:
• Efficient for studying large populations.
• Useful for identifying prevalence rates.
Weaknesses:
• Cannot measure incidence (new cases over time).
• Cannot establish cause-and-effect or track changes within individuals. Example:
• Surveying 1,000 people of various ages to find the current prevalence of depression.
2. Longitudinal Studies
• Follow the same group of people over time to see how variables change.
• Often used to measure incidence (number of new cases of a disorder that develop over a
specific period).
Key Features:
• Tracks changes in the same participants over months, years, or decades.
• Can study developmental trends and causal relationships more effectively.
Strengths:
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• Can measure incidence (new cases) and patterns of change.
• Useful for studying long-term effects of risk factors or treatments. Weaknesses:
• Time-consuming and expensive.
• Participant dropout can bias results.
• Not always practical for very long periods.
Example:
• Following a group of 500 children for 10 years to see how many develop anxiety
disorders over time.
Key Terms: Prevalence vs. Incidence
• Prevalence: Total number of cases (old + new) of a disorder in a population at a given
time.
• Incidence: Number of new cases that develop in a population over a specific time period.
✅ Example Study Questions:
1. Question: What is the main difference between cross-sectional and longitudinal studies?
Answer: Cross-sectional studies examine different groups at one point in time
(prevalence), while longitudinal studies follow the same group over time to track new
cases (incidence).
2. Question: Which type of study is best for measuring the incidence of a disorder?
Answer: Longitudinal study.
9. Define the terms epidemiological studies, incidence, and prevalence.
10. What are other terms used interchangeably for the term “perspective” in psychology?
11. Discuss the types of available biological treatments.
12. What are the three levels of Freud’s theory of the psyche, and what three components
inhabit these levels?
13. Discuss the elements seen in psychodynamic therapy, including free association,
resistance, transference, countertransference, dream analysis, catharsis, and “working
through.”
14. Discuss the features of the cognitive model and cognitive-behavioral therapy, including
theorist’s contributions: Ellis’ REBT, Beck’s cognitive therapy, and Meichenbaum’s
selfinstructional training.
15. Discuss the cognitive-behavioral model and how it integrates the cognitive and
behavioral models into one unified perspective/model.
16. Discuss the features of humanistic psychology and therapy, including self-actualization,
client-centered therapy, conditions of worth, and unconditional vs. conditional positive
regard.
17. Discuss the features of Gestalt theory and therapy, including skillful frustration, role
playing, rules, and here-and-now.
18. Contrast the family-social and multicultural perspectives found in the sociocultural
model. Include social labels, roles, social support and family systems theory in your
answer.
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19. How does anxiety differ from fear? Define both.
20. Define the types of anxiety: free-floating, specific, fearful
21. How do phobias differ from normal fears?
22. Define astra-, agora-, social, claustro-, acro-, and zoophobia.
23. Contrast the following models related to approaches for anxiety: sociocultural,
psychodynamic, humanistic-existential, cognitive
24. Understand and know the different functions of the nervous system: peripheral,
sympathetic, parasympathetic
25. What role does the hypothalamus have in the production and release of corticosteroids?
26. What types of events can trigger a psychological stress disorder?
27. Explain how the following factors play a role in developing a psychological stress
disorder: biological and genetic factors, personality factors, childhood experiences, social
support, multicultural factors, and severity of the trauma.
28. Understand and know the difference between: Dissociative disorder, post-traumatic stress
disorder, dissociative amnesia.
29. How are psychophysiological disorders affected by biological, psychological, and
sociocultural factors?
30. Describe the differences among: depression, mania, unipolar depression, anhedonia,
dysthymic disorder, cyclothymic disorder, and bipolar disorder.
31. Understand and be familiar with persistent depressive disorder symptoms and diagnostic
criteria.
32. Differentiate among automatic and intrusive thoughts.
33. Explain how depression may be caused by psychological factors, including
psychoanalytic, behavioral, and cognitive views (include Beck’s cognitive triad in your
answer).
34. Explain how Weiner’s attribution model and Abramson’s revision explain how learned
helplessness occurs. Know the difference between Internal and External, stable versus
unstable, and global versus specific within each of the attributions. Be prepared to offer
an example of each.
35. Discuss the benefits and weaknesses of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). Can this form
of therapy cause damage or be dangerous? What are some consequences of ECT?
36. Discuss the rise of antidepressant medications in recent years, including MAOs, tricyclics,
and SSRIs. Be familiar with each.
37. Discuss the use of brain stimulation techniques, including vagus nerve stimulation,
transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), and deep brain stimulation.
38. Describe mood stabilizing drug types and efficacy on bipolar disorders.
39. Explain the key features of somatoform and dissociative disorders.
40. Discuss how the three hysterical somatoform disorders (conversion disorder, somatization
disorder, and pain disorder with psychological factors) differ from each other (include
glove anesthesia in your answer).
41. Discuss the differences between: hysterical and factitious disorders (include malingering
and Munchausen syndrome and Munchausen syndrome by proxy in your answer).
( Extra Key Notes )
4. Key Figures in the History of Abnormal Psychology
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1. Philippe Pinel (1745–1826)
• French physician who reformed mental hospitals in France.
• Introduced moral treatment, emphasizing kindness, humane conditions, and talking with
patients.
• Freed patients from chains at La Bicêtre Hospital, improving their quality of life.
2. William Tuke (1732–1822)
• English Quaker who founded the York Retreat, a country house for the mentally ill.
• Promoted moral treatment focused on rest, prayer, and gentle care rather than
punishment.
3. Dorothea Dix (1802–1887)
• American schoolteacher and reformer.
• Campaigned for better treatment and conditions for people with mental illness in the
U.S. and helped establish state mental hospitals.
4. Emil Kraepelin (1856–1926)
• German psychiatrist who developed the first modern system for classifying mental
disorders.
• Identified patterns of symptoms and laid the groundwork for the DSM (Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders).
5. Benjamin Rush (1746–1813)
• Known as the father of American psychiatry.
• Advocated for humane treatment of patients and better hospital conditions, but also used
early medical treatments (like bloodletting).
6. Socrates (470–399 BCE)
• Ancient Greek philosopher who believed self-examination and rational thought could
lead to better understanding of one’s behavior.
7. Hippocrates (460–377 BCE)
• Known as the father of modern medicine.
• Believed mental illness had natural (biological) causes, not demonic possession.
• Introduced the theory of the four humors (blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile)
— imbalance was thought to cause abnormal behavior.
8. Aristotle (384–322 BCE)
• Greek philosopher who emphasized the connection between the mind and body,
believing mental disorders could stem from physical causes.
9. Plato (427–347 BCE)
• Believed abnormal behavior resulted from internal conflicts and emphasized the
importance of reason over emotion.
• Advocated for a hospital setting away from society for treatment.
Ancient Views and Treatments for Mental Disorders
Trephining (Trepanation):
An ancient practice where holes were drilled into the skull to “release evil spirits”
thought to cause abnormal behavior.
• Humors:
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Based on Hippocrates’ theory, mental disorders were caused by an imbalance of bodily
fluids:
o Blood (sanguine – cheerful) o
Phlegm (phlegmatic – sluggish) o
Yellow bile (choleric – irritable) o
Black bile (melancholic –
depressed) Bedlam
(Bethlehem Hospital in London):
One of the first asylums, notorious for poor and inhumane treatment. Patients were
often chained, beaten, and displayed to the public. The word “bedlam” later came to
mean chaos or madness.
This resource has been provided to help you be successful in studying for the Topic 4 Midterm. It
is recommended you complete this document as you read the assigned chapters for Topics 1-4.
1. Discuss the “four Ds” of abnormal psychology; how does culture play a role in labeling a
behavior as deviant?
Distress-He seems to be experiencing emotional distress, though he might not openly
admit it.
Deviance-Variance from common patterns of behavior. - behaviors that stray from what
society considers “normal.” Example ( Alex’s behavior is certainly deviating from his
usual patterns and from what’s expected of a college student.)
Danger-While there’s no immediate threat, prolonged isolation and neglect of
responsibilities could lead to more serious consequences.
Dysfunction-When Life Goes Off the Rails, Our third D, Dysfunction, is where the
rubber meets the road. Take the case of Michael, a once-sociable marketing executive
who now struggles to leave his house due to severe panic attacks. His behavior is deviant
(most people don’t have trouble leaving their homes), it causes him distress (he’s
frustrated and anxious about his situation), and it’s clearly dysfunctional (he can’t work
or maintain relationships). This trifecta of Ds paints a clear picture of a potential anxiety
disorder.( His academic performance and social relationships are clearly suffering.)
2. Define abnormal psychology- The scientific study of abnormal behavior undertaken to
describe, predict, explain, and change abnormal patterns of functioning. Multiple
Choice Questions (Examples)
5. What is the best definition of abnormal psychology?
A) The study of human development and learning
B) The scientific study of normal behavior and emotions
C) The scientific study of abnormal behavior undertaken to describe, predict, explain,
andchange abnormal patterns of functioning ✅
D) The study of brain anatomy and intelligence
6. Which of the following is NOT one of the goals of abnormal psychology?
A) Describe abnormal behavior
B) Predict abnormal behavior
C) Explain abnormal behavior
D) Ignore abnormal behavior ✅
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
True/False Questions
7. Abnormal psychology aims to describe, predict, explain, and change abnormal patterns of
functioning.
Answer: True ✅
8. Abnormal psychology only describes abnormal behavior and does not attempt to change
it.
Answer: False ✅
6. Familiarize yourself with theorist Jerome Frank. What are the three essential features of
therapy?
A sufferer who seeks relief from the healer.
A trained, socially accepted healer, whose expertise is accepted by the sufferer
and his or her social group.
A series of contacts between the healer and the sufferer, through which the healer
... tries to produce certain changes in the sufferer's emotional state, attitudes, and
behavior.
7. Discuss the role of the following people in the history of abnormal psychology: Pinel,
Tuke, Dix, Kraepelin, Rush, Socrates, Hippocrates, Aristotle and Plato. List ancient views
of “treatments” for mental disorders (include trephining, humors, and Bedlam in your
answer).
-Pinel: The first chief physician for the asylum located in France. Argued that the
mentally challenged people should not be in chains and receive beatings, rather
than, they should show sympathy and kindness
-Tuke: Founder of York Retreat and treated patients with a combination of rest,
talk, prayer, and manual work.
- Boston schoolteacher who made human care more of a public and political
concern in the U.S. Believed in moral treatment
-Kraeplein: A German researcher who published a book arguing that physical
factors (e.g. fatigue) are responsible for mental dysfunction
-Rush: Father of American psychiatry; developed humane approaches to
treatment
- Often called the father of medicine, taught illnesses as
natural causes. Saw mental illness as uprising from internal
physical illness -Aristotle/Plato: shared ideas with Hippocrates about the internal
focus on abnormality
8. List the advantages and disadvantages of the following non-experimental methods: a)
self-report (including surveys and questionnaires), b) tests and other assessments, c)
physiological measures, d) observations (including naturalistic observations), and e) case
studies.
Dix:
Hippocrates:
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a) Self-Report Methods (Surveys and Questionnaires)
Advantages:
• Easy and inexpensive to collect large amounts of data.
• Can reach many people quickly.
• Allows researchers to study thoughts, feelings, and attitudes directly from participants.
Disadvantages:
• Social desirability bias: participants may give answers they think are “acceptable” rather
than truthful.
• Response bias or inaccuracy: people may not remember accurately or may misunderstand
questions.
• Limited depth: lacks detailed, in-depth information about individual experiences.
• Can provide objective, standardized measurements (e.g., IQ tests, personality
inventories).
• Useful for diagnosis and treatment planning.
• Allows comparison across individuals using established norms. Disadvantages:
• May be culturally biased or not valid for all populations.
• Results can be affected by test anxiety or situational factors.
• Does not always capture the complexity of human behavior or emotions.
• Provides objective and precise data about biological processes.
• Can reveal physical correlates of mental states (e.g., brain activity linked to anxiety).
Less influenced by participant bias or self-report errors. Disadvantages:
• Can be expensive and require specialized equipment.
• May be invasive or uncomfortable for participants.
• Results can be hard to interpret — biological responses don’t always clearly explain
behavior.
• Allows researchers to see real behavior in context, not just what people say they do.
• Useful for studying behaviors that can’t be easily measured through tests or surveys.
Can reveal patterns and social interactions in natural settings. Disadvantages:
• Observer bias: researcher’s expectations can influence what they notice or record.
• Reactivity (Hawthorne effect): people may change behavior when they know they’re
being observed.
• Time-consuming and may lack control over outside variables.
b)
Tests and Other Assessments
Advantages
:
c
)
Physiological Measure
s
(
e.g., heart rate, brain imaging, hormone levels
)
Advantages
:
d)
Observations (Including Naturalistic Observations)
Advantages
:
e)
Case Studie
s
Advantages
:
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
• Provides in-depth, detailed information about one person or a small group.
• Can help generate hypotheses for further research.
• Useful for studying rare or unusual cases (e.g., Phineas Gage). Disadvantages:
• Lack of generalizability: findings may not apply to others.
• Subjectivity: researcher bias can influence interpretation.
• Cannot establish cause and effect relationships.
✅ Example Study Question:
Question: What is one advantage and one disadvantage of using case studies in abnormal
psychology research?
Answer:
• Advantage: Provides rich, detailed data about an individual’s experience.
Disadvantage: Findings may not generalize to other people
6. Describe the main features of experimental research, including a) independent vs.
dependent variables, b) experimental vs. control groups, and c) random assignment vs.
random sample.
-Independent variables: The variable in an experiment that is manipulated to determine
if it has effect on another variable
-dependent variable: the variable in an experiment that is expected to change as the
independent is manipulated
-Experimental group: In an experiment, the participants who are exposed to the
independent variable under investigation
-Control group: A group of participants who are not exposed to the independent variable
-Random assignment: A selection process that ensures that participants are randomly
placed either in the control or in the experimental group.
7. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of correlational studies
Correlational Studies Definition:
A correlational study examines the relationship between two or more variables to
determine whether they are associated (correlated).
👉 It does not involve manipulating variables — it simply measures them as they
naturally occur.
Strengths of Correlational Studies
5. Shows Relationships Between Variables o Helps researchers identify whether
variables are related (e.g., stress levels and depression).
6. Useful When Experiments Are Unethical or Impossible o Some variables can’t be
ethically manipulated (e.g., childhood trauma, mental illness).
7. Can Help Predict Behavior
o If two variables are strongly related, one can help predict the other (e.g., substance
abuse and risk of relapse).
8. Often Quick and Inexpensive o Data can be collected from surveys, archives, or
existing datasets.
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
Weaknesses of Correlational Studies
5. Cannot Determine Cause and Effect (No Causation!) o Correlation does not
mean one variable causes the other — there may be a third variable influencing
both.
6. Possible Third-Variable Problem o A hidden variable may explain the relationship
(e.g., poverty might explain the link between stress and illness).
7. Directionality Problem o Even if two variables are related, it’s unclear which
causes which (e.g., does depression cause isolation, or does isolation cause
depression?).
8. Potential for Misinterpretation o People often assume a correlation means
causation, which can lead to false conclusions.
✅
Example Study Question and Answer:
Question: What is a major limitation of correlational research?
Answer: Correlational research cannot determine cause-and-effect relationships between
variables.
Question: What is one strength of correlational studies?
Answer: They can identify and measure the strength and direction of relationships
between variables.
8.
Distinguish cross-sectional from longitudinal studies (incidence and prevalence).
Cross-Sectional vs. Longitudinal Studies
Both are non-experimental research designs used to study patterns of behavior, mental
disorders, or health over time.
1. Cross-Sectional Studies
• Examine different groups of people at a single point in time.
• Often used to measure prevalence (how common a disorder is at a given time). Key
Features:
• Quick and relatively inexpensive.
• Provides a “snapshot” of a population.
• Can compare different age groups or demographics at once. Strengths:
• Efficient for studying large populations.
• Useful for identifying prevalence rates.
Weaknesses:
• Cannot measure incidence (new cases over time).
• Cannot establish cause-and-effect or track changes within individuals. Example:
• Surveying 1,000 people of various ages to find the current prevalence of depression.
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
2. Longitudinal Studies
• Follow the same group of people over time to see how variables change.
• Often used to measure incidence (number of new cases of a disorder that develop over a
specific period).
Key Features:
• Tracks changes in the same participants over months, years, or decades.
• Can study developmental trends and causal relationships more effectively.
Strengths:
• Can measure incidence (new cases) and patterns of change.
• Useful for studying long-term effects of risk factors or treatments. Weaknesses:
• Time-consuming and expensive.
• Participant dropout can bias results.
• Not always practical for very long periods.
Example:
• Following a group of 500 children for 10 years to see how many develop anxiety
disorders over time.
Key Terms: Prevalence vs. Incidence
• Prevalence: Total number of cases (old + new) of a disorder in a population at a given
time.
• Incidence: Number of new cases that develop in a population over a specific time period.
✅ Example Study Questions:
3. Question: What is the main difference between cross-sectional and longitudinal studies?
Answer: Cross-sectional studies examine different groups at one point in time
(prevalence), while longitudinal studies follow the same group over time to track new
cases (incidence).
4. Question: Which type of study is best for measuring the incidence of a disorder?
Answer: Longitudinal study.
42. Define the terms epidemiological studies, incidence, and prevalence.
43. What are other terms used interchangeably for the term “perspective” in psychology?
44. Discuss the types of available biological treatments.
45. What are the three levels of Freud’s theory of the psyche, and what three components
inhabit these levels?
46. Discuss the elements seen in psychodynamic therapy, including free association,
resistance, transference, countertransference, dream analysis, catharsis, and “working
through.”
47. Discuss the features of the cognitive model and cognitive-behavioral therapy, including
theorist’s contributions: Ellis’ REBT, Beck’s cognitive therapy, and Meichenbaum’s
selfinstructional training.
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
48. Discuss the cognitive-behavioral model and how it integrates the cognitive and
behavioral models into one unified perspective/model.
49. Discuss the features of humanistic psychology and therapy, including self-actualization,
client-centered therapy, conditions of worth, and unconditional vs. conditional positive
regard.
50. Discuss the features of Gestalt theory and therapy, including skillful frustration, role
playing, rules, and here-and-now.
51. Contrast the family-social and multicultural perspectives found in the sociocultural
model. Include social labels, roles, social support and family systems theory in your
answer.
52. How does anxiety differ from fear? Define both.
53. Define the types of anxiety: free-floating, specific, fearful
54. How do phobias differ from normal fears?
55. Define astra-, agora-, social, claustro-, acro-, and zoophobia.
56. Contrast the following models related to approaches for anxiety: sociocultural,
psychodynamic, humanistic-existential, cognitive
57. Understand and know the different functions of the nervous system: peripheral,
sympathetic, parasympathetic
58. What role does the hypothalamus have in the production and release of corticosteroids?
59. What types of events can trigger a psychological stress disorder?
60. Explain how the following factors play a role in developing a psychological stress
disorder: biological and genetic factors, personality factors, childhood experiences, social
support, multicultural factors, and severity of the trauma.
61. Understand and know the difference between: Dissociative disorder, post-traumatic stress
disorder, dissociative amnesia.
62. How are psychophysiological disorders affected by biological, psychological, and
sociocultural factors?
63. Describe the differences among: depression, mania, unipolar depression, anhedonia,
dysthymic disorder, cyclothymic disorder, and bipolar disorder.
64. Understand and be familiar with persistent depressive disorder symptoms and diagnostic
criteria.
65. Differentiate among automatic and intrusive thoughts.
66. Explain how depression may be caused by psychological factors, including
psychoanalytic, behavioral, and cognitive views (include Beck’s cognitive triad in your
answer).
67. Explain how Weiner’s attribution model and Abramson’s revision explain how learned
helplessness occurs. Know the difference between Internal and External, stable versus
unstable, and global versus specific within each of the attributions. Be prepared to offer
an example of each.
68. Discuss the benefits and weaknesses of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). Can this form
of therapy cause damage or be dangerous? What are some consequences of ECT?
69. Discuss the rise of antidepressant medications in recent years, including MAOs, tricyclics,
and SSRIs. Be familiar with each.
70. Discuss the use of brain stimulation techniques, including vagus nerve stimulation,
transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), and deep brain stimulation.
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
71. Describe mood stabilizing drug types and efficacy on bipolar disorders.
72. Explain the key features of somatoform and dissociative disorders.
73. Discuss how the three hysterical somatoform disorders (conversion disorder, somatization
disorder, and pain disorder with psychological factors) differ from each other (include
glove anesthesia in your answer).
74. Discuss the differences between: hysterical and factitious disorders (include malingering
and Munchausen syndrome and Munchausen syndrome by proxy in your answer).
( Extra Key Notes )
4. Key Figures in the History of Abnormal Psychology
10. Philippe Pinel (1745–1826)
• French physician who reformed mental hospitals in France.
• Introduced moral treatment, emphasizing kindness, humane conditions, and talking with
patients.
• Freed patients from chains at La Bicêtre Hospital, improving their quality of life.
11. William Tuke (1732–1822)
• English Quaker who founded the York Retreat, a country house for the mentally ill.
• Promoted moral treatment focused on rest, prayer, and gentle care rather than
punishment.
12. Dorothea Dix (1802–1887)
• American schoolteacher and reformer.
• Campaigned for better treatment and conditions for people with mental illness in the
U.S. and helped establish state mental hospitals.
13. Emil Kraepelin (1856–1926)
• German psychiatrist who developed the first modern system for classifying mental
disorders.
• Identified patterns of symptoms and laid the groundwork for the DSM (Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders).
14. Benjamin Rush (1746–1813)
• Known as the father of American psychiatry.
• Advocated for humane treatment of patients and better hospital conditions, but also used
early medical treatments (like bloodletting).
15. Socrates (470–399 BCE)
• Ancient Greek philosopher who believed self-examination and rational thought could
lead to better understanding of one’s behavior.
16. Hippocrates (460–377 BCE)
• Known as the father of modern medicine.
• Believed mental illness had natural (biological) causes, not demonic possession.
• Introduced the theory of the four humors (blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile)
— imbalance was thought to cause abnormal behavior.
17. Aristotle (384–322 BCE)
• Greek philosopher who emphasized the connection between the mind and body,
believing mental disorders could stem from physical causes.
18. Plato (427–347 BCE)
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
• Believed abnormal behavior resulted from internal conflicts and emphasized the
importance of reason over emotion.
• Advocated for a hospital setting away from society for treatment.
Ancient Views and Treatments for Mental Disorders
Trephining (Trepanation):
An ancient practice where holes were drilled into the skull to “release evil spirits”
thought to cause abnormal behavior.
• Humors:
Based on Hippocrates’ theory, mental disorders were caused by an imbalance of bodily
fluids:
o Blood (sanguine – cheerful) o
Phlegm (phlegmatic – sluggish) o
Yellow bile (choleric – irritable) o
Black bile (melancholic –
depressed) Bedlam
(Bethlehem Hospital in London):
One of the first asylums, notorious for poor and inhumane treatment. Patients were
often chained, beaten, and displayed to the public. The word “bedlam” later came to
mean chaos or madness.
This resource has been provided to help you be successful in studying for the Topic 4 Midterm. It
is recommended you complete this document as you read the assigned chapters for Topics 1-4.
1. Discuss the “four Ds” of abnormal psychology; how does culture play a role in labeling a
behavior as deviant?
Distress-He seems to be experiencing emotional distress, though he might not openly
admit it.
Deviance-Variance from common patterns of behavior. - behaviors that stray from what
society considers “normal.” Example ( Alex’s behavior is certainly deviating from his
usual patterns and from what’s expected of a college student.)
Danger-While there’s no immediate threat, prolonged isolation and neglect of
responsibilities could lead to more serious consequences.
Dysfunction-When Life Goes Off the Rails, Our third D, Dysfunction, is where the
rubber meets the road. Take the case of Michael, a once-sociable marketing executive
who now struggles to leave his house due to severe panic attacks. His behavior is deviant
(most people don’t have trouble leaving their homes), it causes him distress (he’s
frustrated and anxious about his situation), and it’s clearly dysfunctional (he can’t work
or maintain relationships). This trifecta of Ds paints a clear picture of a potential anxiety
disorder.( His academic performance and social relationships are clearly suffering.)
2. Define abnormal psychology- The scientific study of abnormal behavior undertaken to
describe, predict, explain, and change abnormal patterns of functioning. Multiple
Choice Questions (Examples)
9. What is the best definition of abnormal psychology?
A) The study of human development and learning
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
B) The scientific study of normal behavior and emotions
C) The scientific study of abnormal behavior undertaken to describe, predict, explain,
andchange abnormal patterns of functioning ✅
D) The study of brain anatomy and intelligence
10. Which of the following is NOT one of the goals of abnormal psychology?
A) Describe abnormal behavior
B) Predict abnormal behavior
C) Explain abnormal behavior
D) Ignore abnormal behavior ✅
True/False Questions
11. Abnormal psychology aims to describe, predict, explain, and change abnormal patterns of
functioning.
Answer: True ✅
12. Abnormal psychology only describes abnormal behavior and does not attempt to change
it.
Answer: False ✅
9. Familiarize yourself with theorist Jerome Frank. What are the three essential features of
therapy?
A sufferer who seeks relief from the healer.
A trained, socially accepted healer, whose expertise is accepted by the sufferer
and his or her social group.
A series of contacts between the healer and the sufferer, through which the healer
... tries to produce certain changes in the sufferer's emotional state, attitudes, and
behavior.
10. Discuss the role of the following people in the history of abnormal psychology: Pinel,
Tuke, Dix, Kraepelin, Rush, Socrates, Hippocrates, Aristotle and Plato. List ancient views
of “treatments” for mental disorders (include trephining, humors, and Bedlam in your
answer).
-Pinel: The first chief physician for the asylum located in France. Argued that the
mentally challenged people should not be in chains and receive beatings, rather
than, they should show sympathy and kindness
-Tuke: Founder of York Retreat and treated patients with a combination of rest,
talk, prayer, and manual work.
- Boston schoolteacher who made human care more of a public and political
concern in the U.S. Believed in moral treatment
-Kraeplein: A German researcher who published a book arguing that physical
factors (e.g. fatigue) are responsible for mental dysfunction
Dix:
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
-Rush: Father of American psychiatry; developed humane approaches to
treatment
- Often called the father of medicine, taught illnesses as
natural causes. Saw mental illness as uprising from internal
physical illness -Aristotle/Plato: shared ideas with Hippocrates about the internal
focus on abnormality
11. List the advantages and disadvantages of the following non-experimental methods: a)
self-report (including surveys and questionnaires), b) tests and other assessments, c)
physiological measures, d) observations (including naturalistic observations), and e) case
studies.
a) Self-Report Methods (Surveys and Questionnaires)
Advantages:
• Easy and inexpensive to collect large amounts of data.
• Can reach many people quickly.
• Allows researchers to study thoughts, feelings, and attitudes directly from participants.
Disadvantages:
• Social desirability bias: participants may give answers they think are “acceptable” rather
than truthful.
• Response bias or inaccuracy: people may not remember accurately or may misunderstand
questions.
• Limited depth: lacks detailed, in-depth information about individual experiences.
• Can provide objective, standardized measurements (e.g., IQ tests, personality
inventories).
• Useful for diagnosis and treatment planning.
• Allows comparison across individuals using established norms. Disadvantages:
• May be culturally biased or not valid for all populations.
• Results can be affected by test anxiety or situational factors.
• Does not always capture the complexity of human behavior or emotions.
• Provides objective and precise data about biological processes.
• Can reveal physical correlates of mental states (e.g., brain activity linked to anxiety).
Less influenced by participant bias or self-report errors. Disadvantages:
• Can be expensive and require specialized equipment.
• May be invasive or uncomfortable for participants.
• Results can be hard to interpret — biological responses don’t always clearly explain
behavior.
Hippocrates:
b)
Tests and Other Assessments
Advantages
:
c
)
Physiological Measure
s
(
e.g., heart rate, brain imaging, hormone levels
)
Advantages
:
d)
Observations (Including Naturalistic Observations)
Advantages
:
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
• Allows researchers to see real behavior in context, not just what people say they do.
• Useful for studying behaviors that can’t be easily measured through tests or surveys.
Can reveal patterns and social interactions in natural settings. Disadvantages:
• Observer bias: researcher’s expectations can influence what they notice or record.
• Reactivity (Hawthorne effect): people may change behavior when they know they’re
being observed.
• Time-consuming and may lack control over outside variables.
• Provides in-depth, detailed information about one person or a small group.
• Can help generate hypotheses for further research.
• Useful for studying rare or unusual cases (e.g., Phineas Gage). Disadvantages:
• Lack of generalizability: findings may not apply to others.
• Subjectivity: researcher bias can influence interpretation.
• Cannot establish cause and effect relationships.
✅ Example Study Question:
Question: What is one advantage and one disadvantage of using case studies in abnormal
psychology research?
Answer:
• Advantage: Provides rich, detailed data about an individual’s experience.
Disadvantage: Findings may not generalize to other people
6. Describe the main features of experimental research, including a) independent vs.
dependent variables, b) experimental vs. control groups, and c) random assignment vs.
random sample.
-Independent variables: The variable in an experiment that is manipulated to determine
if it has effect on another variable
-dependent variable: the variable in an experiment that is expected to change as the
independent is manipulated
-Experimental group: In an experiment, the participants who are exposed to the
independent variable under investigation
-Control group: A group of participants who are not exposed to the independent variable
-Random assignment: A selection process that ensures that participants are randomly
placed either in the control or in the experimental group.
7. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of correlational studies
Correlational Studies Definition:
A correlational study examines the relationship between two or more variables to
determine whether they are associated (correlated).
👉 It does not involve manipulating variables — it simply measures them as they
naturally occur.
e)
Case Studie
s
Advantages
:
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
Strengths of Correlational Studies
9. Shows Relationships Between Variables o Helps researchers identify whether
variables are related (e.g., stress levels and depression).
10. Useful When Experiments Are Unethical or Impossible o Some variables can’t be
ethically manipulated (e.g., childhood trauma, mental illness).
11. Can Help Predict Behavior
o If two variables are strongly related, one can help predict the other (e.g., substance
abuse and risk of relapse).
12. Often Quick and Inexpensive o Data can be collected from surveys, archives, or
existing datasets.
Weaknesses of Correlational Studies
9. Cannot Determine Cause and Effect (No Causation!) o Correlation does not
mean one variable causes the other — there may be a third variable influencing
both.
10. Possible Third-Variable Problem o A hidden variable may explain the relationship
(e.g., poverty might explain the link between stress and illness).
11. Directionality Problem o Even if two variables are related, it’s unclear which
causes which (e.g., does depression cause isolation, or does isolation cause
depression?).
12. Potential for Misinterpretation o People often assume a correlation means
causation, which can lead to false conclusions.
✅
Example Study Question and Answer:
Question: What is a major limitation of correlational research?
Answer: Correlational research cannot determine cause-and-effect relationships between
variables.
Question: What is one strength of correlational studies?
Answer: They can identify and measure the strength and direction of relationships
between variables.
8.
Distinguish cross-sectional from longitudinal studies (incidence and prevalence).
Cross-Sectional vs. Longitudinal Studies
Both are non-experimental research designs used to study patterns of behavior, mental
disorders, or health over time.
1. Cross-Sectional Studies
• Examine different groups of people at a single point in time.
• Often used to measure prevalence (how common a disorder is at a given time). Key
Features:
• Quick and relatively inexpensive.
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
• Provides a “snapshot” of a population.
• Can compare different age groups or demographics at once. Strengths:
• Efficient for studying large populations.
• Useful for identifying prevalence rates.
Weaknesses:
• Cannot measure incidence (new cases over time).
• Cannot establish cause-and-effect or track changes within individuals. Example:
• Surveying 1,000 people of various ages to find the current prevalence of depression.
2. Longitudinal Studies
• Follow the same group of people over time to see how variables change.
• Often used to measure incidence (number of new cases of a disorder that develop over a
specific period).
Key Features:
• Tracks changes in the same participants over months, years, or decades.
• Can study developmental trends and causal relationships more effectively.
Strengths:
• Can measure incidence (new cases) and patterns of change.
• Useful for studying long-term effects of risk factors or treatments. Weaknesses:
• Time-consuming and expensive.
• Participant dropout can bias results.
• Not always practical for very long periods.
Example:
• Following a group of 500 children for 10 years to see how many develop anxiety
disorders over time.
Key Terms: Prevalence vs. Incidence
• Prevalence: Total number of cases (old + new) of a disorder in a population at a given
time.
• Incidence: Number of new cases that develop in a population over a specific time period.
✅ Example Study Questions:
5. Question: What is the main difference between cross-sectional and longitudinal studies?
Answer: Cross-sectional studies examine different groups at one point in time
(prevalence), while longitudinal studies follow the same group over time to track new
cases (incidence).
6. Question: Which type of study is best for measuring the incidence of a disorder?
Answer: Longitudinal study.
75. Define the terms epidemiological studies, incidence, and prevalence.
76. What are other terms used interchangeably for the term “perspective” in psychology?
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
77. Discuss the types of available biological treatments.
78. What are the three levels of Freud’s theory of the psyche, and what three components
inhabit these levels?
79. Discuss the elements seen in psychodynamic therapy, including free association,
resistance, transference, countertransference, dream analysis, catharsis, and “working
through.”
80. Discuss the features of the cognitive model and cognitive-behavioral therapy, including
theorist’s contributions: Ellis’ REBT, Beck’s cognitive therapy, and Meichenbaum’s
selfinstructional training.
81. Discuss the cognitive-behavioral model and how it integrates the cognitive and
behavioral models into one unified perspective/model.
82. Discuss the features of humanistic psychology and therapy, including self-actualization,
client-centered therapy, conditions of worth, and unconditional vs. conditional positive
regard.
83. Discuss the features of Gestalt theory and therapy, including skillful frustration, role
playing, rules, and here-and-now.
84. Contrast the family-social and multicultural perspectives found in the sociocultural
model. Include social labels, roles, social support and family systems theory in your
answer.
85. How does anxiety differ from fear? Define both.
86. Define the types of anxiety: free-floating, specific, fearful
87. How do phobias differ from normal fears?
88. Define astra-, agora-, social, claustro-, acro-, and zoophobia.
89. Contrast the following models related to approaches for anxiety: sociocultural,
psychodynamic, humanistic-existential, cognitive
90. Understand and know the different functions of the nervous system: peripheral,
sympathetic, parasympathetic
91. What role does the hypothalamus have in the production and release of corticosteroids?
92. What types of events can trigger a psychological stress disorder?
93. Explain how the following factors play a role in developing a psychological stress
disorder: biological and genetic factors, personality factors, childhood experiences, social
support, multicultural factors, and severity of the trauma.
94. Understand and know the difference between: Dissociative disorder, post-traumatic stress
disorder, dissociative amnesia.
95. How are psychophysiological disorders affected by biological, psychological, and
sociocultural factors?
96. Describe the differences among: depression, mania, unipolar depression, anhedonia,
dysthymic disorder, cyclothymic disorder, and bipolar disorder.
97. Understand and be familiar with persistent depressive disorder symptoms and diagnostic
criteria.
98. Differentiate among automatic and intrusive thoughts.
99. Explain how depression may be caused by psychological factors, including
psychoanalytic, behavioral, and cognitive views (include Beck’s cognitive triad in your
answer).
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
100. Explain how Weiner’s attribution model and Abramson’s revision explain how
learned helplessness occurs. Know the difference between Internal and External, stable
versus unstable, and global versus specific within each of the attributions. Be prepared to
offer an example of each.
101. Discuss the benefits and weaknesses of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). Can this
form of therapy cause damage or be dangerous? What are some consequences of ECT?
102. Discuss the rise of antidepressant medications in recent years, including MAOs,
tricyclics, and SSRIs. Be familiar with each.
103. Discuss the use of brain stimulation techniques, including vagus nerve
stimulation, transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), and deep brain stimulation.
104. Describe mood stabilizing drug types and efficacy on bipolar disorders.
105. Explain the key features of somatoform and dissociative disorders.
106. Discuss how the three hysterical somatoform disorders (conversion disorder,
somatization disorder, and pain disorder with psychological factors) differ from each
other (include glove anesthesia in your answer).
107. Discuss the differences between: hysterical and factitious disorders (include
malingering and Munchausen syndrome and Munchausen syndrome by proxy in your
answer).
( Extra Key Notes )
4. Key Figures in the History of Abnormal Psychology
19. Philippe Pinel (1745–1826)
• French physician who reformed mental hospitals in France.
• Introduced moral treatment, emphasizing kindness, humane conditions, and talking with
patients.
• Freed patients from chains at La Bicêtre Hospital, improving their quality of life.
20. William Tuke (1732–1822)
• English Quaker who founded the York Retreat, a country house for the mentally ill.
• Promoted moral treatment focused on rest, prayer, and gentle care rather than
punishment.
21. Dorothea Dix (1802–1887)
• American schoolteacher and reformer.
• Campaigned for better treatment and conditions for people with mental illness in the
U.S. and helped establish state mental hospitals.
22. Emil Kraepelin (1856–1926)
• German psychiatrist who developed the first modern system for classifying mental
disorders.
• Identified patterns of symptoms and laid the groundwork for the DSM (Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders).
23. Benjamin Rush (1746–1813)
• Known as the father of American psychiatry.
• Advocated for humane treatment of patients and better hospital conditions, but also used
early medical treatments (like bloodletting).
24. Socrates (470–399 BCE)
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
• Ancient Greek philosopher who believed self-examination and rational thought could
lead to better understanding of one’s behavior.
25. Hippocrates (460–377 BCE)
• Known as the father of modern medicine.
• Believed mental illness had natural (biological) causes, not demonic possession.
• Introduced the theory of the four humors (blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile)
— imbalance was thought to cause abnormal behavior.
26. Aristotle (384–322 BCE)
• Greek philosopher who emphasized the connection between the mind and body,
believing mental disorders could stem from physical causes.
27. Plato (427–347 BCE)
• Believed abnormal behavior resulted from internal conflicts and emphasized the
importance of reason over emotion.
• Advocated for a hospital setting away from society for treatment.
Ancient Views and Treatments for Mental Disorders
Trephining (Trepanation):
An ancient practice where holes were drilled into the skull to “release evil spirits”
thought to cause abnormal behavior.
• Humors:
Based on Hippocrates’ theory, mental disorders were caused by an imbalance of bodily
fluids:
o Blood (sanguine – cheerful) o
Phlegm (phlegmatic – sluggish) o
Yellow bile (choleric – irritable) o
Black bile (melancholic –
depressed) Bedlam
(Bethlehem Hospital in London):
One of the first asylums, notorious for poor and inhumane treatment. Patients were
often chained, beaten, and displayed to the public. The word “bedlam” later came to
mean chaos or madness.
This resource has been provided to help you be successful in studying for the Topic 4 Midterm. It
is recommended you complete this document as you read the assigned chapters for Topics 1-4.
1. Discuss the “four Ds” of abnormal psychology; how does culture play a role in labeling a
behavior as deviant?
Distress-He seems to be experiencing emotional distress, though he might not openly
admit it.
Deviance-Variance from common patterns of behavior. - behaviors that stray from what
society considers “normal.” Example ( Alex’s behavior is certainly deviating from his
usual patterns and from what’s expected of a college student.)
Danger-While there’s no immediate threat, prolonged isolation and neglect of
responsibilities could lead to more serious consequences.
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
Dysfunction-When Life Goes Off the Rails, Our third D, Dysfunction, is where the
rubber meets the road. Take the case of Michael, a once-sociable marketing executive
who now struggles to leave his house due to severe panic attacks. His behavior is deviant
(most people don’t have trouble leaving their homes), it causes him distress (he’s
frustrated and anxious about his situation), and it’s clearly dysfunctional (he can’t work
or maintain relationships). This trifecta of Ds paints a clear picture of a potential anxiety
disorder.( His academic performance and social relationships are clearly suffering.)
2. Define abnormal psychology- The scientific study of abnormal behavior undertaken to
describe, predict, explain, and change abnormal patterns of functioning. Multiple
Choice Questions (Examples)
13. What is the best definition of abnormal psychology?
A) The study of human development and learning
B) The scientific study of normal behavior and emotions
C) The scientific study of abnormal behavior undertaken to describe, predict, explain,
andchange abnormal patterns of functioning ✅
D) The study of brain anatomy and intelligence
14. Which of the following is NOT one of the goals of abnormal psychology?
A) Describe abnormal behavior
B) Predict abnormal behavior
C) Explain abnormal behavior
D) Ignore abnormal behavior ✅
True/False Questions
15. Abnormal psychology aims to describe, predict, explain, and change abnormal patterns of
functioning.
Answer: True ✅
16. Abnormal psychology only describes abnormal behavior and does not attempt to change
it.
Answer: False ✅
12. Familiarize yourself with theorist Jerome Frank. What are the three essential features of
therapy?
A sufferer who seeks relief from the healer.
A trained, socially accepted healer, whose expertise is accepted by the sufferer
and his or her social group.
A series of contacts between the healer and the sufferer, through which the healer
... tries to produce certain changes in the sufferer's emotional state, attitudes, and
behavior.
13. Discuss the role of the following people in the history of abnormal psychology: Pinel,
Tuke, Dix, Kraepelin, Rush, Socrates, Hippocrates, Aristotle and Plato. List ancient views
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
of “treatments” for mental disorders (include trephining, humors, and Bedlam in your
answer).
-Pinel: The first chief physician for the asylum located in France. Argued that the
mentally challenged people should not be in chains and receive beatings, rather
than, they should show sympathy and kindness
-Tuke: Founder of York Retreat and treated patients with a combination of rest,
talk, prayer, and manual work.
- Boston schoolteacher who made human care more of a public and political
concern in the U.S. Believed in moral treatment
-Kraeplein: A German researcher who published a book arguing that physical
factors (e.g. fatigue) are responsible for mental dysfunction
-Rush: Father of American psychiatry; developed humane approaches to
treatment
- Often called the father of medicine, taught illnesses as
natural causes. Saw mental illness as uprising from internal
physical illness -Aristotle/Plato: shared ideas with Hippocrates about the internal
focus on abnormality
14. List the advantages and disadvantages of the following non-experimental methods: a)
self-report (including surveys and questionnaires), b) tests and other assessments, c)
physiological measures, d) observations (including naturalistic observations), and e) case
studies.
a) Self-Report Methods (Surveys and Questionnaires)
Advantages:
• Easy and inexpensive to collect large amounts of data.
• Can reach many people quickly.
• Allows researchers to study thoughts, feelings, and attitudes directly from participants.
Disadvantages:
• Social desirability bias: participants may give answers they think are “acceptable” rather
than truthful.
• Response bias or inaccuracy: people may not remember accurately or may misunderstand
questions.
• Limited depth: lacks detailed, in-depth information about individual experiences.
• Can provide objective, standardized measurements (e.g., IQ tests, personality
inventories).
• Useful for diagnosis and treatment planning.
• Allows comparison across individuals using established norms. Disadvantages:
• May be culturally biased or not valid for all populations.
• Results can be affected by test anxiety or situational factors.
• Does not always capture the complexity of human behavior or emotions.
Dix:
Hippocrates:
b)
Tests and Other Assessments
Advantages
:
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
• Provides objective and precise data about biological processes.
• Can reveal physical correlates of mental states (e.g., brain activity linked to anxiety).
Less influenced by participant bias or self-report errors. Disadvantages:
• Can be expensive and require specialized equipment.
• May be invasive or uncomfortable for participants.
• Results can be hard to interpret — biological responses don’t always clearly explain
behavior.
• Allows researchers to see real behavior in context, not just what people say they do.
• Useful for studying behaviors that can’t be easily measured through tests or surveys.
Can reveal patterns and social interactions in natural settings. Disadvantages:
• Observer bias: researcher’s expectations can influence what they notice or record.
• Reactivity (Hawthorne effect): people may change behavior when they know they’re
being observed.
• Time-consuming and may lack control over outside variables.
• Provides in-depth, detailed information about one person or a small group.
• Can help generate hypotheses for further research.
• Useful for studying rare or unusual cases (e.g., Phineas Gage). Disadvantages:
• Lack of generalizability: findings may not apply to others.
• Subjectivity: researcher bias can influence interpretation.
• Cannot establish cause and effect relationships.
✅ Example Study Question:
Question: What is one advantage and one disadvantage of using case studies in abnormal
psychology research?
Answer:
• Advantage: Provides rich, detailed data about an individual’s experience.
Disadvantage: Findings may not generalize to other people
6. Describe the main features of experimental research, including a) independent vs.
dependent variables, b) experimental vs. control groups, and c) random assignment vs.
random sample.
-Independent variables: The variable in an experiment that is manipulated to determine
if it has effect on another variable
-dependent variable: the variable in an experiment that is expected to change as the
independent is manipulated
c
)
Physiological Measure
s
(
e.g., heart rate, brain imaging, hormone levels
)
Advantages
:
d)
Observations (Including Naturalistic Observations)
Advantages
:
e)
Case Studie
s
Advantages
:
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
-Experimental group: In an experiment, the participants who are exposed to the
independent variable under investigation
-Control group: A group of participants who are not exposed to the independent variable
-Random assignment: A selection process that ensures that participants are randomly
placed either in the control or in the experimental group.
7. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of correlational studies
Correlational Studies Definition:
A correlational study examines the relationship between two or more variables to
determine whether they are associated (correlated).
👉 It does not involve manipulating variables — it simply measures them as they
naturally occur.
Strengths of Correlational Studies
13. Shows Relationships Between Variables o Helps researchers identify whether
variables are related (e.g., stress levels and depression).
14. Useful When Experiments Are Unethical or Impossible o Some variables can’t be
ethically manipulated (e.g., childhood trauma, mental illness).
15. Can Help Predict Behavior
o If two variables are strongly related, one can help predict the other (e.g., substance
abuse and risk of relapse).
16. Often Quick and Inexpensive o Data can be collected from surveys, archives, or
existing datasets.
Weaknesses of Correlational Studies
13. Cannot Determine Cause and Effect (No Causation!) o Correlation does not
mean one variable causes the other — there may be a third variable influencing
both.
14. Possible Third-Variable Problem o A hidden variable may explain the relationship
(e.g., poverty might explain the link between stress and illness).
15. Directionality Problem o Even if two variables are related, it’s unclear which
causes which (e.g., does depression cause isolation, or does isolation cause
depression?).
16. Potential for Misinterpretation o People often assume a correlation means
causation, which can lead to false conclusions.
✅
Example Study Question and Answer:
Question: What is a major limitation of correlational research?
Answer: Correlational research cannot determine cause-and-effect relationships between
variables.
Question: What is one strength of correlational studies?
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
Answer: They can identify and measure the strength and direction of relationships
between variables.
8.
Distinguish cross-sectional from longitudinal studies (incidence and prevalence).
Cross-Sectional vs. Longitudinal Studies
Both are non-experimental research designs used to study patterns of behavior, mental
disorders, or health over time.
1. Cross-Sectional Studies
• Examine different groups of people at a single point in time.
• Often used to measure prevalence (how common a disorder is at a given time). Key
Features:
• Quick and relatively inexpensive.
• Provides a “snapshot” of a population.
• Can compare different age groups or demographics at once. Strengths:
• Efficient for studying large populations.
• Useful for identifying prevalence rates.
Weaknesses:
• Cannot measure incidence (new cases over time).
• Cannot establish cause-and-effect or track changes within individuals. Example:
• Surveying 1,000 people of various ages to find the current prevalence of depression.
2. Longitudinal Studies
• Follow the same group of people over time to see how variables change.
• Often used to measure incidence (number of new cases of a disorder that develop over a
specific period).
Key Features:
• Tracks changes in the same participants over months, years, or decades.
• Can study developmental trends and causal relationships more effectively.
Strengths:
• Can measure incidence (new cases) and patterns of change.
• Useful for studying long-term effects of risk factors or treatments. Weaknesses:
• Time-consuming and expensive.
• Participant dropout can bias results.
• Not always practical for very long periods.
Example:
• Following a group of 500 children for 10 years to see how many develop anxiety
disorders over time.
Key Terms: Prevalence vs. Incidence
• Prevalence: Total number of cases (old + new) of a disorder in a population at a given
time.
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
• Incidence: Number of new cases that develop in a population over a specific time period.
✅ Example Study Questions:
7. Question: What is the main difference between cross-sectional and longitudinal studies?
Answer: Cross-sectional studies examine different groups at one point in time
(prevalence), while longitudinal studies follow the same group over time to track new
cases (incidence).
8. Question: Which type of study is best for measuring the incidence of a disorder?
Answer: Longitudinal study.
108. Define the terms epidemiological studies, incidence, and prevalence.
109. What are other terms used interchangeably for the term “perspective” in
psychology?
110. Discuss the types of available biological treatments.
111. What are the three levels of Freud’s theory of the psyche, and what three
components inhabit these levels?
112. Discuss the elements seen in psychodynamic therapy, including free association,
resistance, transference, countertransference, dream analysis, catharsis, and “working
through.”
113. Discuss the features of the cognitive model and cognitive-behavioral therapy,
including theorist’s contributions: Ellis’ REBT, Beck’s cognitive therapy, and
Meichenbaum’s selfinstructional training.
114. Discuss the cognitive-behavioral model and how it integrates the cognitive and
behavioral models into one unified perspective/model.
115. Discuss the features of humanistic psychology and therapy, including self-
actualization, client-centered therapy, conditions of worth, and unconditional vs.
conditional positive regard.
116. Discuss the features of Gestalt theory and therapy, including skillful frustration,
role playing, rules, and here-and-now.
117. Contrast the family-social and multicultural perspectives found in the
sociocultural model. Include social labels, roles, social support and family systems theory
in your answer.
118. How does anxiety differ from fear? Define both.
119. Define the types of anxiety: free-floating, specific, fearful
120. How do phobias differ from normal fears?
121. Define astra-, agora-, social, claustro-, acro-, and zoophobia.
122. Contrast the following models related to approaches for anxiety: sociocultural,
psychodynamic, humanistic-existential, cognitive
123. Understand and know the different functions of the nervous system: peripheral,
sympathetic, parasympathetic
124. What role does the hypothalamus have in the production and release of
corticosteroids?
125. What types of events can trigger a psychological stress disorder?
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
126. Explain how the following factors play a role in developing a psychological stress
disorder: biological and genetic factors, personality factors, childhood experiences, social
support, multicultural factors, and severity of the trauma.
127. Understand and know the difference between: Dissociative disorder, post-
traumatic stress disorder, dissociative amnesia.
128. How are psychophysiological disorders affected by biological, psychological, and
sociocultural factors?
129. Describe the differences among: depression, mania, unipolar depression,
anhedonia, dysthymic disorder, cyclothymic disorder, and bipolar disorder.
130. Understand and be familiar with persistent depressive disorder symptoms and
diagnostic criteria.
131. Differentiate among automatic and intrusive thoughts.
132. Explain how depression may be caused by psychological factors, including
psychoanalytic, behavioral, and cognitive views (include Beck’s cognitive triad in your
answer).
133. Explain how Weiner’s attribution model and Abramson’s revision explain how
learned helplessness occurs. Know the difference between Internal and External, stable
versus unstable, and global versus specific within each of the attributions. Be prepared to
offer an example of each.
134. Discuss the benefits and weaknesses of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). Can this
form of therapy cause damage or be dangerous? What are some consequences of ECT?
135. Discuss the rise of antidepressant medications in recent years, including MAOs,
tricyclics, and SSRIs. Be familiar with each.
136. Discuss the use of brain stimulation techniques, including vagus nerve
stimulation, transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), and deep brain stimulation.
137. Describe mood stabilizing drug types and efficacy on bipolar disorders.
138. Explain the key features of somatoform and dissociative disorders.
139. Discuss how the three hysterical somatoform disorders (conversion disorder,
somatization disorder, and pain disorder with psychological factors) differ from each
other (include glove anesthesia in your answer).
140. Discuss the differences between: hysterical and factitious disorders (include
malingering and Munchausen syndrome and Munchausen syndrome by proxy in your
answer).
( Extra Key Notes )
4. Key Figures in the History of Abnormal Psychology
28. Philippe Pinel (1745–1826)
• French physician who reformed mental hospitals in France.
• Introduced moral treatment, emphasizing kindness, humane conditions, and talking with
patients.
• Freed patients from chains at La Bicêtre Hospital, improving their quality of life.
29. William Tuke (1732–1822)
• English Quaker who founded the York Retreat, a country house for the mentally ill.
• Promoted moral treatment focused on rest, prayer, and gentle care rather than
punishment.
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
30. Dorothea Dix (1802–1887)
• American schoolteacher and reformer.
• Campaigned for better treatment and conditions for people with mental illness in the
U.S. and helped establish state mental hospitals.
31. Emil Kraepelin (1856–1926)
• German psychiatrist who developed the first modern system for classifying mental
disorders.
• Identified patterns of symptoms and laid the groundwork for the DSM (Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders).
32. Benjamin Rush (1746–1813)
• Known as the father of American psychiatry.
• Advocated for humane treatment of patients and better hospital conditions, but also used
early medical treatments (like bloodletting).
33. Socrates (470–399 BCE)
• Ancient Greek philosopher who believed self-examination and rational thought could
lead to better understanding of one’s behavior.
34. Hippocrates (460–377 BCE)
• Known as the father of modern medicine.
• Believed mental illness had natural (biological) causes, not demonic possession.
• Introduced the theory of the four humors (blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile)
— imbalance was thought to cause abnormal behavior.
35. Aristotle (384–322 BCE)
• Greek philosopher who emphasized the connection between the mind and body,
believing mental disorders could stem from physical causes.
36. Plato (427–347 BCE)
• Believed abnormal behavior resulted from internal conflicts and emphasized the
importance of reason over emotion.
• Advocated for a hospital setting away from society for treatment.
Ancient Views and Treatments for Mental Disorders
Trephining (Trepanation):
An ancient practice where holes were drilled into the skull to “release evil spirits”
thought to cause abnormal behavior.
• Humors:
Based on Hippocrates’ theory, mental disorders were caused by an imbalance of bodily
fluids:
o Blood (sanguine – cheerful) o
Phlegm (phlegmatic – sluggish) o
Yellow bile (choleric – irritable) o
Black bile (melancholic –
depressed) Bedlam
(Bethlehem Hospital in London):
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
One of the first asylums, notorious for poor and inhumane treatment. Patients were
often chained, beaten, and displayed to the public. The word “bedlam” later came to
mean chaos or madness.
This resource has been provided to help you be successful in studying for the Topic 4 Midterm. It
is recommended you complete this document as you read the assigned chapters for Topics 1-4.
1. Discuss the “four Ds” of abnormal psychology; how does culture play a role in labeling a
behavior as deviant?
Distress-He seems to be experiencing emotional distress, though he might not openly
admit it.
Deviance-Variance from common patterns of behavior. - behaviors that stray from what
society considers “normal.” Example ( Alex’s behavior is certainly deviating from his
usual patterns and from what’s expected of a college student.)
Danger-While there’s no immediate threat, prolonged isolation and neglect of
responsibilities could lead to more serious consequences.
Dysfunction-When Life Goes Off the Rails, Our third D, Dysfunction, is where the
rubber meets the road. Take the case of Michael, a once-sociable marketing executive
who now struggles to leave his house due to severe panic attacks. His behavior is deviant
(most people don’t have trouble leaving their homes), it causes him distress (he’s
frustrated and anxious about his situation), and it’s clearly dysfunctional (he can’t work
or maintain relationships). This trifecta of Ds paints a clear picture of a potential anxiety
disorder.( His academic performance and social relationships are clearly suffering.)
2. Define abnormal psychology- The scientific study of abnormal behavior undertaken to
describe, predict, explain, and change abnormal patterns of functioning. Multiple
Choice Questions (Examples)
17. What is the best definition of abnormal psychology?
A) The study of human development and learning
B) The scientific study of normal behavior and emotions
C) The scientific study of abnormal behavior undertaken to describe, predict, explain,
andchange abnormal patterns of functioning ✅
D) The study of brain anatomy and intelligence
18. Which of the following is NOT one of the goals of abnormal psychology?
A) Describe abnormal behavior
B) Predict abnormal behavior
C) Explain abnormal behavior
D) Ignore abnormal behavior ✅
True/False Questions
19. Abnormal psychology aims to describe, predict, explain, and change abnormal patterns of
functioning.
Answer: True ✅
20. Abnormal psychology only describes abnormal behavior and does not attempt to change
it.
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
Answer: False ✅
15. Familiarize yourself with theorist Jerome Frank. What are the three essential features of
therapy?
A sufferer who seeks relief from the healer.
A trained, socially accepted healer, whose expertise is accepted by the sufferer
and his or her social group.
A series of contacts between the healer and the sufferer, through which the healer
... tries to produce certain changes in the sufferer's emotional state, attitudes, and
behavior.
16. Discuss the role of the following people in the history of abnormal psychology: Pinel,
Tuke, Dix, Kraepelin, Rush, Socrates, Hippocrates, Aristotle and Plato. List ancient views
of “treatments” for mental disorders (include trephining, humors, and Bedlam in your
answer).
-Pinel: The first chief physician for the asylum located in France. Argued that the
mentally challenged people should not be in chains and receive beatings, rather
than, they should show sympathy and kindness
-Tuke: Founder of York Retreat and treated patients with a combination of rest,
talk, prayer, and manual work.
- Boston schoolteacher who made human care more of a public and political
concern in the U.S. Believed in moral treatment
-Kraeplein: A German researcher who published a book arguing that physical
factors (e.g. fatigue) are responsible for mental dysfunction
-Rush: Father of American psychiatry; developed humane approaches to
treatment
- Often called the father of medicine, taught illnesses as
natural causes. Saw mental illness as uprising from internal
physical illness -Aristotle/Plato: shared ideas with Hippocrates about the internal
focus on abnormality
17. List the advantages and disadvantages of the following non-experimental methods: a)
self-report (including surveys and questionnaires), b) tests and other assessments, c)
physiological measures, d) observations (including naturalistic observations), and e) case
studies.
a) Self-Report Methods (Surveys and Questionnaires)
Advantages:
• Easy and inexpensive to collect large amounts of data.
• Can reach many people quickly.
• Allows researchers to study thoughts, feelings, and attitudes directly from participants.
Disadvantages:
• Social desirability bias: participants may give answers they think are “acceptable” rather
than truthful.
Dix:
Hippocrates:
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
• Response bias or inaccuracy: people may not remember accurately or may misunderstand
questions.
• Limited depth: lacks detailed, in-depth information about individual experiences.
• Can provide objective, standardized measurements (e.g., IQ tests, personality
inventories).
• Useful for diagnosis and treatment planning.
• Allows comparison across individuals using established norms. Disadvantages:
• May be culturally biased or not valid for all populations.
• Results can be affected by test anxiety or situational factors.
• Does not always capture the complexity of human behavior or emotions.
• Provides objective and precise data about biological processes.
• Can reveal physical correlates of mental states (e.g., brain activity linked to anxiety).
Less influenced by participant bias or self-report errors. Disadvantages:
• Can be expensive and require specialized equipment.
• May be invasive or uncomfortable for participants.
• Results can be hard to interpret — biological responses don’t always clearly explain
behavior.
• Allows researchers to see real behavior in context, not just what people say they do.
• Useful for studying behaviors that can’t be easily measured through tests or surveys.
Can reveal patterns and social interactions in natural settings. Disadvantages:
• Observer bias: researcher’s expectations can influence what they notice or record.
• Reactivity (Hawthorne effect): people may change behavior when they know they’re
being observed.
• Time-consuming and may lack control over outside variables.
• Provides in-depth, detailed information about one person or a small group.
• Can help generate hypotheses for further research.
• Useful for studying rare or unusual cases (e.g., Phineas Gage). Disadvantages:
• Lack of generalizability: findings may not apply to others.
• Subjectivity: researcher bias can influence interpretation.
• Cannot establish cause and effect relationships.
✅ Example Study Question:
b)
Tests and Other Assessments
Advantages
:
c
)
Physiological Measure
s
(
e.g., heart rate, brain imaging, hormone levels
)
Advantages
:
d)
Observations (Including Naturalistic Observations)
Advantages
:
e)
Case Studie
s
Advantages
:
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
Question: What is one advantage and one disadvantage of using case studies in abnormal
psychology research?
Answer:
• Advantage: Provides rich, detailed data about an individual’s experience.
Disadvantage: Findings may not generalize to other people
6. Describe the main features of experimental research, including a) independent vs.
dependent variables, b) experimental vs. control groups, and c) random assignment vs.
random sample.
-Independent variables: The variable in an experiment that is manipulated to determine
if it has effect on another variable
-dependent variable: the variable in an experiment that is expected to change as the
independent is manipulated
-Experimental group: In an experiment, the participants who are exposed to the
independent variable under investigation
-Control group: A group of participants who are not exposed to the independent variable
-Random assignment: A selection process that ensures that participants are randomly
placed either in the control or in the experimental group.
7. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of correlational studies
Correlational Studies Definition:
A correlational study examines the relationship between two or more variables to
determine whether they are associated (correlated).
👉 It does not involve manipulating variables — it simply measures them as they
naturally occur.
Strengths of Correlational Studies
17. Shows Relationships Between Variables o Helps researchers identify whether
variables are related (e.g., stress levels and depression).
18. Useful When Experiments Are Unethical or Impossible o Some variables can’t be
ethically manipulated (e.g., childhood trauma, mental illness).
19. Can Help Predict Behavior
o If two variables are strongly related, one can help predict the other (e.g., substance
abuse and risk of relapse).
20. Often Quick and Inexpensive o Data can be collected from surveys, archives, or
existing datasets.
Weaknesses of Correlational Studies
17. Cannot Determine Cause and Effect (No Causation!) o Correlation does not
mean one variable causes the other — there may be a third variable influencing
both.
18. Possible Third-Variable Problem o A hidden variable may explain the relationship
(e.g., poverty might explain the link between stress and illness).
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
19. Directionality Problem o Even if two variables are related, it’s unclear which
causes which (e.g., does depression cause isolation, or does isolation cause
depression?).
20. Potential for Misinterpretation o People often assume a correlation means
causation, which can lead to false conclusions.
✅
Example Study Question and Answer:
Question: What is a major limitation of correlational research?
Answer: Correlational research cannot determine cause-and-effect relationships between
variables.
Question: What is one strength of correlational studies?
Answer: They can identify and measure the strength and direction of relationships
between variables.
8.
Distinguish cross-sectional from longitudinal studies (incidence and prevalence).
Cross-Sectional vs. Longitudinal Studies
Both are non-experimental research designs used to study patterns of behavior, mental
disorders, or health over time.
1. Cross-Sectional Studies
• Examine different groups of people at a single point in time.
• Often used to measure prevalence (how common a disorder is at a given time). Key
Features:
• Quick and relatively inexpensive.
• Provides a “snapshot” of a population.
• Can compare different age groups or demographics at once. Strengths:
• Efficient for studying large populations.
• Useful for identifying prevalence rates.
Weaknesses:
• Cannot measure incidence (new cases over time).
• Cannot establish cause-and-effect or track changes within individuals. Example:
• Surveying 1,000 people of various ages to find the current prevalence of depression.
2. Longitudinal Studies
• Follow the same group of people over time to see how variables change.
• Often used to measure incidence (number of new cases of a disorder that develop over a
specific period).
Key Features:
• Tracks changes in the same participants over months, years, or decades.
• Can study developmental trends and causal relationships more effectively.
Strengths:
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
• Can measure incidence (new cases) and patterns of change.
• Useful for studying long-term effects of risk factors or treatments. Weaknesses:
• Time-consuming and expensive.
• Participant dropout can bias results.
• Not always practical for very long periods.
Example:
• Following a group of 500 children for 10 years to see how many develop anxiety
disorders over time.
Key Terms: Prevalence vs. Incidence
• Prevalence: Total number of cases (old + new) of a disorder in a population at a given
time.
• Incidence: Number of new cases that develop in a population over a specific time period.
✅ Example Study Questions:
9. Question: What is the main difference between cross-sectional and longitudinal studies?
Answer: Cross-sectional studies examine different groups at one point in time
(prevalence), while longitudinal studies follow the same group over time to track new
cases (incidence).
10. Question: Which type of study is best for measuring the incidence of a disorder?
Answer: Longitudinal study.
141. Define the terms epidemiological studies, incidence, and prevalence.
142. What are other terms used interchangeably for the term “perspective” in
psychology?
143. Discuss the types of available biological treatments.
144. What are the three levels of Freud’s theory of the psyche, and what three
components inhabit these levels?
145. Discuss the elements seen in psychodynamic therapy, including free association,
resistance, transference, countertransference, dream analysis, catharsis, and “working
through.”
146. Discuss the features of the cognitive model and cognitive-behavioral therapy,
including theorist’s contributions: Ellis’ REBT, Beck’s cognitive therapy, and
Meichenbaum’s selfinstructional training.
147. Discuss the cognitive-behavioral model and how it integrates the cognitive and
behavioral models into one unified perspective/model.
148. Discuss the features of humanistic psychology and therapy, including self-
actualization, client-centered therapy, conditions of worth, and unconditional vs.
conditional positive regard.
149. Discuss the features of Gestalt theory and therapy, including skillful frustration,
role playing, rules, and here-and-now.
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
150. Contrast the family-social and multicultural perspectives found in the
sociocultural model. Include social labels, roles, social support and family systems theory
in your answer.
151. How does anxiety differ from fear? Define both.
152. Define the types of anxiety: free-floating, specific, fearful
153. How do phobias differ from normal fears?
154. Define astra-, agora-, social, claustro-, acro-, and zoophobia.
155. Contrast the following models related to approaches for anxiety: sociocultural,
psychodynamic, humanistic-existential, cognitive
156. Understand and know the different functions of the nervous system: peripheral,
sympathetic, parasympathetic
157. What role does the hypothalamus have in the production and release of
corticosteroids?
158. What types of events can trigger a psychological stress disorder?
159. Explain how the following factors play a role in developing a psychological stress
disorder: biological and genetic factors, personality factors, childhood experiences, social
support, multicultural factors, and severity of the trauma.
160. Understand and know the difference between: Dissociative disorder, post-
traumatic stress disorder, dissociative amnesia.
161. How are psychophysiological disorders affected by biological, psychological, and
sociocultural factors?
162. Describe the differences among: depression, mania, unipolar depression,
anhedonia, dysthymic disorder, cyclothymic disorder, and bipolar disorder.
163. Understand and be familiar with persistent depressive disorder symptoms and
diagnostic criteria.
164. Differentiate among automatic and intrusive thoughts.
165. Explain how depression may be caused by psychological factors, including
psychoanalytic, behavioral, and cognitive views (include Beck’s cognitive triad in your
answer).
166. Explain how Weiner’s attribution model and Abramson’s revision explain how
learned helplessness occurs. Know the difference between Internal and External, stable
versus unstable, and global versus specific within each of the attributions. Be prepared to
offer an example of each.
167. Discuss the benefits and weaknesses of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). Can this
form of therapy cause damage or be dangerous? What are some consequences of ECT?
168. Discuss the rise of antidepressant medications in recent years, including MAOs,
tricyclics, and SSRIs. Be familiar with each.
169. Discuss the use of brain stimulation techniques, including vagus nerve
stimulation, transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), and deep brain stimulation.
170. Describe mood stabilizing drug types and efficacy on bipolar disorders.
171. Explain the key features of somatoform and dissociative disorders.
172. Discuss how the three hysterical somatoform disorders (conversion disorder,
somatization disorder, and pain disorder with psychological factors) differ from each
other (include glove anesthesia in your answer).
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
173. Discuss the differences between: hysterical and factitious disorders (include
malingering and Munchausen syndrome and Munchausen syndrome by proxy in your
answer).
( Extra Key Notes )
4. Key Figures in the History of Abnormal Psychology
37. Philippe Pinel (1745–1826)
• French physician who reformed mental hospitals in France.
• Introduced moral treatment, emphasizing kindness, humane conditions, and talking with
patients.
• Freed patients from chains at La Bicêtre Hospital, improving their quality of life.
38. William Tuke (1732–1822)
• English Quaker who founded the York Retreat, a country house for the mentally ill.
• Promoted moral treatment focused on rest, prayer, and gentle care rather than
punishment.
39. Dorothea Dix (1802–1887)
• American schoolteacher and reformer.
• Campaigned for better treatment and conditions for people with mental illness in the
U.S. and helped establish state mental hospitals.
40. Emil Kraepelin (1856–1926)
• German psychiatrist who developed the first modern system for classifying mental
disorders.
• Identified patterns of symptoms and laid the groundwork for the DSM (Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders).
41. Benjamin Rush (1746–1813)
• Known as the father of American psychiatry.
• Advocated for humane treatment of patients and better hospital conditions, but also used
early medical treatments (like bloodletting).
42. Socrates (470–399 BCE)
• Ancient Greek philosopher who believed self-examination and rational thought could
lead to better understanding of one’s behavior.
43. Hippocrates (460–377 BCE)
• Known as the father of modern medicine.
• Believed mental illness had natural (biological) causes, not demonic possession.
• Introduced the theory of the four humors (blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile)
— imbalance was thought to cause abnormal behavior.
44. Aristotle (384–322 BCE)
• Greek philosopher who emphasized the connection between the mind and body,
believing mental disorders could stem from physical causes.
45. Plato (427–347 BCE)
• Believed abnormal behavior resulted from internal conflicts and emphasized the
importance of reason over emotion.
• Advocated for a hospital setting away from society for treatment.
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
Ancient Views and Treatments for Mental Disorders
Trephining (Trepanation):
An ancient practice where holes were drilled into the skull to “release evil spirits”
thought to cause abnormal behavior.
• Humors:
Based on Hippocrates’ theory, mental disorders were caused by an imbalance of bodily
fluids:
o Blood (sanguine – cheerful) o
Phlegm (phlegmatic – sluggish) o
Yellow bile (choleric – irritable) o
Black bile (melancholic –
depressed) Bedlam
(Bethlehem Hospital in London):
One of the first asylums, notorious for poor and inhumane treatment. Patients were
often chained, beaten, and displayed to the public. The word “bedlam” later came to
mean chaos or madness.
This resource has been provided to help you be successful in studying for the Topic 4 Midterm. It
is recommended you complete this document as you read the assigned chapters for Topics 1-4.
1. Discuss the “four Ds” of abnormal psychology; how does culture play a role in labeling a
behavior as deviant?
Distress-He seems to be experiencing emotional distress, though he might not openly
admit it.
Deviance-Variance from common patterns of behavior. - behaviors that stray from what
society considers “normal.” Example ( Alex’s behavior is certainly deviating from his
usual patterns and from what’s expected of a college student.)
Danger-While there’s no immediate threat, prolonged isolation and neglect of
responsibilities could lead to more serious consequences.
Dysfunction-When Life Goes Off the Rails, Our third D, Dysfunction, is where the
rubber meets the road. Take the case of Michael, a once-sociable marketing executive
who now struggles to leave his house due to severe panic attacks. His behavior is deviant
(most people don’t have trouble leaving their homes), it causes him distress (he’s
frustrated and anxious about his situation), and it’s clearly dysfunctional (he can’t work
or maintain relationships). This trifecta of Ds paints a clear picture of a potential anxiety
disorder.( His academic performance and social relationships are clearly suffering.)
2. Define abnormal psychology- The scientific study of abnormal behavior undertaken to
describe, predict, explain, and change abnormal patterns of functioning. Multiple
Choice Questions (Examples)
21. What is the best definition of abnormal psychology?
A) The study of human development and learning
B) The scientific study of normal behavior and emotions
C) The scientific study of abnormal behavior undertaken to describe, predict, explain,
andchange abnormal patterns of functioning ✅
D) The study of brain anatomy and intelligence
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
22. Which of the following is NOT one of the goals of abnormal psychology?
A) Describe abnormal behavior
B) Predict abnormal behavior
C) Explain abnormal behavior
D) Ignore abnormal behavior ✅
True/False Questions
23. Abnormal psychology aims to describe, predict, explain, and change abnormal patterns of
functioning.
Answer: True ✅
24. Abnormal psychology only describes abnormal behavior and does not attempt to change
it.
Answer: False ✅
18. Familiarize yourself with theorist Jerome Frank. What are the three essential features of
therapy?
A sufferer who seeks relief from the healer.
A trained, socially accepted healer, whose expertise is accepted by the sufferer
and his or her social group.
A series of contacts between the healer and the sufferer, through which the healer
... tries to produce certain changes in the sufferer's emotional state, attitudes, and
behavior.
19. Discuss the role of the following people in the history of abnormal psychology: Pinel,
Tuke, Dix, Kraepelin, Rush, Socrates, Hippocrates, Aristotle and Plato. List ancient views
of “treatments” for mental disorders (include trephining, humors, and Bedlam in your
answer).
-Pinel: The first chief physician for the asylum located in France. Argued that the
mentally challenged people should not be in chains and receive beatings, rather
than, they should show sympathy and kindness
-Tuke: Founder of York Retreat and treated patients with a combination of rest,
talk, prayer, and manual work.
- Boston schoolteacher who made human care more of a public and political
concern in the U.S. Believed in moral treatment
-Kraeplein: A German researcher who published a book arguing that physical
factors (e.g. fatigue) are responsible for mental dysfunction
-Rush: Father of American psychiatry; developed humane approaches to
treatment
- Often called the father of medicine, taught illnesses as
natural causes. Saw mental illness as uprising from internal
Dix:
Hippocrates:
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
physical illness -Aristotle/Plato: shared ideas with Hippocrates about the internal
focus on abnormality
20. List the advantages and disadvantages of the following non-experimental methods: a)
self-report (including surveys and questionnaires), b) tests and other assessments, c)
physiological measures, d) observations (including naturalistic observations), and e) case
studies.
a) Self-Report Methods (Surveys and Questionnaires)
Advantages:
• Easy and inexpensive to collect large amounts of data.
• Can reach many people quickly.
• Allows researchers to study thoughts, feelings, and attitudes directly from participants.
Disadvantages:
• Social desirability bias: participants may give answers they think are “acceptable” rather
than truthful.
• Response bias or inaccuracy: people may not remember accurately or may misunderstand
questions.
• Limited depth: lacks detailed, in-depth information about individual experiences.
• Can provide objective, standardized measurements (e.g., IQ tests, personality
inventories).
• Useful for diagnosis and treatment planning.
• Allows comparison across individuals using established norms. Disadvantages:
• May be culturally biased or not valid for all populations.
• Results can be affected by test anxiety or situational factors.
• Does not always capture the complexity of human behavior or emotions.
• Provides objective and precise data about biological processes.
• Can reveal physical correlates of mental states (e.g., brain activity linked to anxiety).
Less influenced by participant bias or self-report errors. Disadvantages:
• Can be expensive and require specialized equipment.
• May be invasive or uncomfortable for participants.
• Results can be hard to interpret — biological responses don’t always clearly explain
behavior.
• Allows researchers to see real behavior in context, not just what people say they do.
• Useful for studying behaviors that can’t be easily measured through tests or surveys.
Can reveal patterns and social interactions in natural settings. Disadvantages:
• Observer bias: researcher’s expectations can influence what they notice or record.
b)
Tests and Other Assessments
Advantages
:
c
)
Physiological Measure
s
(
e.g., heart rate, brain imaging, hormone levels
)
Advantages
:
d)
Observations (Including Naturalistic Observations)
Advantages
:
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
• Reactivity (Hawthorne effect): people may change behavior when they know they’re
being observed.
• Time-consuming and may lack control over outside variables.
• Provides in-depth, detailed information about one person or a small group.
• Can help generate hypotheses for further research.
• Useful for studying rare or unusual cases (e.g., Phineas Gage). Disadvantages:
• Lack of generalizability: findings may not apply to others.
• Subjectivity: researcher bias can influence interpretation.
• Cannot establish cause and effect relationships.
✅ Example Study Question:
Question: What is one advantage and one disadvantage of using case studies in abnormal
psychology research?
Answer:
• Advantage: Provides rich, detailed data about an individual’s experience.
Disadvantage: Findings may not generalize to other people
6. Describe the main features of experimental research, including a) independent vs.
dependent variables, b) experimental vs. control groups, and c) random assignment vs.
random sample.
-Independent variables: The variable in an experiment that is manipulated to determine
if it has effect on another variable
-dependent variable: the variable in an experiment that is expected to change as the
independent is manipulated
-Experimental group: In an experiment, the participants who are exposed to the
independent variable under investigation
-Control group: A group of participants who are not exposed to the independent variable
-Random assignment: A selection process that ensures that participants are randomly
placed either in the control or in the experimental group.
7. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of correlational studies
Correlational Studies Definition:
A correlational study examines the relationship between two or more variables to
determine whether they are associated (correlated).
👉 It does not involve manipulating variables — it simply measures them as they
naturally occur.
Strengths of Correlational Studies
21. Shows Relationships Between Variables o Helps researchers identify whether
variables are related (e.g., stress levels and depression).
e)
Case Studie
s
Advantages
:
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
22. Useful When Experiments Are Unethical or Impossible o Some variables can’t be
ethically manipulated (e.g., childhood trauma, mental illness).
23. Can Help Predict Behavior
o If two variables are strongly related, one can help predict the other (e.g., substance
abuse and risk of relapse).
24. Often Quick and Inexpensive o Data can be collected from surveys, archives, or
existing datasets.
Weaknesses of Correlational Studies
21. Cannot Determine Cause and Effect (No Causation!) o Correlation does not
mean one variable causes the other — there may be a third variable influencing
both.
22. Possible Third-Variable Problem o A hidden variable may explain the relationship
(e.g., poverty might explain the link between stress and illness).
23. Directionality Problem o Even if two variables are related, it’s unclear which
causes which (e.g., does depression cause isolation, or does isolation cause
depression?).
24. Potential for Misinterpretation o People often assume a correlation means
causation, which can lead to false conclusions.
✅
Example Study Question and Answer:
Question: What is a major limitation of correlational research?
Answer: Correlational research cannot determine cause-and-effect relationships between
variables.
Question: What is one strength of correlational studies?
Answer: They can identify and measure the strength and direction of relationships
between variables.
8.
Distinguish cross-sectional from longitudinal studies (incidence and prevalence).
Cross-Sectional vs. Longitudinal Studies
Both are non-experimental research designs used to study patterns of behavior, mental
disorders, or health over time.
1. Cross-Sectional Studies
• Examine different groups of people at a single point in time.
• Often used to measure prevalence (how common a disorder is at a given time). Key
Features:
• Quick and relatively inexpensive.
• Provides a “snapshot” of a population.
• Can compare different age groups or demographics at once. Strengths:
• Efficient for studying large populations.
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
• Useful for identifying prevalence rates.
Weaknesses:
• Cannot measure incidence (new cases over time).
• Cannot establish cause-and-effect or track changes within individuals. Example:
• Surveying 1,000 people of various ages to find the current prevalence of depression.
2. Longitudinal Studies
• Follow the same group of people over time to see how variables change.
• Often used to measure incidence (number of new cases of a disorder that develop over a
specific period).
Key Features:
• Tracks changes in the same participants over months, years, or decades.
• Can study developmental trends and causal relationships more effectively.
Strengths:
• Can measure incidence (new cases) and patterns of change.
• Useful for studying long-term effects of risk factors or treatments. Weaknesses:
• Time-consuming and expensive.
• Participant dropout can bias results.
• Not always practical for very long periods.
Example:
• Following a group of 500 children for 10 years to see how many develop anxiety
disorders over time.
Key Terms: Prevalence vs. Incidence
• Prevalence: Total number of cases (old + new) of a disorder in a population at a given
time.
• Incidence: Number of new cases that develop in a population over a specific time period.
✅ Example Study Questions:
11. Question: What is the main difference between cross-sectional and longitudinal studies?
Answer: Cross-sectional studies examine different groups at one point in time
(prevalence), while longitudinal studies follow the same group over time to track new
cases (incidence).
12. Question: Which type of study is best for measuring the incidence of a disorder?
Answer: Longitudinal study.
174. Define the terms epidemiological studies, incidence, and prevalence.
175. What are other terms used interchangeably for the term “perspective” in
psychology?
176. Discuss the types of available biological treatments.
177. What are the three levels of Freud’s theory of the psyche, and what three
components inhabit these levels?
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
178. Discuss the elements seen in psychodynamic therapy, including free association,
resistance, transference, countertransference, dream analysis, catharsis, and “working
through.”
179. Discuss the features of the cognitive model and cognitive-behavioral therapy,
including theorist’s contributions: Ellis’ REBT, Beck’s cognitive therapy, and
Meichenbaum’s selfinstructional training.
180. Discuss the cognitive-behavioral model and how it integrates the cognitive and
behavioral models into one unified perspective/model.
181. Discuss the features of humanistic psychology and therapy, including self-
actualization, client-centered therapy, conditions of worth, and unconditional vs.
conditional positive regard.
182. Discuss the features of Gestalt theory and therapy, including skillful frustration,
role playing, rules, and here-and-now.
183. Contrast the family-social and multicultural perspectives found in the
sociocultural model. Include social labels, roles, social support and family systems theory
in your answer.
184. How does anxiety differ from fear? Define both.
185. Define the types of anxiety: free-floating, specific, fearful
186. How do phobias differ from normal fears?
187. Define astra-, agora-, social, claustro-, acro-, and zoophobia.
188. Contrast the following models related to approaches for anxiety: sociocultural,
psychodynamic, humanistic-existential, cognitive
189. Understand and know the different functions of the nervous system: peripheral,
sympathetic, parasympathetic
190. What role does the hypothalamus have in the production and release of
corticosteroids?
191. What types of events can trigger a psychological stress disorder?
192. Explain how the following factors play a role in developing a psychological stress
disorder: biological and genetic factors, personality factors, childhood experiences, social
support, multicultural factors, and severity of the trauma.
193. Understand and know the difference between: Dissociative disorder, post-
traumatic stress disorder, dissociative amnesia.
194. How are psychophysiological disorders affected by biological, psychological, and
sociocultural factors?
195. Describe the differences among: depression, mania, unipolar depression,
anhedonia, dysthymic disorder, cyclothymic disorder, and bipolar disorder.
196. Understand and be familiar with persistent depressive disorder symptoms and
diagnostic criteria.
197. Differentiate among automatic and intrusive thoughts.
198. Explain how depression may be caused by psychological factors, including
psychoanalytic, behavioral, and cognitive views (include Beck’s cognitive triad in your
answer).
199. Explain how Weiner’s attribution model and Abramson’s revision explain how
learned helplessness occurs. Know the difference between Internal and External, stable
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
versus unstable, and global versus specific within each of the attributions. Be prepared to
offer an example of each.
200. Discuss the benefits and weaknesses of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). Can this
form of therapy cause damage or be dangerous? What are some consequences of ECT?
201. Discuss the rise of antidepressant medications in recent years, including MAOs,
tricyclics, and SSRIs. Be familiar with each.
202. Discuss the use of brain stimulation techniques, including vagus nerve
stimulation, transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), and deep brain stimulation.
203. Describe mood stabilizing drug types and efficacy on bipolar disorders.
204. Explain the key features of somatoform and dissociative disorders.
205. Discuss how the three hysterical somatoform disorders (conversion disorder,
somatization disorder, and pain disorder with psychological factors) differ from each
other (include glove anesthesia in your answer).
206. Discuss the differences between: hysterical and factitious disorders (include
malingering and Munchausen syndrome and Munchausen syndrome by proxy in your
answer).
( Extra Key Notes )
4. Key Figures in the History of Abnormal Psychology
46. Philippe Pinel (1745–1826)
• French physician who reformed mental hospitals in France.
• Introduced moral treatment, emphasizing kindness, humane conditions, and talking with
patients.
• Freed patients from chains at La Bicêtre Hospital, improving their quality of life.
47. William Tuke (1732–1822)
• English Quaker who founded the York Retreat, a country house for the mentally ill.
• Promoted moral treatment focused on rest, prayer, and gentle care rather than
punishment.
48. Dorothea Dix (1802–1887)
• American schoolteacher and reformer.
• Campaigned for better treatment and conditions for people with mental illness in the
U.S. and helped establish state mental hospitals.
49. Emil Kraepelin (1856–1926)
• German psychiatrist who developed the first modern system for classifying mental
disorders.
• Identified patterns of symptoms and laid the groundwork for the DSM (Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders).
50. Benjamin Rush (1746–1813)
• Known as the father of American psychiatry.
• Advocated for humane treatment of patients and better hospital conditions, but also used
early medical treatments (like bloodletting).
51. Socrates (470–399 BCE)
• Ancient Greek philosopher who believed self-examination and rational thought could
lead to better understanding of one’s behavior.
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
52. Hippocrates (460–377 BCE)
• Known as the father of modern medicine.
• Believed mental illness had natural (biological) causes, not demonic possession.
• Introduced the theory of the four humors (blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile)
— imbalance was thought to cause abnormal behavior.
53. Aristotle (384–322 BCE)
• Greek philosopher who emphasized the connection between the mind and body,
believing mental disorders could stem from physical causes.
54. Plato (427–347 BCE)
• Believed abnormal behavior resulted from internal conflicts and emphasized the
importance of reason over emotion.
• Advocated for a hospital setting away from society for treatment.
Ancient Views and Treatments for Mental Disorders
Trephining (Trepanation):
An ancient practice where holes were drilled into the skull to “release evil spirits”
thought to cause abnormal behavior.
• Humors:
Based on Hippocrates’ theory, mental disorders were caused by an imbalance of bodily
fluids:
o Blood (sanguine – cheerful) o
Phlegm (phlegmatic – sluggish) o
Yellow bile (choleric – irritable) o
Black bile (melancholic –
depressed) Bedlam
(Bethlehem Hospital in London):
One of the first asylums, notorious for poor and inhumane treatment. Patients were
often chained, beaten, and displayed to the public. The word “bedlam” later came to
mean chaos or madness.
This resource has been provided to help you be successful in studying for the Topic 4 Midterm. It
is recommended you complete this document as you read the assigned chapters for Topics 1-4.
1. Discuss the “four Ds” of abnormal psychology; how does culture play a role in labeling a
behavior as deviant?
Distress-He seems to be experiencing emotional distress, though he might not openly
admit it.
Deviance-Variance from common patterns of behavior. - behaviors that stray from what
society considers “normal.” Example ( Alex’s behavior is certainly deviating from his
usual patterns and from what’s expected of a college student.)
Danger-While there’s no immediate threat, prolonged isolation and neglect of
responsibilities could lead to more serious consequences.
Dysfunction-When Life Goes Off the Rails, Our third D, Dysfunction, is where the
rubber meets the road. Take the case of Michael, a once-sociable marketing executive
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
who now struggles to leave his house due to severe panic attacks. His behavior is deviant
(most people don’t have trouble leaving their homes), it causes him distress (he’s
frustrated and anxious about his situation), and it’s clearly dysfunctional (he can’t work
or maintain relationships). This trifecta of Ds paints a clear picture of a potential anxiety
disorder.( His academic performance and social relationships are clearly suffering.)
2. Define abnormal psychology- The scientific study of abnormal behavior undertaken to
describe, predict, explain, and change abnormal patterns of functioning. Multiple
Choice Questions (Examples)
25. What is the best definition of abnormal psychology?
A) The study of human development and learning
B) The scientific study of normal behavior and emotions
C) The scientific study of abnormal behavior undertaken to describe, predict, explain,
andchange abnormal patterns of functioning ✅
D) The study of brain anatomy and intelligence
26. Which of the following is NOT one of the goals of abnormal psychology?
A) Describe abnormal behavior
B) Predict abnormal behavior
C) Explain abnormal behavior
D) Ignore abnormal behavior ✅
True/False Questions
27. Abnormal psychology aims to describe, predict, explain, and change abnormal patterns of
functioning.
Answer: True ✅
28. Abnormal psychology only describes abnormal behavior and does not attempt to change
it.
Answer: False ✅
21. Familiarize yourself with theorist Jerome Frank. What are the three essential features of
therapy?
A sufferer who seeks relief from the healer.
A trained, socially accepted healer, whose expertise is accepted by the sufferer
and his or her social group.
A series of contacts between the healer and the sufferer, through which the healer
... tries to produce certain changes in the sufferer's emotional state, attitudes, and
behavior.
22. Discuss the role of the following people in the history of abnormal psychology: Pinel,
Tuke, Dix, Kraepelin, Rush, Socrates, Hippocrates, Aristotle and Plato. List ancient views
of “treatments” for mental disorders (include trephining, humors, and Bedlam in your
answer).
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
-Pinel: The first chief physician for the asylum located in France. Argued that the
mentally challenged people should not be in chains and receive beatings, rather
than, they should show sympathy and kindness
-Tuke: Founder of York Retreat and treated patients with a combination of rest,
talk, prayer, and manual work.
- Boston schoolteacher who made human care more of a public and political
concern in the U.S. Believed in moral treatment
-Kraeplein: A German researcher who published a book arguing that physical
factors (e.g. fatigue) are responsible for mental dysfunction
-Rush: Father of American psychiatry; developed humane approaches to
treatment
- Often called the father of medicine, taught illnesses as
natural causes. Saw mental illness as uprising from internal
physical illness -Aristotle/Plato: shared ideas with Hippocrates about the internal
focus on abnormality
23. List the advantages and disadvantages of the following non-experimental methods: a)
self-report (including surveys and questionnaires), b) tests and other assessments, c)
physiological measures, d) observations (including naturalistic observations), and e) case
studies.
a) Self-Report Methods (Surveys and Questionnaires)
Advantages:
• Easy and inexpensive to collect large amounts of data.
• Can reach many people quickly.
• Allows researchers to study thoughts, feelings, and attitudes directly from participants.
Disadvantages:
• Social desirability bias: participants may give answers they think are “acceptable” rather
than truthful.
• Response bias or inaccuracy: people may not remember accurately or may misunderstand
questions.
• Limited depth: lacks detailed, in-depth information about individual experiences.
• Can provide objective, standardized measurements (e.g., IQ tests, personality
inventories).
• Useful for diagnosis and treatment planning.
• Allows comparison across individuals using established norms. Disadvantages:
• May be culturally biased or not valid for all populations.
• Results can be affected by test anxiety or situational factors.
• Does not always capture the complexity of human behavior or emotions.
Dix:
Hippocrates:
b)
Tests and Other Assessments
Advantages
:
c
)
Physiological Measure
s
(
e.g., heart rate, brain imaging, hormone levels
)
Advantages
:
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
• Provides objective and precise data about biological processes.
• Can reveal physical correlates of mental states (e.g., brain activity linked to anxiety).
Less influenced by participant bias or self-report errors. Disadvantages:
• Can be expensive and require specialized equipment.
• May be invasive or uncomfortable for participants.
• Results can be hard to interpret — biological responses don’t always clearly explain
behavior.
• Allows researchers to see real behavior in context, not just what people say they do.
• Useful for studying behaviors that can’t be easily measured through tests or surveys.
Can reveal patterns and social interactions in natural settings. Disadvantages:
• Observer bias: researcher’s expectations can influence what they notice or record.
• Reactivity (Hawthorne effect): people may change behavior when they know they’re
being observed.
• Time-consuming and may lack control over outside variables.
• Provides in-depth, detailed information about one person or a small group.
• Can help generate hypotheses for further research.
• Useful for studying rare or unusual cases (e.g., Phineas Gage). Disadvantages:
• Lack of generalizability: findings may not apply to others.
• Subjectivity: researcher bias can influence interpretation.
• Cannot establish cause and effect relationships.
✅ Example Study Question:
Question: What is one advantage and one disadvantage of using case studies in abnormal
psychology research?
Answer:
• Advantage: Provides rich, detailed data about an individual’s experience.
Disadvantage: Findings may not generalize to other people
6. Describe the main features of experimental research, including a) independent vs.
dependent variables, b) experimental vs. control groups, and c) random assignment vs.
random sample.
-Independent variables: The variable in an experiment that is manipulated to determine
if it has effect on another variable
-dependent variable: the variable in an experiment that is expected to change as the
independent is manipulated
-Experimental group: In an experiment, the participants who are exposed to the
independent variable under investigation
d)
Observations (Including Naturalistic Observations)
Advantages
:
e)
Case Studie
s
Advantages
:
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
-Control group: A group of participants who are not exposed to the independent variable
-Random assignment: A selection process that ensures that participants are randomly
placed either in the control or in the experimental group.
7. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of correlational studies
Correlational Studies Definition:
A correlational study examines the relationship between two or more variables to
determine whether they are associated (correlated).
👉 It does not involve manipulating variables — it simply measures them as they
naturally occur.
Strengths of Correlational Studies
25. Shows Relationships Between Variables o Helps researchers identify whether
variables are related (e.g., stress levels and depression).
26. Useful When Experiments Are Unethical or Impossible o Some variables can’t be
ethically manipulated (e.g., childhood trauma, mental illness).
27. Can Help Predict Behavior
o If two variables are strongly related, one can help predict the other (e.g., substance
abuse and risk of relapse).
28. Often Quick and Inexpensive o Data can be collected from surveys, archives, or
existing datasets.
Weaknesses of Correlational Studies
25. Cannot Determine Cause and Effect (No Causation!) o Correlation does not
mean one variable causes the other — there may be a third variable influencing
both.
26. Possible Third-Variable Problem o A hidden variable may explain the relationship
(e.g., poverty might explain the link between stress and illness).
27. Directionality Problem o Even if two variables are related, it’s unclear which
causes which (e.g., does depression cause isolation, or does isolation cause
depression?).
28. Potential for Misinterpretation o People often assume a correlation means
causation, which can lead to false conclusions.
✅
Example Study Question and Answer:
Question: What is a major limitation of correlational research?
Answer: Correlational research cannot determine cause-and-effect relationships between
variables.
Question: What is one strength of correlational studies?
Answer: They can identify and measure the strength and direction of relationships
between variables.
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
8.
Distinguish cross-sectional from longitudinal studies (incidence and prevalence).
Cross-Sectional vs. Longitudinal Studies
Both are non-experimental research designs used to study patterns of behavior, mental
disorders, or health over time.
1. Cross-Sectional Studies
• Examine different groups of people at a single point in time.
• Often used to measure prevalence (how common a disorder is at a given time). Key
Features:
• Quick and relatively inexpensive.
• Provides a “snapshot” of a population.
• Can compare different age groups or demographics at once. Strengths:
• Efficient for studying large populations.
• Useful for identifying prevalence rates.
Weaknesses:
• Cannot measure incidence (new cases over time).
• Cannot establish cause-and-effect or track changes within individuals. Example:
• Surveying 1,000 people of various ages to find the current prevalence of depression.
2. Longitudinal Studies
• Follow the same group of people over time to see how variables change.
• Often used to measure incidence (number of new cases of a disorder that develop over a
specific period).
Key Features:
• Tracks changes in the same participants over months, years, or decades.
• Can study developmental trends and causal relationships more effectively.
Strengths:
• Can measure incidence (new cases) and patterns of change.
• Useful for studying long-term effects of risk factors or treatments. Weaknesses:
• Time-consuming and expensive.
• Participant dropout can bias results.
• Not always practical for very long periods.
Example:
• Following a group of 500 children for 10 years to see how many develop anxiety
disorders over time.
Key Terms: Prevalence vs. Incidence
• Prevalence: Total number of cases (old + new) of a disorder in a population at a given
time.
• Incidence: Number of new cases that develop in a population over a specific time period.
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
✅ Example Study Questions:
13. Question: What is the main difference between cross-sectional and longitudinal studies?
Answer: Cross-sectional studies examine different groups at one point in time
(prevalence), while longitudinal studies follow the same group over time to track new
cases (incidence).
14. Question: Which type of study is best for measuring the incidence of a disorder?
Answer: Longitudinal study.
207. Define the terms epidemiological studies, incidence, and prevalence.
208. What are other terms used interchangeably for the term “perspective” in
psychology?
209. Discuss the types of available biological treatments.
210. What are the three levels of Freud’s theory of the psyche, and what three
components inhabit these levels?
211. Discuss the elements seen in psychodynamic therapy, including free association,
resistance, transference, countertransference, dream analysis, catharsis, and “working
through.”
212. Discuss the features of the cognitive model and cognitive-behavioral therapy,
including theorist’s contributions: Ellis’ REBT, Beck’s cognitive therapy, and
Meichenbaum’s selfinstructional training.
213. Discuss the cognitive-behavioral model and how it integrates the cognitive and
behavioral models into one unified perspective/model.
214. Discuss the features of humanistic psychology and therapy, including self-
actualization, client-centered therapy, conditions of worth, and unconditional vs.
conditional positive regard.
215. Discuss the features of Gestalt theory and therapy, including skillful frustration,
role playing, rules, and here-and-now.
216. Contrast the family-social and multicultural perspectives found in the
sociocultural model. Include social labels, roles, social support and family systems theory
in your answer.
217. How does anxiety differ from fear? Define both.
218. Define the types of anxiety: free-floating, specific, fearful
219. How do phobias differ from normal fears?
220. Define astra-, agora-, social, claustro-, acro-, and zoophobia.
221. Contrast the following models related to approaches for anxiety: sociocultural,
psychodynamic, humanistic-existential, cognitive
222. Understand and know the different functions of the nervous system: peripheral,
sympathetic, parasympathetic
223. What role does the hypothalamus have in the production and release of
corticosteroids?
224. What types of events can trigger a psychological stress disorder?
225. Explain how the following factors play a role in developing a psychological stress
disorder: biological and genetic factors, personality factors, childhood experiences, social
support, multicultural factors, and severity of the trauma.
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
226. Understand and know the difference between: Dissociative disorder, post-
traumatic stress disorder, dissociative amnesia.
227. How are psychophysiological disorders affected by biological, psychological, and
sociocultural factors?
228. Describe the differences among: depression, mania, unipolar depression,
anhedonia, dysthymic disorder, cyclothymic disorder, and bipolar disorder.
229. Understand and be familiar with persistent depressive disorder symptoms and
diagnostic criteria.
230. Differentiate among automatic and intrusive thoughts.
231. Explain how depression may be caused by psychological factors, including
psychoanalytic, behavioral, and cognitive views (include Beck’s cognitive triad in your
answer).
232. Explain how Weiner’s attribution model and Abramson’s revision explain how
learned helplessness occurs. Know the difference between Internal and External, stable
versus unstable, and global versus specific within each of the attributions. Be prepared to
offer an example of each.
233. Discuss the benefits and weaknesses of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). Can this
form of therapy cause damage or be dangerous? What are some consequences of ECT?
234. Discuss the rise of antidepressant medications in recent years, including MAOs,
tricyclics, and SSRIs. Be familiar with each.
235. Discuss the use of brain stimulation techniques, including vagus nerve
stimulation, transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), and deep brain stimulation.
236. Describe mood stabilizing drug types and efficacy on bipolar disorders.
237. Explain the key features of somatoform and dissociative disorders.
238. Discuss how the three hysterical somatoform disorders (conversion disorder,
somatization disorder, and pain disorder with psychological factors) differ from each
other (include glove anesthesia in your answer).
239. Discuss the differences between: hysterical and factitious disorders (include
malingering and Munchausen syndrome and Munchausen syndrome by proxy in your
answer).
( Extra Key Notes )
4. Key Figures in the History of Abnormal Psychology
55. Philippe Pinel (1745–1826)
• French physician who reformed mental hospitals in France.
• Introduced moral treatment, emphasizing kindness, humane conditions, and talking with
patients.
• Freed patients from chains at La Bicêtre Hospital, improving their quality of life.
56. William Tuke (1732–1822)
• English Quaker who founded the York Retreat, a country house for the mentally ill.
• Promoted moral treatment focused on rest, prayer, and gentle care rather than
punishment.
57. Dorothea Dix (1802–1887)
• American schoolteacher and reformer.
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
• Campaigned for better treatment and conditions for people with mental illness in the
U.S. and helped establish state mental hospitals.
58. Emil Kraepelin (1856–1926)
• German psychiatrist who developed the first modern system for classifying mental
disorders.
• Identified patterns of symptoms and laid the groundwork for the DSM (Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders).
59. Benjamin Rush (1746–1813)
• Known as the father of American psychiatry.
• Advocated for humane treatment of patients and better hospital conditions, but also used
early medical treatments (like bloodletting).
60. Socrates (470–399 BCE)
• Ancient Greek philosopher who believed self-examination and rational thought could
lead to better understanding of one’s behavior.
61. Hippocrates (460–377 BCE)
• Known as the father of modern medicine.
• Believed mental illness had natural (biological) causes, not demonic possession.
• Introduced the theory of the four humors (blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile)
— imbalance was thought to cause abnormal behavior.
62. Aristotle (384–322 BCE)
• Greek philosopher who emphasized the connection between the mind and body,
believing mental disorders could stem from physical causes.
63. Plato (427–347 BCE)
• Believed abnormal behavior resulted from internal conflicts and emphasized the
importance of reason over emotion.
• Advocated for a hospital setting away from society for treatment.
Ancient Views and Treatments for Mental Disorders
Trephining (Trepanation):
An ancient practice where holes were drilled into the skull to “release evil spirits”
thought to cause abnormal behavior.
• Humors:
Based on Hippocrates’ theory, mental disorders were caused by an imbalance of bodily
fluids:
o Blood (sanguine – cheerful) o
Phlegm (phlegmatic – sluggish) o
Yellow bile (choleric – irritable) o
Black bile (melancholic –
depressed) Bedlam
(Bethlehem Hospital in London):
One of the first asylums, notorious for poor and inhumane treatment. Patients were
often chained, beaten, and displayed to the public. The word “bedlam” later came to
mean chaos or madness.
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
This resource has been provided to help you be successful in studying for the Topic 4 Midterm. It
is recommended you complete this document as you read the assigned chapters for Topics 1-4.
1. Discuss the “four Ds” of abnormal psychology; how does culture play a role in labeling a
behavior as deviant?
Distress-He seems to be experiencing emotional distress, though he might not openly
admit it.
Deviance-Variance from common patterns of behavior. - behaviors that stray from what
society considers “normal.” Example ( Alex’s behavior is certainly deviating from his
usual patterns and from what’s expected of a college student.)
Danger-While there’s no immediate threat, prolonged isolation and neglect of
responsibilities could lead to more serious consequences.
Dysfunction-When Life Goes Off the Rails, Our third D, Dysfunction, is where the
rubber meets the road. Take the case of Michael, a once-sociable marketing executive
who now struggles to leave his house due to severe panic attacks. His behavior is deviant
(most people don’t have trouble leaving their homes), it causes him distress (he’s
frustrated and anxious about his situation), and it’s clearly dysfunctional (he can’t work
or maintain relationships). This trifecta of Ds paints a clear picture of a potential anxiety
disorder.( His academic performance and social relationships are clearly suffering.)
2. Define abnormal psychology- The scientific study of abnormal behavior undertaken to
describe, predict, explain, and change abnormal patterns of functioning. Multiple
Choice Questions (Examples)
29. What is the best definition of abnormal psychology?
A) The study of human development and learning
B) The scientific study of normal behavior and emotions
C) The scientific study of abnormal behavior undertaken to describe, predict, explain,
andchange abnormal patterns of functioning ✅
D) The study of brain anatomy and intelligence
30. Which of the following is NOT one of the goals of abnormal psychology?
A) Describe abnormal behavior
B) Predict abnormal behavior
C) Explain abnormal behavior
D) Ignore abnormal behavior ✅
True/False Questions
31. Abnormal psychology aims to describe, predict, explain, and change abnormal patterns of
functioning.
Answer: True ✅
32. Abnormal psychology only describes abnormal behavior and does not attempt to change
it.
Answer: False ✅
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
24. Familiarize yourself with theorist Jerome Frank. What are the three essential features of
therapy?
A sufferer who seeks relief from the healer.
A trained, socially accepted healer, whose expertise is accepted by the sufferer
and his or her social group.
A series of contacts between the healer and the sufferer, through which the healer
... tries to produce certain changes in the sufferer's emotional state, attitudes, and
behavior.
25. Discuss the role of the following people in the history of abnormal psychology: Pinel,
Tuke, Dix, Kraepelin, Rush, Socrates, Hippocrates, Aristotle and Plato. List ancient views
of “treatments” for mental disorders (include trephining, humors, and Bedlam in your
answer).
-Pinel: The first chief physician for the asylum located in France. Argued that the
mentally challenged people should not be in chains and receive beatings, rather
than, they should show sympathy and kindness
-Tuke: Founder of York Retreat and treated patients with a combination of rest,
talk, prayer, and manual work.
- Boston schoolteacher who made human care more of a public and political
concern in the U.S. Believed in moral treatment
-Kraeplein: A German researcher who published a book arguing that physical
factors (e.g. fatigue) are responsible for mental dysfunction
-Rush: Father of American psychiatry; developed humane approaches to
treatment
- Often called the father of medicine, taught illnesses as
natural causes. Saw mental illness as uprising from internal
physical illness -Aristotle/Plato: shared ideas with Hippocrates about the internal
focus on abnormality
26. List the advantages and disadvantages of the following non-experimental methods: a)
self-report (including surveys and questionnaires), b) tests and other assessments, c)
physiological measures, d) observations (including naturalistic observations), and e) case
studies.
a) Self-Report Methods (Surveys and Questionnaires)
Advantages:
• Easy and inexpensive to collect large amounts of data.
• Can reach many people quickly.
• Allows researchers to study thoughts, feelings, and attitudes directly from participants.
Disadvantages:
• Social desirability bias: participants may give answers they think are “acceptable” rather
than truthful.
• Response bias or inaccuracy: people may not remember accurately or may misunderstand
questions.
• Limited depth: lacks detailed, in-depth information about individual experiences.
Dix:
Hippocrates:
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
• Can provide objective, standardized measurements (e.g., IQ tests, personality
inventories).
• Useful for diagnosis and treatment planning.
• Allows comparison across individuals using established norms. Disadvantages:
• May be culturally biased or not valid for all populations.
• Results can be affected by test anxiety or situational factors.
• Does not always capture the complexity of human behavior or emotions.
• Provides objective and precise data about biological processes.
• Can reveal physical correlates of mental states (e.g., brain activity linked to anxiety).
Less influenced by participant bias or self-report errors. Disadvantages:
• Can be expensive and require specialized equipment.
• May be invasive or uncomfortable for participants.
• Results can be hard to interpret — biological responses don’t always clearly explain
behavior.
• Allows researchers to see real behavior in context, not just what people say they do.
• Useful for studying behaviors that can’t be easily measured through tests or surveys.
Can reveal patterns and social interactions in natural settings. Disadvantages:
• Observer bias: researcher’s expectations can influence what they notice or record.
• Reactivity (Hawthorne effect): people may change behavior when they know they’re
being observed.
• Time-consuming and may lack control over outside variables.
• Provides in-depth, detailed information about one person or a small group.
• Can help generate hypotheses for further research.
• Useful for studying rare or unusual cases (e.g., Phineas Gage). Disadvantages:
• Lack of generalizability: findings may not apply to others.
• Subjectivity: researcher bias can influence interpretation.
• Cannot establish cause and effect relationships.
✅ Example Study Question:
Question: What is one advantage and one disadvantage of using case studies in abnormal
psychology research?
Answer:
b)
Tests and Other Assessments
Advantages
:
c
)
Physiological Measure
s
(
e.g., heart rate, brain imaging, hormone levels
)
Advantages
:
d)
Observations (Including Naturalistic Observations)
Advantages
:
e)
Case Studie
s
Advantages
:
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
• Advantage: Provides rich, detailed data about an individual’s experience.
Disadvantage: Findings may not generalize to other people
6. Describe the main features of experimental research, including a) independent vs.
dependent variables, b) experimental vs. control groups, and c) random assignment vs.
random sample.
-Independent variables: The variable in an experiment that is manipulated to determine
if it has effect on another variable
-dependent variable: the variable in an experiment that is expected to change as the
independent is manipulated
-Experimental group: In an experiment, the participants who are exposed to the
independent variable under investigation
-Control group: A group of participants who are not exposed to the independent variable
-Random assignment: A selection process that ensures that participants are randomly
placed either in the control or in the experimental group.
7. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of correlational studies
Correlational Studies Definition:
A correlational study examines the relationship between two or more variables to
determine whether they are associated (correlated).
👉 It does not involve manipulating variables — it simply measures them as they
naturally occur.
Strengths of Correlational Studies
29. Shows Relationships Between Variables o Helps researchers identify whether
variables are related (e.g., stress levels and depression).
30. Useful When Experiments Are Unethical or Impossible o Some variables can’t be
ethically manipulated (e.g., childhood trauma, mental illness).
31. Can Help Predict Behavior
o If two variables are strongly related, one can help predict the other (e.g., substance
abuse and risk of relapse).
32. Often Quick and Inexpensive o Data can be collected from surveys, archives, or
existing datasets.
Weaknesses of Correlational Studies
29. Cannot Determine Cause and Effect (No Causation!) o Correlation does not
mean one variable causes the other — there may be a third variable influencing
both.
30. Possible Third-Variable Problem o A hidden variable may explain the relationship
(e.g., poverty might explain the link between stress and illness).
31. Directionality Problem o Even if two variables are related, it’s unclear which
causes which (e.g., does depression cause isolation, or does isolation cause
depression?).
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
32. Potential for Misinterpretation o People often assume a correlation means
causation, which can lead to false conclusions.
✅
Example Study Question and Answer:
Question: What is a major limitation of correlational research?
Answer: Correlational research cannot determine cause-and-effect relationships between
variables.
Question: What is one strength of correlational studies?
Answer: They can identify and measure the strength and direction of relationships
between variables.
8.
Distinguish cross-sectional from longitudinal studies (incidence and prevalence).
Cross-Sectional vs. Longitudinal Studies
Both are non-experimental research designs used to study patterns of behavior, mental
disorders, or health over time.
1. Cross-Sectional Studies
• Examine different groups of people at a single point in time.
• Often used to measure prevalence (how common a disorder is at a given time). Key
Features:
• Quick and relatively inexpensive.
• Provides a “snapshot” of a population.
• Can compare different age groups or demographics at once. Strengths:
• Efficient for studying large populations.
• Useful for identifying prevalence rates.
Weaknesses:
• Cannot measure incidence (new cases over time).
• Cannot establish cause-and-effect or track changes within individuals. Example:
• Surveying 1,000 people of various ages to find the current prevalence of depression.
2. Longitudinal Studies
• Follow the same group of people over time to see how variables change.
• Often used to measure incidence (number of new cases of a disorder that develop over a
specific period).
Key Features:
• Tracks changes in the same participants over months, years, or decades.
• Can study developmental trends and causal relationships more effectively.
Strengths:
• Can measure incidence (new cases) and patterns of change.
• Useful for studying long-term effects of risk factors or treatments. Weaknesses:
• Time-consuming and expensive.
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
• Participant dropout can bias results.
• Not always practical for very long periods.
Example:
• Following a group of 500 children for 10 years to see how many develop anxiety
disorders over time.
Key Terms: Prevalence vs. Incidence
• Prevalence: Total number of cases (old + new) of a disorder in a population at a given
time.
• Incidence: Number of new cases that develop in a population over a specific time period.
✅ Example Study Questions:
15. Question: What is the main difference between cross-sectional and longitudinal studies?
Answer: Cross-sectional studies examine different groups at one point in time
(prevalence), while longitudinal studies follow the same group over time to track new
cases (incidence).
16. Question: Which type of study is best for measuring the incidence of a disorder?
Answer: Longitudinal study.
240. Define the terms epidemiological studies, incidence, and prevalence.
241. What are other terms used interchangeably for the term “perspective” in
psychology?
242. Discuss the types of available biological treatments.
243. What are the three levels of Freud’s theory of the psyche, and what three
components inhabit these levels?
244. Discuss the elements seen in psychodynamic therapy, including free association,
resistance, transference, countertransference, dream analysis, catharsis, and “working
through.”
245. Discuss the features of the cognitive model and cognitive-behavioral therapy,
including theorist’s contributions: Ellis’ REBT, Beck’s cognitive therapy, and
Meichenbaum’s selfinstructional training.
246. Discuss the cognitive-behavioral model and how it integrates the cognitive and
behavioral models into one unified perspective/model.
247. Discuss the features of humanistic psychology and therapy, including self-
actualization, client-centered therapy, conditions of worth, and unconditional vs.
conditional positive regard.
248. Discuss the features of Gestalt theory and therapy, including skillful frustration,
role playing, rules, and here-and-now.
249. Contrast the family-social and multicultural perspectives found in the
sociocultural model. Include social labels, roles, social support and family systems theory
in your answer.
250. How does anxiety differ from fear? Define both.
251. Define the types of anxiety: free-floating, specific, fearful
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
252. How do phobias differ from normal fears?
253. Define astra-, agora-, social, claustro-, acro-, and zoophobia.
254. Contrast the following models related to approaches for anxiety: sociocultural,
psychodynamic, humanistic-existential, cognitive
255. Understand and know the different functions of the nervous system: peripheral,
sympathetic, parasympathetic
256. What role does the hypothalamus have in the production and release of
corticosteroids?
257. What types of events can trigger a psychological stress disorder?
258. Explain how the following factors play a role in developing a psychological stress
disorder: biological and genetic factors, personality factors, childhood experiences, social
support, multicultural factors, and severity of the trauma.
259. Understand and know the difference between: Dissociative disorder, post-
traumatic stress disorder, dissociative amnesia.
260. How are psychophysiological disorders affected by biological, psychological, and
sociocultural factors?
261. Describe the differences among: depression, mania, unipolar depression,
anhedonia, dysthymic disorder, cyclothymic disorder, and bipolar disorder.
262. Understand and be familiar with persistent depressive disorder symptoms and
diagnostic criteria.
263. Differentiate among automatic and intrusive thoughts.
264. Explain how depression may be caused by psychological factors, including
psychoanalytic, behavioral, and cognitive views (include Beck’s cognitive triad in your
answer).
265. Explain how Weiner’s attribution model and Abramson’s revision explain how
learned helplessness occurs. Know the difference between Internal and External, stable
versus unstable, and global versus specific within each of the attributions. Be prepared to
offer an example of each.
266. Discuss the benefits and weaknesses of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). Can this
form of therapy cause damage or be dangerous? What are some consequences of ECT?
267. Discuss the rise of antidepressant medications in recent years, including MAOs,
tricyclics, and SSRIs. Be familiar with each.
268. Discuss the use of brain stimulation techniques, including vagus nerve
stimulation, transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), and deep brain stimulation.
269. Describe mood stabilizing drug types and efficacy on bipolar disorders.
270. Explain the key features of somatoform and dissociative disorders.
271. Discuss how the three hysterical somatoform disorders (conversion disorder,
somatization disorder, and pain disorder with psychological factors) differ from each
other (include glove anesthesia in your answer).
272. Discuss the differences between: hysterical and factitious disorders (include
malingering and Munchausen syndrome and Munchausen syndrome by proxy in your
answer).
( Extra Key Notes )
4. Key Figures in the History of Abnormal Psychology
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
64. Philippe Pinel (1745–1826)
• French physician who reformed mental hospitals in France.
• Introduced moral treatment, emphasizing kindness, humane conditions, and talking with
patients.
• Freed patients from chains at La Bicêtre Hospital, improving their quality of life.
65. William Tuke (1732–1822)
• English Quaker who founded the York Retreat, a country house for the mentally ill.
• Promoted moral treatment focused on rest, prayer, and gentle care rather than
punishment.
66. Dorothea Dix (1802–1887)
• American schoolteacher and reformer.
• Campaigned for better treatment and conditions for people with mental illness in the
U.S. and helped establish state mental hospitals.
67. Emil Kraepelin (1856–1926)
• German psychiatrist who developed the first modern system for classifying mental
disorders.
• Identified patterns of symptoms and laid the groundwork for the DSM (Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders).
68. Benjamin Rush (1746–1813)
• Known as the father of American psychiatry.
• Advocated for humane treatment of patients and better hospital conditions, but also used
early medical treatments (like bloodletting).
69. Socrates (470–399 BCE)
• Ancient Greek philosopher who believed self-examination and rational thought could
lead to better understanding of one’s behavior.
70. Hippocrates (460–377 BCE)
• Known as the father of modern medicine.
• Believed mental illness had natural (biological) causes, not demonic possession.
• Introduced the theory of the four humors (blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile)
— imbalance was thought to cause abnormal behavior.
71. Aristotle (384–322 BCE)
• Greek philosopher who emphasized the connection between the mind and body,
believing mental disorders could stem from physical causes.
72. Plato (427–347 BCE)
• Believed abnormal behavior resulted from internal conflicts and emphasized the
importance of reason over emotion.
• Advocated for a hospital setting away from society for treatment.
Ancient Views and Treatments for Mental Disorders
Trephining (Trepanation):
An ancient practice where holes were drilled into the skull to “release evil spirits”
thought to cause abnormal behavior.
• Humors:
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
Based on Hippocrates’ theory, mental disorders were caused by an imbalance of bodily
fluids:
o Blood (sanguine – cheerful) o
Phlegm (phlegmatic – sluggish) o
Yellow bile (choleric – irritable) o
Black bile (melancholic –
depressed) Bedlam
(Bethlehem Hospital in London):
One of the first asylums, notorious for poor and inhumane treatment. Patients were
often chained, beaten, and displayed to the public. The word “bedlam” later came to
mean chaos or madness.
This resource has been provided to help you be successful in studying for the Topic 4 Midterm. It
is recommended you complete this document as you read the assigned chapters for Topics 1-4.
1. Discuss the “four Ds” of abnormal psychology; how does culture play a role in labeling a
behavior as deviant?
Distress-He seems to be experiencing emotional distress, though he might not openly
admit it.
Deviance-Variance from common patterns of behavior. - behaviors that stray from what
society considers “normal.” Example ( Alex’s behavior is certainly deviating from his
usual patterns and from what’s expected of a college student.)
Danger-While there’s no immediate threat, prolonged isolation and neglect of
responsibilities could lead to more serious consequences.
Dysfunction-When Life Goes Off the Rails, Our third D, Dysfunction, is where the
rubber meets the road. Take the case of Michael, a once-sociable marketing executive
who now struggles to leave his house due to severe panic attacks. His behavior is deviant
(most people don’t have trouble leaving their homes), it causes him distress (he’s
frustrated and anxious about his situation), and it’s clearly dysfunctional (he can’t work
or maintain relationships). This trifecta of Ds paints a clear picture of a potential anxiety
disorder.( His academic performance and social relationships are clearly suffering.)
2. Define abnormal psychology- The scientific study of abnormal behavior undertaken to
describe, predict, explain, and change abnormal patterns of functioning. Multiple
Choice Questions (Examples)
33. What is the best definition of abnormal psychology?
A) The study of human development and learning
B) The scientific study of normal behavior and emotions
C) The scientific study of abnormal behavior undertaken to describe, predict, explain,
andchange abnormal patterns of functioning ✅
D) The study of brain anatomy and intelligence
34. Which of the following is NOT one of the goals of abnormal psychology?
A) Describe abnormal behavior
B) Predict abnormal behavior
C) Explain abnormal behavior
D) Ignore abnormal behavior ✅
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
True/False Questions
35. Abnormal psychology aims to describe, predict, explain, and change abnormal patterns of
functioning.
Answer: True ✅
36. Abnormal psychology only describes abnormal behavior and does not attempt to change
it.
Answer: False ✅
27. Familiarize yourself with theorist Jerome Frank. What are the three essential features of
therapy?
A sufferer who seeks relief from the healer.
A trained, socially accepted healer, whose expertise is accepted by the sufferer
and his or her social group.
A series of contacts between the healer and the sufferer, through which the healer
... tries to produce certain changes in the sufferer's emotional state, attitudes, and
behavior.
28. Discuss the role of the following people in the history of abnormal psychology: Pinel,
Tuke, Dix, Kraepelin, Rush, Socrates, Hippocrates, Aristotle and Plato. List ancient views
of “treatments” for mental disorders (include trephining, humors, and Bedlam in your
answer).
-Pinel: The first chief physician for the asylum located in France. Argued that the
mentally challenged people should not be in chains and receive beatings, rather
than, they should show sympathy and kindness
-Tuke: Founder of York Retreat and treated patients with a combination of rest,
talk, prayer, and manual work.
- Boston schoolteacher who made human care more of a public and political
concern in the U.S. Believed in moral treatment
-Kraeplein: A German researcher who published a book arguing that physical
factors (e.g. fatigue) are responsible for mental dysfunction
-Rush: Father of American psychiatry; developed humane approaches to
treatment
- Often called the father of medicine, taught illnesses as
natural causes. Saw mental illness as uprising from internal
physical illness -Aristotle/Plato: shared ideas with Hippocrates about the internal
focus on abnormality
29. List the advantages and disadvantages of the following non-experimental methods: a)
self-report (including surveys and questionnaires), b) tests and other assessments, c)
physiological measures, d) observations (including naturalistic observations), and e) case
studies.
Dix:
Hippocrates:
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
a) Self-Report Methods (Surveys and Questionnaires)
Advantages:
• Easy and inexpensive to collect large amounts of data.
• Can reach many people quickly.
• Allows researchers to study thoughts, feelings, and attitudes directly from participants.
Disadvantages:
• Social desirability bias: participants may give answers they think are “acceptable” rather
than truthful.
• Response bias or inaccuracy: people may not remember accurately or may misunderstand
questions.
• Limited depth: lacks detailed, in-depth information about individual experiences.
• Can provide objective, standardized measurements (e.g., IQ tests, personality
inventories).
• Useful for diagnosis and treatment planning.
• Allows comparison across individuals using established norms. Disadvantages:
• May be culturally biased or not valid for all populations.
• Results can be affected by test anxiety or situational factors.
• Does not always capture the complexity of human behavior or emotions.
• Provides objective and precise data about biological processes.
• Can reveal physical correlates of mental states (e.g., brain activity linked to anxiety).
Less influenced by participant bias or self-report errors. Disadvantages:
• Can be expensive and require specialized equipment.
• May be invasive or uncomfortable for participants.
• Results can be hard to interpret — biological responses don’t always clearly explain
behavior.
• Allows researchers to see real behavior in context, not just what people say they do.
• Useful for studying behaviors that can’t be easily measured through tests or surveys.
Can reveal patterns and social interactions in natural settings. Disadvantages:
• Observer bias: researcher’s expectations can influence what they notice or record.
• Reactivity (Hawthorne effect): people may change behavior when they know they’re
being observed.
• Time-consuming and may lack control over outside variables.
b)
Tests and Other Assessments
Advantages
:
c
)
Physiological Measure
s
(
e.g., heart rate, brain imaging, hormone levels
)
Advantages
:
d)
Observations (Including Naturalistic Observations)
Advantages
:
e)
Case Studie
s
Advantages
:
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
• Provides in-depth, detailed information about one person or a small group.
• Can help generate hypotheses for further research.
• Useful for studying rare or unusual cases (e.g., Phineas Gage). Disadvantages:
• Lack of generalizability: findings may not apply to others.
• Subjectivity: researcher bias can influence interpretation.
• Cannot establish cause and effect relationships.
✅ Example Study Question:
Question: What is one advantage and one disadvantage of using case studies in abnormal
psychology research?
Answer:
• Advantage: Provides rich, detailed data about an individual’s experience.
Disadvantage: Findings may not generalize to other people
6. Describe the main features of experimental research, including a) independent vs.
dependent variables, b) experimental vs. control groups, and c) random assignment vs.
random sample.
-Independent variables: The variable in an experiment that is manipulated to determine
if it has effect on another variable
-dependent variable: the variable in an experiment that is expected to change as the
independent is manipulated
-Experimental group: In an experiment, the participants who are exposed to the
independent variable under investigation
-Control group: A group of participants who are not exposed to the independent variable
-Random assignment: A selection process that ensures that participants are randomly
placed either in the control or in the experimental group.
7. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of correlational studies
Correlational Studies Definition:
A correlational study examines the relationship between two or more variables to
determine whether they are associated (correlated).
👉 It does not involve manipulating variables — it simply measures them as they
naturally occur.
Strengths of Correlational Studies
33. Shows Relationships Between Variables o Helps researchers identify whether
variables are related (e.g., stress levels and depression).
34. Useful When Experiments Are Unethical or Impossible o Some variables can’t be
ethically manipulated (e.g., childhood trauma, mental illness).
35. Can Help Predict Behavior
o If two variables are strongly related, one can help predict the other (e.g., substance
abuse and risk of relapse).
36. Often Quick and Inexpensive o Data can be collected from surveys, archives, or
existing datasets.
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
Weaknesses of Correlational Studies
33. Cannot Determine Cause and Effect (No Causation!) o Correlation does not
mean one variable causes the other — there may be a third variable influencing
both.
34. Possible Third-Variable Problem o A hidden variable may explain the relationship
(e.g., poverty might explain the link between stress and illness).
35. Directionality Problem o Even if two variables are related, it’s unclear which
causes which (e.g., does depression cause isolation, or does isolation cause
depression?).
36. Potential for Misinterpretation o People often assume a correlation means
causation, which can lead to false conclusions.
✅
Example Study Question and Answer:
Question: What is a major limitation of correlational research?
Answer: Correlational research cannot determine cause-and-effect relationships between
variables.
Question: What is one strength of correlational studies?
Answer: They can identify and measure the strength and direction of relationships
between variables.
8.
Distinguish cross-sectional from longitudinal studies (incidence and prevalence).
Cross-Sectional vs. Longitudinal Studies
Both are non-experimental research designs used to study patterns of behavior, mental
disorders, or health over time.
1. Cross-Sectional Studies
• Examine different groups of people at a single point in time.
• Often used to measure prevalence (how common a disorder is at a given time). Key
Features:
• Quick and relatively inexpensive.
• Provides a “snapshot” of a population.
• Can compare different age groups or demographics at once. Strengths:
• Efficient for studying large populations.
• Useful for identifying prevalence rates.
Weaknesses:
• Cannot measure incidence (new cases over time).
• Cannot establish cause-and-effect or track changes within individuals. Example:
• Surveying 1,000 people of various ages to find the current prevalence of depression.
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
2. Longitudinal Studies
• Follow the same group of people over time to see how variables change.
• Often used to measure incidence (number of new cases of a disorder that develop over a
specific period).
Key Features:
• Tracks changes in the same participants over months, years, or decades.
• Can study developmental trends and causal relationships more effectively.
Strengths:
• Can measure incidence (new cases) and patterns of change.
• Useful for studying long-term effects of risk factors or treatments. Weaknesses:
• Time-consuming and expensive.
• Participant dropout can bias results.
• Not always practical for very long periods.
Example:
• Following a group of 500 children for 10 years to see how many develop anxiety
disorders over time.
Key Terms: Prevalence vs. Incidence
• Prevalence: Total number of cases (old + new) of a disorder in a population at a given
time.
• Incidence: Number of new cases that develop in a population over a specific time period.
✅ Example Study Questions:
17. Question: What is the main difference between cross-sectional and longitudinal studies?
Answer: Cross-sectional studies examine different groups at one point in time
(prevalence), while longitudinal studies follow the same group over time to track new
cases (incidence).
18. Question: Which type of study is best for measuring the incidence of a disorder?
Answer: Longitudinal study.
273. Define the terms epidemiological studies, incidence, and prevalence.
274. What are other terms used interchangeably for the term “perspective” in
psychology?
275. Discuss the types of available biological treatments.
276. What are the three levels of Freud’s theory of the psyche, and what three
components inhabit these levels?
277. Discuss the elements seen in psychodynamic therapy, including free association,
resistance, transference, countertransference, dream analysis, catharsis, and “working
through.”
278. Discuss the features of the cognitive model and cognitive-behavioral therapy,
including theorist’s contributions: Ellis’ REBT, Beck’s cognitive therapy, and
Meichenbaum’s selfinstructional training.
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
279. Discuss the cognitive-behavioral model and how it integrates the cognitive and
behavioral models into one unified perspective/model.
280. Discuss the features of humanistic psychology and therapy, including self-
actualization, client-centered therapy, conditions of worth, and unconditional vs.
conditional positive regard.
281. Discuss the features of Gestalt theory and therapy, including skillful frustration,
role playing, rules, and here-and-now.
282. Contrast the family-social and multicultural perspectives found in the
sociocultural model. Include social labels, roles, social support and family systems theory
in your answer.
283. How does anxiety differ from fear? Define both.
284. Define the types of anxiety: free-floating, specific, fearful
285. How do phobias differ from normal fears?
286. Define astra-, agora-, social, claustro-, acro-, and zoophobia.
287. Contrast the following models related to approaches for anxiety: sociocultural,
psychodynamic, humanistic-existential, cognitive
288. Understand and know the different functions of the nervous system: peripheral,
sympathetic, parasympathetic
289. What role does the hypothalamus have in the production and release of
corticosteroids?
290. What types of events can trigger a psychological stress disorder?
291. Explain how the following factors play a role in developing a psychological stress
disorder: biological and genetic factors, personality factors, childhood experiences, social
support, multicultural factors, and severity of the trauma.
292. Understand and know the difference between: Dissociative disorder, post-
traumatic stress disorder, dissociative amnesia.
293. How are psychophysiological disorders affected by biological, psychological, and
sociocultural factors?
294. Describe the differences among: depression, mania, unipolar depression,
anhedonia, dysthymic disorder, cyclothymic disorder, and bipolar disorder.
295. Understand and be familiar with persistent depressive disorder symptoms and
diagnostic criteria.
296. Differentiate among automatic and intrusive thoughts.
297. Explain how depression may be caused by psychological factors, including
psychoanalytic, behavioral, and cognitive views (include Beck’s cognitive triad in your
answer).
298. Explain how Weiner’s attribution model and Abramson’s revision explain how
learned helplessness occurs. Know the difference between Internal and External, stable
versus unstable, and global versus specific within each of the attributions. Be prepared to
offer an example of each.
299. Discuss the benefits and weaknesses of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). Can this
form of therapy cause damage or be dangerous? What are some consequences of ECT?
300. Discuss the rise of antidepressant medications in recent years, including MAOs,
tricyclics, and SSRIs. Be familiar with each.
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
301. Discuss the use of brain stimulation techniques, including vagus nerve
stimulation, transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), and deep brain stimulation.
302. Describe mood stabilizing drug types and efficacy on bipolar disorders.
303. Explain the key features of somatoform and dissociative disorders.
304. Discuss how the three hysterical somatoform disorders (conversion disorder,
somatization disorder, and pain disorder with psychological factors) differ from each
other (include glove anesthesia in your answer).
305. Discuss the differences between: hysterical and factitious disorders (include
malingering and Munchausen syndrome and Munchausen syndrome by proxy in your
answer).
( Extra Key Notes )
4. Key Figures in the History of Abnormal Psychology
73. Philippe Pinel (1745–1826)
• French physician who reformed mental hospitals in France.
• Introduced moral treatment, emphasizing kindness, humane conditions, and talking with
patients.
• Freed patients from chains at La Bicêtre Hospital, improving their quality of life.
74. William Tuke (1732–1822)
• English Quaker who founded the York Retreat, a country house for the mentally ill.
• Promoted moral treatment focused on rest, prayer, and gentle care rather than
punishment.
75. Dorothea Dix (1802–1887)
• American schoolteacher and reformer.
• Campaigned for better treatment and conditions for people with mental illness in the
U.S. and helped establish state mental hospitals.
76. Emil Kraepelin (1856–1926)
• German psychiatrist who developed the first modern system for classifying mental
disorders.
• Identified patterns of symptoms and laid the groundwork for the DSM (Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders).
77. Benjamin Rush (1746–1813)
• Known as the father of American psychiatry.
• Advocated for humane treatment of patients and better hospital conditions, but also used
early medical treatments (like bloodletting).
78. Socrates (470–399 BCE)
• Ancient Greek philosopher who believed self-examination and rational thought could
lead to better understanding of one’s behavior.
79. Hippocrates (460–377 BCE)
• Known as the father of modern medicine.
• Believed mental illness had natural (biological) causes, not demonic possession.
• Introduced the theory of the four humors (blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile)
— imbalance was thought to cause abnormal behavior.
80. Aristotle (384–322 BCE)
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
• Greek philosopher who emphasized the connection between the mind and body,
believing mental disorders could stem from physical causes.
81. Plato (427–347 BCE)
• Believed abnormal behavior resulted from internal conflicts and emphasized the
importance of reason over emotion.
• Advocated for a hospital setting away from society for treatment.
Ancient Views and Treatments for Mental Disorders
Trephining (Trepanation):
An ancient practice where holes were drilled into the skull to “release evil spirits”
thought to cause abnormal behavior.
• Humors:
Based on Hippocrates’ theory, mental disorders were caused by an imbalance of bodily
fluids:
o Blood (sanguine – cheerful) o
Phlegm (phlegmatic – sluggish) o
Yellow bile (choleric – irritable) o
Black bile (melancholic –
depressed) Bedlam
(Bethlehem Hospital in London):
One of the first asylums, notorious for poor and inhumane treatment. Patients were
often chained, beaten, and displayed to the public. The word “bedlam” later came to
mean chaos or madness.
This resource has been provided to help you be successful in studying for the Topic 4 Midterm. It
is recommended you complete this document as you read the assigned chapters for Topics 1-4.
1. Discuss the “four Ds” of abnormal psychology; how does culture play a role in labeling a
behavior as deviant?
Distress-He seems to be experiencing emotional distress, though he might not openly
admit it.
Deviance-Variance from common patterns of behavior. - behaviors that stray from what
society considers “normal.” Example ( Alex’s behavior is certainly deviating from his
usual patterns and from what’s expected of a college student.)
Danger-While there’s no immediate threat, prolonged isolation and neglect of
responsibilities could lead to more serious consequences.
Dysfunction-When Life Goes Off the Rails, Our third D, Dysfunction, is where the
rubber meets the road. Take the case of Michael, a once-sociable marketing executive
who now struggles to leave his house due to severe panic attacks. His behavior is deviant
(most people don’t have trouble leaving their homes), it causes him distress (he’s
frustrated and anxious about his situation), and it’s clearly dysfunctional (he can’t work
or maintain relationships). This trifecta of Ds paints a clear picture of a potential anxiety
disorder.( His academic performance and social relationships are clearly suffering.)
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
2. Define abnormal psychology- The scientific study of abnormal behavior undertaken to
describe, predict, explain, and change abnormal patterns of functioning. Multiple
Choice Questions (Examples)
37. What is the best definition of abnormal psychology?
A) The study of human development and learning
B) The scientific study of normal behavior and emotions
C) The scientific study of abnormal behavior undertaken to describe, predict, explain,
andchange abnormal patterns of functioning ✅
D) The study of brain anatomy and intelligence
38. Which of the following is NOT one of the goals of abnormal psychology?
A) Describe abnormal behavior
B) Predict abnormal behavior
C) Explain abnormal behavior
D) Ignore abnormal behavior ✅
True/False Questions
39. Abnormal psychology aims to describe, predict, explain, and change abnormal patterns of
functioning.
Answer: True ✅
40. Abnormal psychology only describes abnormal behavior and does not attempt to change
it.
Answer: False ✅
30. Familiarize yourself with theorist Jerome Frank. What are the three essential features of
therapy?
A sufferer who seeks relief from the healer.
A trained, socially accepted healer, whose expertise is accepted by the sufferer
and his or her social group.
A series of contacts between the healer and the sufferer, through which the healer
... tries to produce certain changes in the sufferer's emotional state, attitudes, and
behavior.
31. Discuss the role of the following people in the history of abnormal psychology: Pinel,
Tuke, Dix, Kraepelin, Rush, Socrates, Hippocrates, Aristotle and Plato. List ancient views
of “treatments” for mental disorders (include trephining, humors, and Bedlam in your
answer).
-Pinel: The first chief physician for the asylum located in France. Argued that the
mentally challenged people should not be in chains and receive beatings, rather
than, they should show sympathy and kindness
-Tuke: Founder of York Retreat and treated patients with a combination of rest,
talk, prayer, and manual work.
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
- Boston schoolteacher who made human care more of a public and political
concern in the U.S. Believed in moral treatment
-Kraeplein: A German researcher who published a book arguing that physical
factors (e.g. fatigue) are responsible for mental dysfunction
-Rush: Father of American psychiatry; developed humane approaches to
treatment
- Often called the father of medicine, taught illnesses as
natural causes. Saw mental illness as uprising from internal
physical illness -Aristotle/Plato: shared ideas with Hippocrates about the internal
focus on abnormality
32. List the advantages and disadvantages of the following non-experimental methods: a)
self-report (including surveys and questionnaires), b) tests and other assessments, c)
physiological measures, d) observations (including naturalistic observations), and e) case
studies.
a) Self-Report Methods (Surveys and Questionnaires)
Advantages:
• Easy and inexpensive to collect large amounts of data.
• Can reach many people quickly.
• Allows researchers to study thoughts, feelings, and attitudes directly from participants.
Disadvantages:
• Social desirability bias: participants may give answers they think are “acceptable” rather
than truthful.
• Response bias or inaccuracy: people may not remember accurately or may misunderstand
questions.
• Limited depth: lacks detailed, in-depth information about individual experiences.
• Can provide objective, standardized measurements (e.g., IQ tests, personality
inventories).
• Useful for diagnosis and treatment planning.
• Allows comparison across individuals using established norms. Disadvantages:
• May be culturally biased or not valid for all populations.
• Results can be affected by test anxiety or situational factors.
• Does not always capture the complexity of human behavior or emotions.
• Provides objective and precise data about biological processes.
• Can reveal physical correlates of mental states (e.g., brain activity linked to anxiety).
Less influenced by participant bias or self-report errors. Disadvantages:
• Can be expensive and require specialized equipment.
• May be invasive or uncomfortable for participants.
Dix:
Hippocrates:
b)
Tests and Other Assessments
Advantages
:
c
)
Physiological Measure
s
(
e.g., heart rate, brain imaging, hormone levels
)
Advantages
:
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
• Results can be hard to interpret — biological responses don’t always clearly explain
behavior.
• Allows researchers to see real behavior in context, not just what people say they do.
• Useful for studying behaviors that can’t be easily measured through tests or surveys.
Can reveal patterns and social interactions in natural settings. Disadvantages:
• Observer bias: researcher’s expectations can influence what they notice or record.
• Reactivity (Hawthorne effect): people may change behavior when they know they’re
being observed.
• Time-consuming and may lack control over outside variables.
• Provides in-depth, detailed information about one person or a small group.
• Can help generate hypotheses for further research.
• Useful for studying rare or unusual cases (e.g., Phineas Gage). Disadvantages:
• Lack of generalizability: findings may not apply to others.
• Subjectivity: researcher bias can influence interpretation.
• Cannot establish cause and effect relationships.
✅ Example Study Question:
Question: What is one advantage and one disadvantage of using case studies in abnormal
psychology research?
Answer:
• Advantage: Provides rich, detailed data about an individual’s experience.
Disadvantage: Findings may not generalize to other people
6. Describe the main features of experimental research, including a) independent vs.
dependent variables, b) experimental vs. control groups, and c) random assignment vs.
random sample.
-Independent variables: The variable in an experiment that is manipulated to determine
if it has effect on another variable
-dependent variable: the variable in an experiment that is expected to change as the
independent is manipulated
-Experimental group: In an experiment, the participants who are exposed to the
independent variable under investigation
-Control group: A group of participants who are not exposed to the independent variable
-Random assignment: A selection process that ensures that participants are randomly
placed either in the control or in the experimental group.
7. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of correlational studies
Correlational Studies Definition:
A correlational study examines the relationship between two or more variables to
determine whether they are associated (correlated).
d)
Observations (Including Naturalistic Observations)
Advantages
:
e)
Case Studie
s
Advantages
:
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
👉 It does not involve manipulating variables — it simply measures them as they
naturally occur.
Strengths of Correlational Studies
37. Shows Relationships Between Variables o Helps researchers identify whether
variables are related (e.g., stress levels and depression).
38. Useful When Experiments Are Unethical or Impossible o Some variables can’t be
ethically manipulated (e.g., childhood trauma, mental illness).
39. Can Help Predict Behavior
o If two variables are strongly related, one can help predict the other (e.g., substance
abuse and risk of relapse).
40. Often Quick and Inexpensive o Data can be collected from surveys, archives, or
existing datasets.
Weaknesses of Correlational Studies
37. Cannot Determine Cause and Effect (No Causation!) o Correlation does not
mean one variable causes the other — there may be a third variable influencing
both.
38. Possible Third-Variable Problem o A hidden variable may explain the relationship
(e.g., poverty might explain the link between stress and illness).
39. Directionality Problem o Even if two variables are related, it’s unclear which
causes which (e.g., does depression cause isolation, or does isolation cause
depression?).
40. Potential for Misinterpretation o People often assume a correlation means
causation, which can lead to false conclusions.
✅
Example Study Question and Answer:
Question: What is a major limitation of correlational research?
Answer: Correlational research cannot determine cause-and-effect relationships between
variables.
Question: What is one strength of correlational studies?
Answer: They can identify and measure the strength and direction of relationships
between variables.
8.
Distinguish cross-sectional from longitudinal studies (incidence and prevalence).
Cross-Sectional vs. Longitudinal Studies
Both are non-experimental research designs used to study patterns of behavior, mental
disorders, or health over time.
1. Cross-Sectional Studies
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
• Examine different groups of people at a single point in time.
• Often used to measure prevalence (how common a disorder is at a given time). Key
Features:
• Quick and relatively inexpensive.
• Provides a “snapshot” of a population.
• Can compare different age groups or demographics at once. Strengths:
• Efficient for studying large populations.
• Useful for identifying prevalence rates.
Weaknesses:
• Cannot measure incidence (new cases over time).
• Cannot establish cause-and-effect or track changes within individuals. Example:
• Surveying 1,000 people of various ages to find the current prevalence of depression.
2. Longitudinal Studies
• Follow the same group of people over time to see how variables change.
• Often used to measure incidence (number of new cases of a disorder that develop over a
specific period).
Key Features:
• Tracks changes in the same participants over months, years, or decades.
• Can study developmental trends and causal relationships more effectively.
Strengths:
• Can measure incidence (new cases) and patterns of change.
• Useful for studying long-term effects of risk factors or treatments. Weaknesses:
• Time-consuming and expensive.
• Participant dropout can bias results.
• Not always practical for very long periods.
Example:
• Following a group of 500 children for 10 years to see how many develop anxiety
disorders over time.
Key Terms: Prevalence vs. Incidence
• Prevalence: Total number of cases (old + new) of a disorder in a population at a given
time.
• Incidence: Number of new cases that develop in a population over a specific time period.
✅ Example Study Questions:
19. Question: What is the main difference between cross-sectional and longitudinal studies?
Answer: Cross-sectional studies examine different groups at one point in time
(prevalence), while longitudinal studies follow the same group over time to track new
cases (incidence).
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
20. Question: Which type of study is best for measuring the incidence of a disorder?
Answer: Longitudinal study.
306. Define the terms epidemiological studies, incidence, and prevalence.
307. What are other terms used interchangeably for the term “perspective” in
psychology?
308. Discuss the types of available biological treatments.
309. What are the three levels of Freud’s theory of the psyche, and what three
components inhabit these levels?
310. Discuss the elements seen in psychodynamic therapy, including free association,
resistance, transference, countertransference, dream analysis, catharsis, and “working
through.”
311. Discuss the features of the cognitive model and cognitive-behavioral therapy,
including theorist’s contributions: Ellis’ REBT, Beck’s cognitive therapy, and
Meichenbaum’s selfinstructional training.
312. Discuss the cognitive-behavioral model and how it integrates the cognitive and
behavioral models into one unified perspective/model.
313. Discuss the features of humanistic psychology and therapy, including self-
actualization, client-centered therapy, conditions of worth, and unconditional vs.
conditional positive regard.
314. Discuss the features of Gestalt theory and therapy, including skillful frustration,
role playing, rules, and here-and-now.
315. Contrast the family-social and multicultural perspectives found in the
sociocultural model. Include social labels, roles, social support and family systems theory
in your answer.
316. How does anxiety differ from fear? Define both.
317. Define the types of anxiety: free-floating, specific, fearful
318. How do phobias differ from normal fears?
319. Define astra-, agora-, social, claustro-, acro-, and zoophobia.
320. Contrast the following models related to approaches for anxiety: sociocultural,
psychodynamic, humanistic-existential, cognitive
321. Understand and know the different functions of the nervous system: peripheral,
sympathetic, parasympathetic
322. What role does the hypothalamus have in the production and release of
corticosteroids?
323. What types of events can trigger a psychological stress disorder?
324. Explain how the following factors play a role in developing a psychological stress
disorder: biological and genetic factors, personality factors, childhood experiences, social
support, multicultural factors, and severity of the trauma.
325. Understand and know the difference between: Dissociative disorder, post-
traumatic stress disorder, dissociative amnesia.
326. How are psychophysiological disorders affected by biological, psychological, and
sociocultural factors?
327. Describe the differences among: depression, mania, unipolar depression,
anhedonia, dysthymic disorder, cyclothymic disorder, and bipolar disorder.
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
328. Understand and be familiar with persistent depressive disorder symptoms and
diagnostic criteria.
329. Differentiate among automatic and intrusive thoughts.
330. Explain how depression may be caused by psychological factors, including
psychoanalytic, behavioral, and cognitive views (include Beck’s cognitive triad in your
answer).
331. Explain how Weiner’s attribution model and Abramson’s revision explain how
learned helplessness occurs. Know the difference between Internal and External, stable
versus unstable, and global versus specific within each of the attributions. Be prepared to
offer an example of each.
332. Discuss the benefits and weaknesses of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). Can this
form of therapy cause damage or be dangerous? What are some consequences of ECT?
333. Discuss the rise of antidepressant medications in recent years, including MAOs,
tricyclics, and SSRIs. Be familiar with each.
334. Discuss the use of brain stimulation techniques, including vagus nerve
stimulation, transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), and deep brain stimulation.
335. Describe mood stabilizing drug types and efficacy on bipolar disorders.
336. Explain the key features of somatoform and dissociative disorders.
337. Discuss how the three hysterical somatoform disorders (conversion disorder,
somatization disorder, and pain disorder with psychological factors) differ from each
other (include glove anesthesia in your answer).
338. Discuss the differences between: hysterical and factitious disorders (include
malingering and Munchausen syndrome and Munchausen syndrome by proxy in your
answer).
( Extra Key Notes )
4. Key Figures in the History of Abnormal Psychology
82. Philippe Pinel (1745–1826)
• French physician who reformed mental hospitals in France.
• Introduced moral treatment, emphasizing kindness, humane conditions, and talking with
patients.
• Freed patients from chains at La Bicêtre Hospital, improving their quality of life.
83. William Tuke (1732–1822)
• English Quaker who founded the York Retreat, a country house for the mentally ill.
• Promoted moral treatment focused on rest, prayer, and gentle care rather than
punishment.
84. Dorothea Dix (1802–1887)
• American schoolteacher and reformer.
• Campaigned for better treatment and conditions for people with mental illness in the
U.S. and helped establish state mental hospitals.
85. Emil Kraepelin (1856–1926)
• German psychiatrist who developed the first modern system for classifying mental
disorders.
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
• Identified patterns of symptoms and laid the groundwork for the DSM (Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders).
86. Benjamin Rush (1746–1813)
• Known as the father of American psychiatry.
• Advocated for humane treatment of patients and better hospital conditions, but also used
early medical treatments (like bloodletting).
87. Socrates (470–399 BCE)
• Ancient Greek philosopher who believed self-examination and rational thought could
lead to better understanding of one’s behavior.
88. Hippocrates (460–377 BCE)
• Known as the father of modern medicine.
• Believed mental illness had natural (biological) causes, not demonic possession.
• Introduced the theory of the four humors (blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile)
— imbalance was thought to cause abnormal behavior.
89. Aristotle (384–322 BCE)
• Greek philosopher who emphasized the connection between the mind and body,
believing mental disorders could stem from physical causes.
90. Plato (427–347 BCE)
• Believed abnormal behavior resulted from internal conflicts and emphasized the
importance of reason over emotion.
• Advocated for a hospital setting away from society for treatment.
Ancient Views and Treatments for Mental Disorders
Trephining (Trepanation):
An ancient practice where holes were drilled into the skull to “release evil spirits”
thought to cause abnormal behavior.
• Humors:
Based on Hippocrates’ theory, mental disorders were caused by an imbalance of bodily
fluids:
o Blood (sanguine – cheerful) o
Phlegm (phlegmatic – sluggish) o
Yellow bile (choleric – irritable) o
Black bile (melancholic –
depressed) Bedlam
(Bethlehem Hospital in London):
One of the first asylums, notorious for poor and inhumane treatment. Patients were
often chained, beaten, and displayed to the public. The word “bedlam” later came to
mean chaos or madness.
This resource has been provided to help you be successful in studying for the Topic 4 Midterm. It
is recommended you complete this document as you read the assigned chapters for Topics 1-4.
1. Discuss the “four Ds” of abnormal psychology; how does culture play a role in labeling a
behavior as deviant?
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
Distress-He seems to be experiencing emotional distress, though he might not openly
admit it.
Deviance-Variance from common patterns of behavior. - behaviors that stray from what
society considers “normal.” Example ( Alex’s behavior is certainly deviating from his
usual patterns and from what’s expected of a college student.)
Danger-While there’s no immediate threat, prolonged isolation and neglect of
responsibilities could lead to more serious consequences.
Dysfunction-When Life Goes Off the Rails, Our third D, Dysfunction, is where the
rubber meets the road. Take the case of Michael, a once-sociable marketing executive
who now struggles to leave his house due to severe panic attacks. His behavior is deviant
(most people don’t have trouble leaving their homes), it causes him distress (he’s
frustrated and anxious about his situation), and it’s clearly dysfunctional (he can’t work
or maintain relationships). This trifecta of Ds paints a clear picture of a potential anxiety
disorder.( His academic performance and social relationships are clearly suffering.)
2. Define abnormal psychology- The scientific study of abnormal behavior undertaken to
describe, predict, explain, and change abnormal patterns of functioning. Multiple
Choice Questions (Examples)
41. What is the best definition of abnormal psychology?
A) The study of human development and learning
B) The scientific study of normal behavior and emotions
C) The scientific study of abnormal behavior undertaken to describe, predict, explain,
andchange abnormal patterns of functioning ✅
D) The study of brain anatomy and intelligence
42. Which of the following is NOT one of the goals of abnormal psychology?
A) Describe abnormal behavior
B) Predict abnormal behavior
C) Explain abnormal behavior
D) Ignore abnormal behavior ✅
True/False Questions
43. Abnormal psychology aims to describe, predict, explain, and change abnormal patterns of
functioning.
Answer: True ✅
44. Abnormal psychology only describes abnormal behavior and does not attempt to change
it.
Answer: False ✅
33. Familiarize yourself with theorist Jerome Frank. What are the three essential features of
therapy?
A sufferer who seeks relief from the healer.
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
A trained, socially accepted healer, whose expertise is accepted by the sufferer
and his or her social group.
A series of contacts between the healer and the sufferer, through which the healer
... tries to produce certain changes in the sufferer's emotional state, attitudes, and
behavior.
34. Discuss the role of the following people in the history of abnormal psychology: Pinel,
Tuke, Dix, Kraepelin, Rush, Socrates, Hippocrates, Aristotle and Plato. List ancient views
of “treatments” for mental disorders (include trephining, humors, and Bedlam in your
answer).
-Pinel: The first chief physician for the asylum located in France. Argued that the
mentally challenged people should not be in chains and receive beatings, rather
than, they should show sympathy and kindness
-Tuke: Founder of York Retreat and treated patients with a combination of rest,
talk, prayer, and manual work.
- Boston schoolteacher who made human care more of a public and political
concern in the U.S. Believed in moral treatment
-Kraeplein: A German researcher who published a book arguing that physical
factors (e.g. fatigue) are responsible for mental dysfunction
-Rush: Father of American psychiatry; developed humane approaches to
treatment
- Often called the father of medicine, taught illnesses as
natural causes. Saw mental illness as uprising from internal
physical illness -Aristotle/Plato: shared ideas with Hippocrates about the internal
focus on abnormality
35. List the advantages and disadvantages of the following non-experimental methods: a)
self-report (including surveys and questionnaires), b) tests and other assessments, c)
physiological measures, d) observations (including naturalistic observations), and e) case
studies.
a) Self-Report Methods (Surveys and Questionnaires)
Advantages:
• Easy and inexpensive to collect large amounts of data.
• Can reach many people quickly.
• Allows researchers to study thoughts, feelings, and attitudes directly from participants.
Disadvantages:
• Social desirability bias: participants may give answers they think are “acceptable” rather
than truthful.
• Response bias or inaccuracy: people may not remember accurately or may misunderstand
questions.
• Limited depth: lacks detailed, in-depth information about individual experiences.
• Can provide objective, standardized measurements (e.g., IQ tests, personality
inventories).
Dix:
Hippocrates:
b)
Tests and Other Assessments
Advantages
:
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
• Useful for diagnosis and treatment planning.
• Allows comparison across individuals using established norms. Disadvantages:
• May be culturally biased or not valid for all populations.
• Results can be affected by test anxiety or situational factors.
• Does not always capture the complexity of human behavior or emotions.
• Provides objective and precise data about biological processes.
• Can reveal physical correlates of mental states (e.g., brain activity linked to anxiety).
Less influenced by participant bias or self-report errors. Disadvantages:
• Can be expensive and require specialized equipment.
• May be invasive or uncomfortable for participants.
• Results can be hard to interpret — biological responses don’t always clearly explain
behavior.
• Allows researchers to see real behavior in context, not just what people say they do.
• Useful for studying behaviors that can’t be easily measured through tests or surveys.
Can reveal patterns and social interactions in natural settings. Disadvantages:
• Observer bias: researcher’s expectations can influence what they notice or record.
• Reactivity (Hawthorne effect): people may change behavior when they know they’re
being observed.
• Time-consuming and may lack control over outside variables.
• Provides in-depth, detailed information about one person or a small group.
• Can help generate hypotheses for further research.
• Useful for studying rare or unusual cases (e.g., Phineas Gage). Disadvantages:
• Lack of generalizability: findings may not apply to others.
• Subjectivity: researcher bias can influence interpretation.
• Cannot establish cause and effect relationships.
✅ Example Study Question:
Question: What is one advantage and one disadvantage of using case studies in abnormal
psychology research?
Answer:
• Advantage: Provides rich, detailed data about an individual’s experience.
Disadvantage: Findings may not generalize to other people
6. Describe the main features of experimental research, including a) independent vs.
c
)
Physiological Measure
s
(
e.g., heart rate, brain imaging, hormone levels
)
Advantages
:
d)
Observations (Including Naturalistic Observations)
Advantages
:
e)
Case Studie
s
Advantages
:
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
dependent variables, b) experimental vs. control groups, and c) random assignment vs.
random sample.
-Independent variables: The variable in an experiment that is manipulated to determine
if it has effect on another variable
-dependent variable: the variable in an experiment that is expected to change as the
independent is manipulated
-Experimental group: In an experiment, the participants who are exposed to the
independent variable under investigation
-Control group: A group of participants who are not exposed to the independent variable
-Random assignment: A selection process that ensures that participants are randomly
placed either in the control or in the experimental group.
7. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of correlational studies
Correlational Studies Definition:
A correlational study examines the relationship between two or more variables to
determine whether they are associated (correlated).
👉 It does not involve manipulating variables — it simply measures them as they
naturally occur.
Strengths of Correlational Studies
41. Shows Relationships Between Variables o Helps researchers identify whether
variables are related (e.g., stress levels and depression).
42. Useful When Experiments Are Unethical or Impossible o Some variables can’t be
ethically manipulated (e.g., childhood trauma, mental illness).
43. Can Help Predict Behavior
o If two variables are strongly related, one can help predict the other (e.g., substance
abuse and risk of relapse).
44. Often Quick and Inexpensive o Data can be collected from surveys, archives, or
existing datasets.
Weaknesses of Correlational Studies
41. Cannot Determine Cause and Effect (No Causation!) o Correlation does not
mean one variable causes the other — there may be a third variable influencing
both.
42. Possible Third-Variable Problem o A hidden variable may explain the relationship
(e.g., poverty might explain the link between stress and illness).
43. Directionality Problem o Even if two variables are related, it’s unclear which
causes which (e.g., does depression cause isolation, or does isolation cause
depression?).
44. Potential for Misinterpretation o People often assume a correlation means
causation, which can lead to false conclusions.
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
✅
Example Study Question and Answer:
Question: What is a major limitation of correlational research?
Answer: Correlational research cannot determine cause-and-effect relationships between
variables.
Question: What is one strength of correlational studies?
Answer: They can identify and measure the strength and direction of relationships
between variables.
8.
Distinguish cross-sectional from longitudinal studies (incidence and prevalence).
Cross-Sectional vs. Longitudinal Studies
Both are non-experimental research designs used to study patterns of behavior, mental
disorders, or health over time.
1. Cross-Sectional Studies
• Examine different groups of people at a single point in time.
• Often used to measure prevalence (how common a disorder is at a given time). Key
Features:
• Quick and relatively inexpensive.
• Provides a “snapshot” of a population.
• Can compare different age groups or demographics at once. Strengths:
• Efficient for studying large populations.
• Useful for identifying prevalence rates.
Weaknesses:
• Cannot measure incidence (new cases over time).
• Cannot establish cause-and-effect or track changes within individuals. Example:
• Surveying 1,000 people of various ages to find the current prevalence of depression.
2. Longitudinal Studies
• Follow the same group of people over time to see how variables change.
• Often used to measure incidence (number of new cases of a disorder that develop over a
specific period).
Key Features:
• Tracks changes in the same participants over months, years, or decades.
• Can study developmental trends and causal relationships more effectively.
Strengths:
• Can measure incidence (new cases) and patterns of change.
• Useful for studying long-term effects of risk factors or treatments. Weaknesses:
• Time-consuming and expensive.
• Participant dropout can bias results.
• Not always practical for very long periods.
Example:
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
• Following a group of 500 children for 10 years to see how many develop anxiety
disorders over time.
Key Terms: Prevalence vs. Incidence
• Prevalence: Total number of cases (old + new) of a disorder in a population at a given
time.
• Incidence: Number of new cases that develop in a population over a specific time period.
✅ Example Study Questions:
21. Question: What is the main difference between cross-sectional and longitudinal studies?
Answer: Cross-sectional studies examine different groups at one point in time
(prevalence), while longitudinal studies follow the same group over time to track new
cases (incidence).
22. Question: Which type of study is best for measuring the incidence of a disorder?
Answer: Longitudinal study.
339. Define the terms epidemiological studies, incidence, and prevalence.
340. What are other terms used interchangeably for the term “perspective” in
psychology?
341. Discuss the types of available biological treatments.
342. What are the three levels of Freud’s theory of the psyche, and what three
components inhabit these levels?
343. Discuss the elements seen in psychodynamic therapy, including free association,
resistance, transference, countertransference, dream analysis, catharsis, and “working
through.”
344. Discuss the features of the cognitive model and cognitive-behavioral therapy,
including theorist’s contributions: Ellis’ REBT, Beck’s cognitive therapy, and
Meichenbaum’s selfinstructional training.
345. Discuss the cognitive-behavioral model and how it integrates the cognitive and
behavioral models into one unified perspective/model.
346. Discuss the features of humanistic psychology and therapy, including self-
actualization, client-centered therapy, conditions of worth, and unconditional vs.
conditional positive regard.
347. Discuss the features of Gestalt theory and therapy, including skillful frustration,
role playing, rules, and here-and-now.
348. Contrast the family-social and multicultural perspectives found in the
sociocultural model. Include social labels, roles, social support and family systems theory
in your answer.
349. How does anxiety differ from fear? Define both.
350. Define the types of anxiety: free-floating, specific, fearful
351. How do phobias differ from normal fears?
352. Define astra-, agora-, social, claustro-, acro-, and zoophobia.
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
353. Contrast the following models related to approaches for anxiety: sociocultural,
psychodynamic, humanistic-existential, cognitive
354. Understand and know the different functions of the nervous system: peripheral,
sympathetic, parasympathetic
355. What role does the hypothalamus have in the production and release of
corticosteroids?
356. What types of events can trigger a psychological stress disorder?
357. Explain how the following factors play a role in developing a psychological stress
disorder: biological and genetic factors, personality factors, childhood experiences, social
support, multicultural factors, and severity of the trauma.
358. Understand and know the difference between: Dissociative disorder, post-
traumatic stress disorder, dissociative amnesia.
359. How are psychophysiological disorders affected by biological, psychological, and
sociocultural factors?
360. Describe the differences among: depression, mania, unipolar depression,
anhedonia, dysthymic disorder, cyclothymic disorder, and bipolar disorder.
361. Understand and be familiar with persistent depressive disorder symptoms and
diagnostic criteria.
362. Differentiate among automatic and intrusive thoughts.
363. Explain how depression may be caused by psychological factors, including
psychoanalytic, behavioral, and cognitive views (include Beck’s cognitive triad in your
answer).
364. Explain how Weiner’s attribution model and Abramson’s revision explain how
learned helplessness occurs. Know the difference between Internal and External, stable
versus unstable, and global versus specific within each of the attributions. Be prepared to
offer an example of each.
365. Discuss the benefits and weaknesses of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). Can this
form of therapy cause damage or be dangerous? What are some consequences of ECT?
366. Discuss the rise of antidepressant medications in recent years, including MAOs,
tricyclics, and SSRIs. Be familiar with each.
367. Discuss the use of brain stimulation techniques, including vagus nerve
stimulation, transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), and deep brain stimulation.
368. Describe mood stabilizing drug types and efficacy on bipolar disorders.
369. Explain the key features of somatoform and dissociative disorders.
370. Discuss how the three hysterical somatoform disorders (conversion disorder,
somatization disorder, and pain disorder with psychological factors) differ from each
other (include glove anesthesia in your answer).
371. Discuss the differences between: hysterical and factitious disorders (include
malingering and Munchausen syndrome and Munchausen syndrome by proxy in your
answer).
( Extra Key Notes )
4. Key Figures in the History of Abnormal Psychology
91. Philippe Pinel (1745–1826)
• French physician who reformed mental hospitals in France.
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
• Introduced moral treatment, emphasizing kindness, humane conditions, and talking with
patients.
• Freed patients from chains at La Bicêtre Hospital, improving their quality of life.
92. William Tuke (1732–1822)
• English Quaker who founded the York Retreat, a country house for the mentally ill.
• Promoted moral treatment focused on rest, prayer, and gentle care rather than
punishment.
93. Dorothea Dix (1802–1887)
• American schoolteacher and reformer.
• Campaigned for better treatment and conditions for people with mental illness in the
U.S. and helped establish state mental hospitals.
94. Emil Kraepelin (1856–1926)
• German psychiatrist who developed the first modern system for classifying mental
disorders.
• Identified patterns of symptoms and laid the groundwork for the DSM (Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders).
95. Benjamin Rush (1746–1813)
• Known as the father of American psychiatry.
• Advocated for humane treatment of patients and better hospital conditions, but also used
early medical treatments (like bloodletting).
96. Socrates (470–399 BCE)
• Ancient Greek philosopher who believed self-examination and rational thought could
lead to better understanding of one’s behavior.
97. Hippocrates (460–377 BCE)
• Known as the father of modern medicine.
• Believed mental illness had natural (biological) causes, not demonic possession.
• Introduced the theory of the four humors (blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile)
— imbalance was thought to cause abnormal behavior.
98. Aristotle (384–322 BCE)
• Greek philosopher who emphasized the connection between the mind and body,
believing mental disorders could stem from physical causes.
99. Plato (427–347 BCE)
• Believed abnormal behavior resulted from internal conflicts and emphasized the
importance of reason over emotion.
• Advocated for a hospital setting away from society for treatment.
Ancient Views and Treatments for Mental Disorders
Trephining (Trepanation):
An ancient practice where holes were drilled into the skull to “release evil spirits”
thought to cause abnormal behavior.
• Humors:
Based on Hippocrates’ theory, mental disorders were caused by an imbalance of bodily
fluids:
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
o Blood (sanguine – cheerful) o
Phlegm (phlegmatic – sluggish) o
Yellow bile (choleric – irritable) o
Black bile (melancholic –
depressed) Bedlam
(Bethlehem Hospital in London):
One of the first asylums, notorious for poor and inhumane treatment. Patients were
often chained, beaten, and displayed to the public. The word “bedlam” later came to
mean chaos or madness.
This resource has been provided to help you be successful in studying for the Topic 4 Midterm. It
is recommended you complete this document as you read the assigned chapters for Topics 1-4.
1. Discuss the “four Ds” of abnormal psychology; how does culture play a role in labeling a
behavior as deviant?
Distress-He seems to be experiencing emotional distress, though he might not openly
admit it.
Deviance-Variance from common patterns of behavior. - behaviors that stray from what
society considers “normal.” Example ( Alex’s behavior is certainly deviating from his
usual patterns and from what’s expected of a college student.)
Danger-While there’s no immediate threat, prolonged isolation and neglect of
responsibilities could lead to more serious consequences.
Dysfunction-When Life Goes Off the Rails, Our third D, Dysfunction, is where the
rubber meets the road. Take the case of Michael, a once-sociable marketing executive
who now struggles to leave his house due to severe panic attacks. His behavior is deviant
(most people don’t have trouble leaving their homes), it causes him distress (he’s
frustrated and anxious about his situation), and it’s clearly dysfunctional (he can’t work
or maintain relationships). This trifecta of Ds paints a clear picture of a potential anxiety
disorder.( His academic performance and social relationships are clearly suffering.)
2. Define abnormal psychology- The scientific study of abnormal behavior undertaken to
describe, predict, explain, and change abnormal patterns of functioning. Multiple
Choice Questions (Examples)
45. What is the best definition of abnormal psychology?
A) The study of human development and learning
B) The scientific study of normal behavior and emotions
C) The scientific study of abnormal behavior undertaken to describe, predict, explain,
andchange abnormal patterns of functioning ✅
D) The study of brain anatomy and intelligence
46. Which of the following is NOT one of the goals of abnormal psychology?
A) Describe abnormal behavior
B) Predict abnormal behavior
C) Explain abnormal behavior
D) Ignore abnormal behavior ✅
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
True/False Questions
47. Abnormal psychology aims to describe, predict, explain, and change abnormal patterns of
functioning.
Answer: True ✅
48. Abnormal psychology only describes abnormal behavior and does not attempt to change
it.
Answer: False ✅
36. Familiarize yourself with theorist Jerome Frank. What are the three essential features of
therapy?
A sufferer who seeks relief from the healer.
A trained, socially accepted healer, whose expertise is accepted by the sufferer
and his or her social group.
A series of contacts between the healer and the sufferer, through which the healer
... tries to produce certain changes in the sufferer's emotional state, attitudes, and
behavior.
37. Discuss the role of the following people in the history of abnormal psychology: Pinel,
Tuke, Dix, Kraepelin, Rush, Socrates, Hippocrates, Aristotle and Plato. List ancient views
of “treatments” for mental disorders (include trephining, humors, and Bedlam in your
answer).
-Pinel: The first chief physician for the asylum located in France. Argued that the
mentally challenged people should not be in chains and receive beatings, rather
than, they should show sympathy and kindness
-Tuke: Founder of York Retreat and treated patients with a combination of rest,
talk, prayer, and manual work.
- Boston schoolteacher who made human care more of a public and political
concern in the U.S. Believed in moral treatment
-Kraeplein: A German researcher who published a book arguing that physical
factors (e.g. fatigue) are responsible for mental dysfunction
-Rush: Father of American psychiatry; developed humane approaches to
treatment
- Often called the father of medicine, taught illnesses as
natural causes. Saw mental illness as uprising from internal
physical illness -Aristotle/Plato: shared ideas with Hippocrates about the internal
focus on abnormality
38. List the advantages and disadvantages of the following non-experimental methods: a)
self-report (including surveys and questionnaires), b) tests and other assessments, c)
physiological measures, d) observations (including naturalistic observations), and e) case
studies.
a) Self-Report Methods (Surveys and Questionnaires)
Advantages:
Dix:
Hippocrates:
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
• Easy and inexpensive to collect large amounts of data.
• Can reach many people quickly.
• Allows researchers to study thoughts, feelings, and attitudes directly from participants.
Disadvantages:
• Social desirability bias: participants may give answers they think are “acceptable” rather
than truthful.
• Response bias or inaccuracy: people may not remember accurately or may misunderstand
questions.
• Limited depth: lacks detailed, in-depth information about individual experiences.
• Can provide objective, standardized measurements (e.g., IQ tests, personality
inventories).
• Useful for diagnosis and treatment planning.
• Allows comparison across individuals using established norms. Disadvantages:
• May be culturally biased or not valid for all populations.
• Results can be affected by test anxiety or situational factors.
• Does not always capture the complexity of human behavior or emotions.
• Provides objective and precise data about biological processes.
• Can reveal physical correlates of mental states (e.g., brain activity linked to anxiety).
Less influenced by participant bias or self-report errors. Disadvantages:
• Can be expensive and require specialized equipment.
• May be invasive or uncomfortable for participants.
• Results can be hard to interpret — biological responses don’t always clearly explain
behavior.
• Allows researchers to see real behavior in context, not just what people say they do.
• Useful for studying behaviors that can’t be easily measured through tests or surveys.
Can reveal patterns and social interactions in natural settings. Disadvantages:
• Observer bias: researcher’s expectations can influence what they notice or record.
• Reactivity (Hawthorne effect): people may change behavior when they know they’re
being observed.
• Time-consuming and may lack control over outside variables.
• Provides in-depth, detailed information about one person or a small group.
• Can help generate hypotheses for further research.
b)
Tests and Other Assessments
Advantages
:
c
)
Physiological Measure
s
(
e.g., heart rate, brain imaging, hormone levels
)
Advantages
:
d)
Observations (Including Naturalistic Observations)
Advantages
:
e)
Case Studie
s
Advantages
:
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
• Useful for studying rare or unusual cases (e.g., Phineas Gage). Disadvantages:
• Lack of generalizability: findings may not apply to others.
• Subjectivity: researcher bias can influence interpretation.
• Cannot establish cause and effect relationships.
✅ Example Study Question:
Question: What is one advantage and one disadvantage of using case studies in abnormal
psychology research?
Answer:
• Advantage: Provides rich, detailed data about an individual’s experience.
Disadvantage: Findings may not generalize to other people
6. Describe the main features of experimental research, including a) independent vs.
dependent variables, b) experimental vs. control groups, and c) random assignment vs.
random sample.
-Independent variables: The variable in an experiment that is manipulated to determine
if it has effect on another variable
-dependent variable: the variable in an experiment that is expected to change as the
independent is manipulated
-Experimental group: In an experiment, the participants who are exposed to the
independent variable under investigation
-Control group: A group of participants who are not exposed to the independent variable
-Random assignment: A selection process that ensures that participants are randomly
placed either in the control or in the experimental group.
7. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of correlational studies
Correlational Studies Definition:
A correlational study examines the relationship between two or more variables to
determine whether they are associated (correlated).
👉 It does not involve manipulating variables — it simply measures them as they
naturally occur.
Strengths of Correlational Studies
45. Shows Relationships Between Variables o Helps researchers identify whether
variables are related (e.g., stress levels and depression).
46. Useful When Experiments Are Unethical or Impossible o Some variables can’t be
ethically manipulated (e.g., childhood trauma, mental illness).
47. Can Help Predict Behavior
o If two variables are strongly related, one can help predict the other (e.g., substance
abuse and risk of relapse).
48. Often Quick and Inexpensive o Data can be collected from surveys, archives, or
existing datasets.
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
Weaknesses of Correlational Studies
45. Cannot Determine Cause and Effect (No Causation!) o Correlation does not
mean one variable causes the other — there may be a third variable influencing
both.
46. Possible Third-Variable Problem o A hidden variable may explain the relationship
(e.g., poverty might explain the link between stress and illness).
47. Directionality Problem o Even if two variables are related, it’s unclear which
causes which (e.g., does depression cause isolation, or does isolation cause
depression?).
48. Potential for Misinterpretation o People often assume a correlation means
causation, which can lead to false conclusions.
✅
Example Study Question and Answer:
Question: What is a major limitation of correlational research?
Answer: Correlational research cannot determine cause-and-effect relationships between
variables.
Question: What is one strength of correlational studies?
Answer: They can identify and measure the strength and direction of relationships
between variables.
8.
Distinguish cross-sectional from longitudinal studies (incidence and prevalence).
Cross-Sectional vs. Longitudinal Studies
Both are non-experimental research designs used to study patterns of behavior, mental
disorders, or health over time.
1. Cross-Sectional Studies
• Examine different groups of people at a single point in time.
• Often used to measure prevalence (how common a disorder is at a given time). Key
Features:
• Quick and relatively inexpensive.
• Provides a “snapshot” of a population.
• Can compare different age groups or demographics at once. Strengths:
• Efficient for studying large populations.
• Useful for identifying prevalence rates.
Weaknesses:
• Cannot measure incidence (new cases over time).
• Cannot establish cause-and-effect or track changes within individuals. Example:
• Surveying 1,000 people of various ages to find the current prevalence of depression.
2. Longitudinal Studies
• Follow the same group of people over time to see how variables change.
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
• Often used to measure incidence (number of new cases of a disorder that develop over a
specific period).
Key Features:
• Tracks changes in the same participants over months, years, or decades.
• Can study developmental trends and causal relationships more effectively.
Strengths:
• Can measure incidence (new cases) and patterns of change.
• Useful for studying long-term effects of risk factors or treatments. Weaknesses:
• Time-consuming and expensive.
• Participant dropout can bias results.
• Not always practical for very long periods.
Example:
• Following a group of 500 children for 10 years to see how many develop anxiety
disorders over time.
Key Terms: Prevalence vs. Incidence
• Prevalence: Total number of cases (old + new) of a disorder in a population at a given
time.
• Incidence: Number of new cases that develop in a population over a specific time period.
✅ Example Study Questions:
23. Question: What is the main difference between cross-sectional and longitudinal studies?
Answer: Cross-sectional studies examine different groups at one point in time
(prevalence), while longitudinal studies follow the same group over time to track new
cases (incidence).
24. Question: Which type of study is best for measuring the incidence of a disorder?
Answer: Longitudinal study.
372. Define the terms epidemiological studies, incidence, and prevalence.
373. What are other terms used interchangeably for the term “perspective” in
psychology?
374. Discuss the types of available biological treatments.
375. What are the three levels of Freud’s theory of the psyche, and what three
components inhabit these levels?
376. Discuss the elements seen in psychodynamic therapy, including free association,
resistance, transference, countertransference, dream analysis, catharsis, and “working
through.”
377. Discuss the features of the cognitive model and cognitive-behavioral therapy,
including theorist’s contributions: Ellis’ REBT, Beck’s cognitive therapy, and
Meichenbaum’s selfinstructional training.
378. Discuss the cognitive-behavioral model and how it integrates the cognitive and
behavioral models into one unified perspective/model.
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
379. Discuss the features of humanistic psychology and therapy, including self-
actualization, client-centered therapy, conditions of worth, and unconditional vs.
conditional positive regard.
380. Discuss the features of Gestalt theory and therapy, including skillful frustration,
role playing, rules, and here-and-now.
381. Contrast the family-social and multicultural perspectives found in the
sociocultural model. Include social labels, roles, social support and family systems theory
in your answer.
382. How does anxiety differ from fear? Define both.
383. Define the types of anxiety: free-floating, specific, fearful
384. How do phobias differ from normal fears?
385. Define astra-, agora-, social, claustro-, acro-, and zoophobia.
386. Contrast the following models related to approaches for anxiety: sociocultural,
psychodynamic, humanistic-existential, cognitive
387. Understand and know the different functions of the nervous system: peripheral,
sympathetic, parasympathetic
388. What role does the hypothalamus have in the production and release of
corticosteroids?
389. What types of events can trigger a psychological stress disorder?
390. Explain how the following factors play a role in developing a psychological stress
disorder: biological and genetic factors, personality factors, childhood experiences, social
support, multicultural factors, and severity of the trauma.
391. Understand and know the difference between: Dissociative disorder, post-
traumatic stress disorder, dissociative amnesia.
392. How are psychophysiological disorders affected by biological, psychological, and
sociocultural factors?
393. Describe the differences among: depression, mania, unipolar depression,
anhedonia, dysthymic disorder, cyclothymic disorder, and bipolar disorder.
394. Understand and be familiar with persistent depressive disorder symptoms and
diagnostic criteria.
395. Differentiate among automatic and intrusive thoughts.
396. Explain how depression may be caused by psychological factors, including
psychoanalytic, behavioral, and cognitive views (include Beck’s cognitive triad in your
answer).
397. Explain how Weiner’s attribution model and Abramson’s revision explain how
learned helplessness occurs. Know the difference between Internal and External, stable
versus unstable, and global versus specific within each of the attributions. Be prepared to
offer an example of each.
398. Discuss the benefits and weaknesses of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). Can this
form of therapy cause damage or be dangerous? What are some consequences of ECT?
399. Discuss the rise of antidepressant medications in recent years, including MAOs,
tricyclics, and SSRIs. Be familiar with each.
400. Discuss the use of brain stimulation techniques, including vagus nerve
stimulation, transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), and deep brain stimulation.
401. Describe mood stabilizing drug types and efficacy on bipolar disorders.
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
402. Explain the key features of somatoform and dissociative disorders.
403. Discuss how the three hysterical somatoform disorders (conversion disorder,
somatization disorder, and pain disorder with psychological factors) differ from each
other (include glove anesthesia in your answer).
404. Discuss the differences between: hysterical and factitious disorders (include
malingering and Munchausen syndrome and Munchausen syndrome by proxy in your
answer).
( Extra Key Notes )
4. Key Figures in the History of Abnormal Psychology
100. Philippe Pinel (1745–1826)
• French physician who reformed mental hospitals in France.
• Introduced moral treatment, emphasizing kindness, humane conditions, and talking with
patients.
• Freed patients from chains at La Bicêtre Hospital, improving their quality of life.
101. William Tuke (1732–1822)
• English Quaker who founded the York Retreat, a country house for the mentally ill.
• Promoted moral treatment focused on rest, prayer, and gentle care rather than
punishment.
102. Dorothea Dix (1802–1887)
• American schoolteacher and reformer.
• Campaigned for better treatment and conditions for people with mental illness in the
U.S. and helped establish state mental hospitals.
103. Emil Kraepelin (1856–1926)
• German psychiatrist who developed the first modern system for classifying mental
disorders.
• Identified patterns of symptoms and laid the groundwork for the DSM (Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders).
104. Benjamin Rush (1746–1813)
• Known as the father of American psychiatry.
• Advocated for humane treatment of patients and better hospital conditions, but also used
early medical treatments (like bloodletting).
105. Socrates (470–399 BCE)
• Ancient Greek philosopher who believed self-examination and rational thought could
lead to better understanding of one’s behavior.
106. Hippocrates (460–377 BCE)
• Known as the father of modern medicine.
• Believed mental illness had natural (biological) causes, not demonic possession.
• Introduced the theory of the four humors (blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile)
— imbalance was thought to cause abnormal behavior.
107. Aristotle (384–322 BCE)
• Greek philosopher who emphasized the connection between the mind and body,
believing mental disorders could stem from physical causes.
108. Plato (427–347 BCE)
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
• Believed abnormal behavior resulted from internal conflicts and emphasized the
importance of reason over emotion.
• Advocated for a hospital setting away from society for treatment.
Ancient Views and Treatments for Mental Disorders
Trephining (Trepanation):
An ancient practice where holes were drilled into the skull to “release evil spirits”
thought to cause abnormal behavior.
• Humors:
Based on Hippocrates’ theory, mental disorders were caused by an imbalance of bodily
fluids:
o Blood (sanguine – cheerful) o
Phlegm (phlegmatic – sluggish) o
Yellow bile (choleric – irritable) o
Black bile (melancholic –
depressed) Bedlam
(Bethlehem Hospital in London):
One of the first asylums, notorious for poor and inhumane treatment. Patients were
often chained, beaten, and displayed to the public. The word “bedlam” later came to
mean chaos or madness.
This resource has been provided to help you be successful in studying for the Topic 4 Midterm. It
is recommended you complete this document as you read the assigned chapters for Topics 1-4.
1. Discuss the “four Ds” of abnormal psychology; how does culture play a role in labeling a
behavior as deviant?
Distress-He seems to be experiencing emotional distress, though he might not openly
admit it.
Deviance-Variance from common patterns of behavior. - behaviors that stray from what
society considers “normal.” Example ( Alex’s behavior is certainly deviating from his
usual patterns and from what’s expected of a college student.)
Danger-While there’s no immediate threat, prolonged isolation and neglect of
responsibilities could lead to more serious consequences.
Dysfunction-When Life Goes Off the Rails, Our third D, Dysfunction, is where the
rubber meets the road. Take the case of Michael, a once-sociable marketing executive
who now struggles to leave his house due to severe panic attacks. His behavior is deviant
(most people don’t have trouble leaving their homes), it causes him distress (he’s
frustrated and anxious about his situation), and it’s clearly dysfunctional (he can’t work
or maintain relationships). This trifecta of Ds paints a clear picture of a potential anxiety
disorder.( His academic performance and social relationships are clearly suffering.)
2. Define abnormal psychology- The scientific study of abnormal behavior undertaken to
describe, predict, explain, and change abnormal patterns of functioning. Multiple
Choice Questions (Examples)
49. What is the best definition of abnormal psychology?
A) The study of human development and learning
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
B) The scientific study of normal behavior and emotions
C) The scientific study of abnormal behavior undertaken to describe, predict, explain,
andchange abnormal patterns of functioning ✅
D) The study of brain anatomy and intelligence
50. Which of the following is NOT one of the goals of abnormal psychology?
A) Describe abnormal behavior
B) Predict abnormal behavior
C) Explain abnormal behavior
D) Ignore abnormal behavior ✅
True/False Questions
51. Abnormal psychology aims to describe, predict, explain, and change abnormal patterns of
functioning.
Answer: True ✅
52. Abnormal psychology only describes abnormal behavior and does not attempt to change
it.
Answer: False ✅
39. Familiarize yourself with theorist Jerome Frank. What are the three essential features of
therapy?
A sufferer who seeks relief from the healer.
A trained, socially accepted healer, whose expertise is accepted by the sufferer
and his or her social group.
A series of contacts between the healer and the sufferer, through which the healer
... tries to produce certain changes in the sufferer's emotional state, attitudes, and
behavior.
40. Discuss the role of the following people in the history of abnormal psychology: Pinel,
Tuke, Dix, Kraepelin, Rush, Socrates, Hippocrates, Aristotle and Plato. List ancient views
of “treatments” for mental disorders (include trephining, humors, and Bedlam in your
answer).
-Pinel: The first chief physician for the asylum located in France. Argued that the
mentally challenged people should not be in chains and receive beatings, rather
than, they should show sympathy and kindness
-Tuke: Founder of York Retreat and treated patients with a combination of rest,
talk, prayer, and manual work.
- Boston schoolteacher who made human care more of a public and political
concern in the U.S. Believed in moral treatment
-Kraeplein: A German researcher who published a book arguing that physical
factors (e.g. fatigue) are responsible for mental dysfunction
Dix:
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
-Rush: Father of American psychiatry; developed humane approaches to
treatment
- Often called the father of medicine, taught illnesses as
natural causes. Saw mental illness as uprising from internal
physical illness -Aristotle/Plato: shared ideas with Hippocrates about the internal
focus on abnormality
41. List the advantages and disadvantages of the following non-experimental methods: a)
self-report (including surveys and questionnaires), b) tests and other assessments, c)
physiological measures, d) observations (including naturalistic observations), and e) case
studies.
a) Self-Report Methods (Surveys and Questionnaires)
Advantages:
• Easy and inexpensive to collect large amounts of data.
• Can reach many people quickly.
• Allows researchers to study thoughts, feelings, and attitudes directly from participants.
Disadvantages:
• Social desirability bias: participants may give answers they think are “acceptable” rather
than truthful.
• Response bias or inaccuracy: people may not remember accurately or may misunderstand
questions.
• Limited depth: lacks detailed, in-depth information about individual experiences.
• Can provide objective, standardized measurements (e.g., IQ tests, personality
inventories).
• Useful for diagnosis and treatment planning.
• Allows comparison across individuals using established norms. Disadvantages:
• May be culturally biased or not valid for all populations.
• Results can be affected by test anxiety or situational factors.
• Does not always capture the complexity of human behavior or emotions.
• Provides objective and precise data about biological processes.
• Can reveal physical correlates of mental states (e.g., brain activity linked to anxiety).
Less influenced by participant bias or self-report errors. Disadvantages:
• Can be expensive and require specialized equipment.
• May be invasive or uncomfortable for participants.
• Results can be hard to interpret — biological responses don’t always clearly explain
behavior.
Hippocrates:
b)
Tests and Other Assessments
Advantages
:
c
)
Physiological Measure
s
(
e.g., heart rate, brain imaging, hormone levels
)
Advantages
:
d)
Observations (Including Naturalistic Observations)
Advantages
:
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
• Allows researchers to see real behavior in context, not just what people say they do.
• Useful for studying behaviors that can’t be easily measured through tests or surveys.
Can reveal patterns and social interactions in natural settings. Disadvantages:
• Observer bias: researcher’s expectations can influence what they notice or record.
• Reactivity (Hawthorne effect): people may change behavior when they know they’re
being observed.
• Time-consuming and may lack control over outside variables.
• Provides in-depth, detailed information about one person or a small group.
• Can help generate hypotheses for further research.
• Useful for studying rare or unusual cases (e.g., Phineas Gage). Disadvantages:
• Lack of generalizability: findings may not apply to others.
• Subjectivity: researcher bias can influence interpretation.
• Cannot establish cause and effect relationships.
✅ Example Study Question:
Question: What is one advantage and one disadvantage of using case studies in abnormal
psychology research?
Answer:
• Advantage: Provides rich, detailed data about an individual’s experience.
Disadvantage: Findings may not generalize to other people
6. Describe the main features of experimental research, including a) independent vs.
dependent variables, b) experimental vs. control groups, and c) random assignment vs.
random sample.
-Independent variables: The variable in an experiment that is manipulated to determine
if it has effect on another variable
-dependent variable: the variable in an experiment that is expected to change as the
independent is manipulated
-Experimental group: In an experiment, the participants who are exposed to the
independent variable under investigation
-Control group: A group of participants who are not exposed to the independent variable
-Random assignment: A selection process that ensures that participants are randomly
placed either in the control or in the experimental group.
7. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of correlational studies
Correlational Studies Definition:
A correlational study examines the relationship between two or more variables to
determine whether they are associated (correlated).
👉 It does not involve manipulating variables — it simply measures them as they
naturally occur.
e)
Case Studie
s
Advantages
:
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
Strengths of Correlational Studies
49. Shows Relationships Between Variables o Helps researchers identify whether
variables are related (e.g., stress levels and depression).
50. Useful When Experiments Are Unethical or Impossible o Some variables can’t be
ethically manipulated (e.g., childhood trauma, mental illness).
51. Can Help Predict Behavior
o If two variables are strongly related, one can help predict the other (e.g., substance
abuse and risk of relapse).
52. Often Quick and Inexpensive o Data can be collected from surveys, archives, or
existing datasets.
Weaknesses of Correlational Studies
49. Cannot Determine Cause and Effect (No Causation!) o Correlation does not
mean one variable causes the other — there may be a third variable influencing
both.
50. Possible Third-Variable Problem o A hidden variable may explain the relationship
(e.g., poverty might explain the link between stress and illness).
51. Directionality Problem o Even if two variables are related, it’s unclear which
causes which (e.g., does depression cause isolation, or does isolation cause
depression?).
52. Potential for Misinterpretation o People often assume a correlation means
causation, which can lead to false conclusions.
✅
Example Study Question and Answer:
Question: What is a major limitation of correlational research?
Answer: Correlational research cannot determine cause-and-effect relationships between
variables.
Question: What is one strength of correlational studies?
Answer: They can identify and measure the strength and direction of relationships
between variables.
8.
Distinguish cross-sectional from longitudinal studies (incidence and prevalence).
Cross-Sectional vs. Longitudinal Studies
Both are non-experimental research designs used to study patterns of behavior, mental
disorders, or health over time.
1. Cross-Sectional Studies
• Examine different groups of people at a single point in time.
• Often used to measure prevalence (how common a disorder is at a given time). Key
Features:
• Quick and relatively inexpensive.
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
• Provides a “snapshot” of a population.
• Can compare different age groups or demographics at once. Strengths:
• Efficient for studying large populations.
• Useful for identifying prevalence rates.
Weaknesses:
• Cannot measure incidence (new cases over time).
• Cannot establish cause-and-effect or track changes within individuals. Example:
• Surveying 1,000 people of various ages to find the current prevalence of depression.
2. Longitudinal Studies
• Follow the same group of people over time to see how variables change.
• Often used to measure incidence (number of new cases of a disorder that develop over a
specific period).
Key Features:
• Tracks changes in the same participants over months, years, or decades.
• Can study developmental trends and causal relationships more effectively.
Strengths:
• Can measure incidence (new cases) and patterns of change.
• Useful for studying long-term effects of risk factors or treatments. Weaknesses:
• Time-consuming and expensive.
• Participant dropout can bias results.
• Not always practical for very long periods.
Example:
• Following a group of 500 children for 10 years to see how many develop anxiety
disorders over time.
Key Terms: Prevalence vs. Incidence
• Prevalence: Total number of cases (old + new) of a disorder in a population at a given
time.
• Incidence: Number of new cases that develop in a population over a specific time period.
✅ Example Study Questions:
25. Question: What is the main difference between cross-sectional and longitudinal studies?
Answer: Cross-sectional studies examine different groups at one point in time
(prevalence), while longitudinal studies follow the same group over time to track new
cases (incidence).
26. Question: Which type of study is best for measuring the incidence of a disorder?
Answer: Longitudinal study.
405. Define the terms epidemiological studies, incidence, and prevalence.
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
406. What are other terms used interchangeably for the term “perspective” in
psychology?
407. Discuss the types of available biological treatments.
408. What are the three levels of Freud’s theory of the psyche, and what three
components inhabit these levels?
409. Discuss the elements seen in psychodynamic therapy, including free association,
resistance, transference, countertransference, dream analysis, catharsis, and “working
through.”
410. Discuss the features of the cognitive model and cognitive-behavioral therapy,
including theorist’s contributions: Ellis’ REBT, Beck’s cognitive therapy, and
Meichenbaum’s selfinstructional training.
411. Discuss the cognitive-behavioral model and how it integrates the cognitive and
behavioral models into one unified perspective/model.
412. Discuss the features of humanistic psychology and therapy, including self-
actualization, client-centered therapy, conditions of worth, and unconditional vs.
conditional positive regard.
413. Discuss the features of Gestalt theory and therapy, including skillful frustration,
role playing, rules, and here-and-now.
414. Contrast the family-social and multicultural perspectives found in the
sociocultural model. Include social labels, roles, social support and family systems theory
in your answer.
415. How does anxiety differ from fear? Define both.
416. Define the types of anxiety: free-floating, specific, fearful
417. How do phobias differ from normal fears?
418. Define astra-, agora-, social, claustro-, acro-, and zoophobia.
419. Contrast the following models related to approaches for anxiety: sociocultural,
psychodynamic, humanistic-existential, cognitive
420. Understand and know the different functions of the nervous system: peripheral,
sympathetic, parasympathetic
421. What role does the hypothalamus have in the production and release of
corticosteroids?
422. What types of events can trigger a psychological stress disorder?
423. Explain how the following factors play a role in developing a psychological stress
disorder: biological and genetic factors, personality factors, childhood experiences, social
support, multicultural factors, and severity of the trauma.
424. Understand and know the difference between: Dissociative disorder, post-
traumatic stress disorder, dissociative amnesia.
425. How are psychophysiological disorders affected by biological, psychological, and
sociocultural factors?
426. Describe the differences among: depression, mania, unipolar depression,
anhedonia, dysthymic disorder, cyclothymic disorder, and bipolar disorder.
427. Understand and be familiar with persistent depressive disorder symptoms and
diagnostic criteria.
428. Differentiate among automatic and intrusive thoughts.
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
429. Explain how depression may be caused by psychological factors, including
psychoanalytic, behavioral, and cognitive views (include Beck’s cognitive triad in your
answer).
430. Explain how Weiner’s attribution model and Abramson’s revision explain how
learned helplessness occurs. Know the difference between Internal and External, stable
versus unstable, and global versus specific within each of the attributions. Be prepared to
offer an example of each.
431. Discuss the benefits and weaknesses of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). Can this
form of therapy cause damage or be dangerous? What are some consequences of ECT?
432. Discuss the rise of antidepressant medications in recent years, including MAOs,
tricyclics, and SSRIs. Be familiar with each.
433. Discuss the use of brain stimulation techniques, including vagus nerve
stimulation, transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), and deep brain stimulation.
434. Describe mood stabilizing drug types and efficacy on bipolar disorders.
435. Explain the key features of somatoform and dissociative disorders.
436. Discuss how the three hysterical somatoform disorders (conversion disorder,
somatization disorder, and pain disorder with psychological factors) differ from each
other (include glove anesthesia in your answer).
437. Discuss the differences between: hysterical and factitious disorders (include
malingering and Munchausen syndrome and Munchausen syndrome by proxy in your
answer).
( Extra Key Notes )
4. Key Figures in the History of Abnormal Psychology
109. Philippe Pinel (1745–1826)
• French physician who reformed mental hospitals in France.
• Introduced moral treatment, emphasizing kindness, humane conditions, and talking with
patients.
• Freed patients from chains at La Bicêtre Hospital, improving their quality of life.
110. William Tuke (1732–1822)
• English Quaker who founded the York Retreat, a country house for the mentally ill.
• Promoted moral treatment focused on rest, prayer, and gentle care rather than
punishment.
111. Dorothea Dix (1802–1887)
• American schoolteacher and reformer.
• Campaigned for better treatment and conditions for people with mental illness in the
U.S. and helped establish state mental hospitals.
112. Emil Kraepelin (1856–1926)
• German psychiatrist who developed the first modern system for classifying mental
disorders.
• Identified patterns of symptoms and laid the groundwork for the DSM (Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders).
113. Benjamin Rush (1746–1813)
• Known as the father of American psychiatry.
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
• Advocated for humane treatment of patients and better hospital conditions, but also used
early medical treatments (like bloodletting).
114. Socrates (470–399 BCE)
• Ancient Greek philosopher who believed self-examination and rational thought could
lead to better understanding of one’s behavior.
115. Hippocrates (460–377 BCE)
• Known as the father of modern medicine.
• Believed mental illness had natural (biological) causes, not demonic possession.
• Introduced the theory of the four humors (blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile)
— imbalance was thought to cause abnormal behavior.
116. Aristotle (384–322 BCE)
• Greek philosopher who emphasized the connection between the mind and body,
believing mental disorders could stem from physical causes.
117. Plato (427–347 BCE)
• Believed abnormal behavior resulted from internal conflicts and emphasized the
importance of reason over emotion.
• Advocated for a hospital setting away from society for treatment.
Ancient Views and Treatments for Mental Disorders
Trephining (Trepanation):
An ancient practice where holes were drilled into the skull to “release evil spirits”
thought to cause abnormal behavior.
• Humors:
Based on Hippocrates’ theory, mental disorders were caused by an imbalance of bodily
fluids:
o Blood (sanguine – cheerful) o
Phlegm (phlegmatic – sluggish) o
Yellow bile (choleric – irritable) o
Black bile (melancholic –
depressed) Bedlam
(Bethlehem Hospital in London):
One of the first asylums, notorious for poor and inhumane treatment. Patients were
often chained, beaten, and displayed to the public. The word “bedlam” later came to
mean chaos or madness.
This resource has been provided to help you be successful in studying for the Topic 4 Midterm. It
is recommended you complete this document as you read the assigned chapters for Topics 1-4.
1. Discuss the “four Ds” of abnormal psychology; how does culture play a role in labeling a
behavior as deviant?
Distress-He seems to be experiencing emotional distress, though he might not openly
admit it.
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
Deviance-Variance from common patterns of behavior. - behaviors that stray from what
society considers “normal.” Example ( Alex’s behavior is certainly deviating from his
usual patterns and from what’s expected of a college student.)
Danger-While there’s no immediate threat, prolonged isolation and neglect of
responsibilities could lead to more serious consequences.
Dysfunction-When Life Goes Off the Rails, Our third D, Dysfunction, is where the
rubber meets the road. Take the case of Michael, a once-sociable marketing executive
who now struggles to leave his house due to severe panic attacks. His behavior is deviant
(most people don’t have trouble leaving their homes), it causes him distress (he’s
frustrated and anxious about his situation), and it’s clearly dysfunctional (he can’t work
or maintain relationships). This trifecta of Ds paints a clear picture of a potential anxiety
disorder.( His academic performance and social relationships are clearly suffering.)
2. Define abnormal psychology- The scientific study of abnormal behavior undertaken to
describe, predict, explain, and change abnormal patterns of functioning. Multiple
Choice Questions (Examples)
53. What is the best definition of abnormal psychology?
A) The study of human development and learning
B) The scientific study of normal behavior and emotions
C) The scientific study of abnormal behavior undertaken to describe, predict, explain,
andchange abnormal patterns of functioning ✅
D) The study of brain anatomy and intelligence
54. Which of the following is NOT one of the goals of abnormal psychology?
A) Describe abnormal behavior
B) Predict abnormal behavior
C) Explain abnormal behavior
D) Ignore abnormal behavior ✅
True/False Questions
55. Abnormal psychology aims to describe, predict, explain, and change abnormal patterns of
functioning.
Answer: True ✅
56. Abnormal psychology only describes abnormal behavior and does not attempt to change
it.
Answer: False ✅
42. Familiarize yourself with theorist Jerome Frank. What are the three essential features of
therapy?
A sufferer who seeks relief from the healer.
A trained, socially accepted healer, whose expertise is accepted by the sufferer
and his or her social group.
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
A series of contacts between the healer and the sufferer, through which the healer
... tries to produce certain changes in the sufferer's emotional state, attitudes, and
behavior.
43. Discuss the role of the following people in the history of abnormal psychology: Pinel,
Tuke, Dix, Kraepelin, Rush, Socrates, Hippocrates, Aristotle and Plato. List ancient views
of “treatments” for mental disorders (include trephining, humors, and Bedlam in your
answer).
-Pinel: The first chief physician for the asylum located in France. Argued that the
mentally challenged people should not be in chains and receive beatings, rather
than, they should show sympathy and kindness
-Tuke: Founder of York Retreat and treated patients with a combination of rest,
talk, prayer, and manual work.
- Boston schoolteacher who made human care more of a public and political
concern in the U.S. Believed in moral treatment
-Kraeplein: A German researcher who published a book arguing that physical
factors (e.g. fatigue) are responsible for mental dysfunction
-Rush: Father of American psychiatry; developed humane approaches to
treatment
- Often called the father of medicine, taught illnesses as
natural causes. Saw mental illness as uprising from internal
physical illness -Aristotle/Plato: shared ideas with Hippocrates about the internal
focus on abnormality
44. List the advantages and disadvantages of the following non-experimental methods: a)
self-report (including surveys and questionnaires), b) tests and other assessments, c)
physiological measures, d) observations (including naturalistic observations), and e) case
studies.
a) Self-Report Methods (Surveys and Questionnaires)
Advantages:
• Easy and inexpensive to collect large amounts of data.
• Can reach many people quickly.
• Allows researchers to study thoughts, feelings, and attitudes directly from participants.
Disadvantages:
• Social desirability bias: participants may give answers they think are “acceptable” rather
than truthful.
• Response bias or inaccuracy: people may not remember accurately or may misunderstand
questions.
• Limited depth: lacks detailed, in-depth information about individual experiences.
• Can provide objective, standardized measurements (e.g., IQ tests, personality
inventories).
• Useful for diagnosis and treatment planning.
• Allows comparison across individuals using established norms. Disadvantages:
Dix:
Hippocrates:
b)
Tests and Other Assessments
Advantages
:
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
• May be culturally biased or not valid for all populations.
• Results can be affected by test anxiety or situational factors.
• Does not always capture the complexity of human behavior or emotions.
• Provides objective and precise data about biological processes.
• Can reveal physical correlates of mental states (e.g., brain activity linked to anxiety).
Less influenced by participant bias or self-report errors. Disadvantages:
• Can be expensive and require specialized equipment.
• May be invasive or uncomfortable for participants.
• Results can be hard to interpret — biological responses don’t always clearly explain
behavior.
• Allows researchers to see real behavior in context, not just what people say they do.
• Useful for studying behaviors that can’t be easily measured through tests or surveys.
Can reveal patterns and social interactions in natural settings. Disadvantages:
• Observer bias: researcher’s expectations can influence what they notice or record.
• Reactivity (Hawthorne effect): people may change behavior when they know they’re
being observed.
• Time-consuming and may lack control over outside variables.
• Provides in-depth, detailed information about one person or a small group.
• Can help generate hypotheses for further research.
• Useful for studying rare or unusual cases (e.g., Phineas Gage). Disadvantages:
• Lack of generalizability: findings may not apply to others.
• Subjectivity: researcher bias can influence interpretation.
• Cannot establish cause and effect relationships.
✅ Example Study Question:
Question: What is one advantage and one disadvantage of using case studies in abnormal
psychology research?
Answer:
• Advantage: Provides rich, detailed data about an individual’s experience.
Disadvantage: Findings may not generalize to other people
6. Describe the main features of experimental research, including a) independent vs.
dependent variables, b) experimental vs. control groups, and c) random assignment vs.
random sample.
c
)
Physiological Measure
s
(
e.g., heart rate, brain imaging, hormone levels
)
Advantages
:
d)
Observations (Including Naturalistic Observations)
Advantages
:
e)
Case Studie
s
Advantages
:
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
-Independent variables: The variable in an experiment that is manipulated to determine
if it has effect on another variable
-dependent variable: the variable in an experiment that is expected to change as the
independent is manipulated
-Experimental group: In an experiment, the participants who are exposed to the
independent variable under investigation
-Control group: A group of participants who are not exposed to the independent variable
-Random assignment: A selection process that ensures that participants are randomly
placed either in the control or in the experimental group.
7. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of correlational studies
Correlational Studies Definition:
A correlational study examines the relationship between two or more variables to
determine whether they are associated (correlated).
👉 It does not involve manipulating variables — it simply measures them as they
naturally occur.
Strengths of Correlational Studies
53. Shows Relationships Between Variables o Helps researchers identify whether
variables are related (e.g., stress levels and depression).
54. Useful When Experiments Are Unethical or Impossible o Some variables can’t be
ethically manipulated (e.g., childhood trauma, mental illness).
55. Can Help Predict Behavior
o If two variables are strongly related, one can help predict the other (e.g., substance
abuse and risk of relapse).
56. Often Quick and Inexpensive o Data can be collected from surveys, archives, or
existing datasets.
Weaknesses of Correlational Studies
53. Cannot Determine Cause and Effect (No Causation!) o Correlation does not
mean one variable causes the other — there may be a third variable influencing
both.
54. Possible Third-Variable Problem o A hidden variable may explain the relationship
(e.g., poverty might explain the link between stress and illness).
55. Directionality Problem o Even if two variables are related, it’s unclear which
causes which (e.g., does depression cause isolation, or does isolation cause
depression?).
56. Potential for Misinterpretation o People often assume a correlation means
causation, which can lead to false conclusions.
✅
Example Study Question and Answer:
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
Question: What is a major limitation of correlational research?
Answer: Correlational research cannot determine cause-and-effect relationships between
variables.
Question: What is one strength of correlational studies?
Answer: They can identify and measure the strength and direction of relationships
between variables.
8.
Distinguish cross-sectional from longitudinal studies (incidence and prevalence).
Cross-Sectional vs. Longitudinal Studies
Both are non-experimental research designs used to study patterns of behavior, mental
disorders, or health over time.
1. Cross-Sectional Studies
• Examine different groups of people at a single point in time.
• Often used to measure prevalence (how common a disorder is at a given time). Key
Features:
• Quick and relatively inexpensive.
• Provides a “snapshot” of a population.
• Can compare different age groups or demographics at once. Strengths:
• Efficient for studying large populations.
• Useful for identifying prevalence rates.
Weaknesses:
• Cannot measure incidence (new cases over time).
• Cannot establish cause-and-effect or track changes within individuals. Example:
• Surveying 1,000 people of various ages to find the current prevalence of depression.
2. Longitudinal Studies
• Follow the same group of people over time to see how variables change.
• Often used to measure incidence (number of new cases of a disorder that develop over a
specific period).
Key Features:
• Tracks changes in the same participants over months, years, or decades.
• Can study developmental trends and causal relationships more effectively.
Strengths:
• Can measure incidence (new cases) and patterns of change.
• Useful for studying long-term effects of risk factors or treatments. Weaknesses:
• Time-consuming and expensive.
• Participant dropout can bias results.
• Not always practical for very long periods.
Example:
• Following a group of 500 children for 10 years to see how many develop anxiety
disorders over time.
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
Key Terms: Prevalence vs. Incidence
• Prevalence: Total number of cases (old + new) of a disorder in a population at a given
time.
• Incidence: Number of new cases that develop in a population over a specific time period.
✅ Example Study Questions:
27. Question: What is the main difference between cross-sectional and longitudinal studies?
Answer: Cross-sectional studies examine different groups at one point in time
(prevalence), while longitudinal studies follow the same group over time to track new
cases (incidence).
28. Question: Which type of study is best for measuring the incidence of a disorder?
Answer: Longitudinal study.
438. Define the terms epidemiological studies, incidence, and prevalence.
439. What are other terms used interchangeably for the term “perspective” in
psychology?
440. Discuss the types of available biological treatments.
441. What are the three levels of Freud’s theory of the psyche, and what three
components inhabit these levels?
442. Discuss the elements seen in psychodynamic therapy, including free association,
resistance, transference, countertransference, dream analysis, catharsis, and “working
through.”
443. Discuss the features of the cognitive model and cognitive-behavioral therapy,
including theorist’s contributions: Ellis’ REBT, Beck’s cognitive therapy, and
Meichenbaum’s selfinstructional training.
444. Discuss the cognitive-behavioral model and how it integrates the cognitive and
behavioral models into one unified perspective/model.
445. Discuss the features of humanistic psychology and therapy, including self-
actualization, client-centered therapy, conditions of worth, and unconditional vs.
conditional positive regard.
446. Discuss the features of Gestalt theory and therapy, including skillful frustration,
role playing, rules, and here-and-now.
447. Contrast the family-social and multicultural perspectives found in the
sociocultural model. Include social labels, roles, social support and family systems theory
in your answer.
448. How does anxiety differ from fear? Define both.
449. Define the types of anxiety: free-floating, specific, fearful
450. How do phobias differ from normal fears?
451. Define astra-, agora-, social, claustro-, acro-, and zoophobia.
452. Contrast the following models related to approaches for anxiety: sociocultural,
psychodynamic, humanistic-existential, cognitive
453. Understand and know the different functions of the nervous system: peripheral,
sympathetic, parasympathetic
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
454. What role does the hypothalamus have in the production and release of
corticosteroids?
455. What types of events can trigger a psychological stress disorder?
456. Explain how the following factors play a role in developing a psychological stress
disorder: biological and genetic factors, personality factors, childhood experiences, social
support, multicultural factors, and severity of the trauma.
457. Understand and know the difference between: Dissociative disorder, post-
traumatic stress disorder, dissociative amnesia.
458. How are psychophysiological disorders affected by biological, psychological, and
sociocultural factors?
459. Describe the differences among: depression, mania, unipolar depression,
anhedonia, dysthymic disorder, cyclothymic disorder, and bipolar disorder.
460. Understand and be familiar with persistent depressive disorder symptoms and
diagnostic criteria.
461. Differentiate among automatic and intrusive thoughts.
462. Explain how depression may be caused by psychological factors, including
psychoanalytic, behavioral, and cognitive views (include Beck’s cognitive triad in your
answer).
463. Explain how Weiner’s attribution model and Abramson’s revision explain how
learned helplessness occurs. Know the difference between Internal and External, stable
versus unstable, and global versus specific within each of the attributions. Be prepared to
offer an example of each.
464. Discuss the benefits and weaknesses of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). Can this
form of therapy cause damage or be dangerous? What are some consequences of ECT?
465. Discuss the rise of antidepressant medications in recent years, including MAOs,
tricyclics, and SSRIs. Be familiar with each.
466. Discuss the use of brain stimulation techniques, including vagus nerve
stimulation, transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), and deep brain stimulation.
467. Describe mood stabilizing drug types and efficacy on bipolar disorders.
468. Explain the key features of somatoform and dissociative disorders.
469. Discuss how the three hysterical somatoform disorders (conversion disorder,
somatization disorder, and pain disorder with psychological factors) differ from each
other (include glove anesthesia in your answer).
470. Discuss the differences between: hysterical and factitious disorders (include
malingering and Munchausen syndrome and Munchausen syndrome by proxy in your
answer).
( Extra Key Notes )
4. Key Figures in the History of Abnormal Psychology
118. Philippe Pinel (1745–1826)
• French physician who reformed mental hospitals in France.
• Introduced moral treatment, emphasizing kindness, humane conditions, and talking with
patients.
• Freed patients from chains at La Bicêtre Hospital, improving their quality of life.
119. William Tuke (1732–1822)
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
• English Quaker who founded the York Retreat, a country house for the mentally ill.
• Promoted moral treatment focused on rest, prayer, and gentle care rather than
punishment.
120. Dorothea Dix (1802–1887)
• American schoolteacher and reformer.
• Campaigned for better treatment and conditions for people with mental illness in the
U.S. and helped establish state mental hospitals.
121. Emil Kraepelin (1856–1926)
• German psychiatrist who developed the first modern system for classifying mental
disorders.
• Identified patterns of symptoms and laid the groundwork for the DSM (Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders).
122. Benjamin Rush (1746–1813)
• Known as the father of American psychiatry.
• Advocated for humane treatment of patients and better hospital conditions, but also used
early medical treatments (like bloodletting).
123. Socrates (470–399 BCE)
• Ancient Greek philosopher who believed self-examination and rational thought could
lead to better understanding of one’s behavior.
124. Hippocrates (460–377 BCE)
• Known as the father of modern medicine.
• Believed mental illness had natural (biological) causes, not demonic possession.
• Introduced the theory of the four humors (blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile)
— imbalance was thought to cause abnormal behavior.
125. Aristotle (384–322 BCE)
• Greek philosopher who emphasized the connection between the mind and body,
believing mental disorders could stem from physical causes.
126. Plato (427–347 BCE)
• Believed abnormal behavior resulted from internal conflicts and emphasized the
importance of reason over emotion.
• Advocated for a hospital setting away from society for treatment.
Ancient Views and Treatments for Mental Disorders
Trephining (Trepanation):
An ancient practice where holes were drilled into the skull to “release evil spirits”
thought to cause abnormal behavior.
• Humors:
Based on Hippocrates’ theory, mental disorders were caused by an imbalance of bodily
fluids:
o Blood (sanguine – cheerful) o
Phlegm (phlegmatic – sluggish) o
Yellow bile (choleric – irritable) o
Black bile (melancholic –
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
depressed) Bedlam
(Bethlehem Hospital in London):
One of the first asylums, notorious for poor and inhumane treatment. Patients were
often chained, beaten, and displayed to the public. The word “bedlam” later came to
mean chaos or madness.
This resource has been provided to help you be successful in studying for the Topic 4 Midterm. It
is recommended you complete this document as you read the assigned chapters for Topics 1-4.
1. Discuss the “four Ds” of abnormal psychology; how does culture play a role in labeling a
behavior as deviant?
Distress-He seems to be experiencing emotional distress, though he might not openly
admit it.
Deviance-Variance from common patterns of behavior. - behaviors that stray from what
society considers “normal.” Example ( Alex’s behavior is certainly deviating from his
usual patterns and from what’s expected of a college student.)
Danger-While there’s no immediate threat, prolonged isolation and neglect of
responsibilities could lead to more serious consequences.
Dysfunction-When Life Goes Off the Rails, Our third D, Dysfunction, is where the
rubber meets the road. Take the case of Michael, a once-sociable marketing executive
who now struggles to leave his house due to severe panic attacks. His behavior is deviant
(most people don’t have trouble leaving their homes), it causes him distress (he’s
frustrated and anxious about his situation), and it’s clearly dysfunctional (he can’t work
or maintain relationships). This trifecta of Ds paints a clear picture of a potential anxiety
disorder.( His academic performance and social relationships are clearly suffering.)
2. Define abnormal psychology- The scientific study of abnormal behavior undertaken to
describe, predict, explain, and change abnormal patterns of functioning. Multiple
Choice Questions (Examples)
57. What is the best definition of abnormal psychology?
A) The study of human development and learning
B) The scientific study of normal behavior and emotions
C) The scientific study of abnormal behavior undertaken to describe, predict, explain,
andchange abnormal patterns of functioning ✅
D) The study of brain anatomy and intelligence
58. Which of the following is NOT one of the goals of abnormal psychology?
A) Describe abnormal behavior
B) Predict abnormal behavior
C) Explain abnormal behavior
D) Ignore abnormal behavior ✅
True/False Questions
59. Abnormal psychology aims to describe, predict, explain, and change abnormal patterns of
functioning.
Answer: True ✅
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
60. Abnormal psychology only describes abnormal behavior and does not attempt to change
it.
Answer: False ✅
45. Familiarize yourself with theorist Jerome Frank. What are the three essential features of
therapy?
A sufferer who seeks relief from the healer.
A trained, socially accepted healer, whose expertise is accepted by the sufferer
and his or her social group.
A series of contacts between the healer and the sufferer, through which the healer
... tries to produce certain changes in the sufferer's emotional state, attitudes, and
behavior.
46. Discuss the role of the following people in the history of abnormal psychology: Pinel,
Tuke, Dix, Kraepelin, Rush, Socrates, Hippocrates, Aristotle and Plato. List ancient views
of “treatments” for mental disorders (include trephining, humors, and Bedlam in your
answer).
-Pinel: The first chief physician for the asylum located in France. Argued that the
mentally challenged people should not be in chains and receive beatings, rather
than, they should show sympathy and kindness
-Tuke: Founder of York Retreat and treated patients with a combination of rest,
talk, prayer, and manual work.
- Boston schoolteacher who made human care more of a public and political
concern in the U.S. Believed in moral treatment
-Kraeplein: A German researcher who published a book arguing that physical
factors (e.g. fatigue) are responsible for mental dysfunction
-Rush: Father of American psychiatry; developed humane approaches to
treatment
- Often called the father of medicine, taught illnesses as
natural causes. Saw mental illness as uprising from internal
physical illness -Aristotle/Plato: shared ideas with Hippocrates about the internal
focus on abnormality
47. List the advantages and disadvantages of the following non-experimental methods: a)
self-report (including surveys and questionnaires), b) tests and other assessments, c)
physiological measures, d) observations (including naturalistic observations), and e) case
studies.
a) Self-Report Methods (Surveys and Questionnaires)
Advantages:
• Easy and inexpensive to collect large amounts of data.
• Can reach many people quickly.
• Allows researchers to study thoughts, feelings, and attitudes directly from participants.
Disadvantages:
Dix:
Hippocrates:
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
• Social desirability bias: participants may give answers they think are “acceptable” rather
than truthful.
• Response bias or inaccuracy: people may not remember accurately or may misunderstand
questions.
• Limited depth: lacks detailed, in-depth information about individual experiences.
• Can provide objective, standardized measurements (e.g., IQ tests, personality
inventories).
• Useful for diagnosis and treatment planning.
• Allows comparison across individuals using established norms. Disadvantages:
• May be culturally biased or not valid for all populations.
• Results can be affected by test anxiety or situational factors.
• Does not always capture the complexity of human behavior or emotions.
• Provides objective and precise data about biological processes.
• Can reveal physical correlates of mental states (e.g., brain activity linked to anxiety).
Less influenced by participant bias or self-report errors. Disadvantages:
• Can be expensive and require specialized equipment.
• May be invasive or uncomfortable for participants.
• Results can be hard to interpret — biological responses don’t always clearly explain
behavior.
• Allows researchers to see real behavior in context, not just what people say they do.
• Useful for studying behaviors that can’t be easily measured through tests or surveys.
Can reveal patterns and social interactions in natural settings. Disadvantages:
• Observer bias: researcher’s expectations can influence what they notice or record.
• Reactivity (Hawthorne effect): people may change behavior when they know they’re
being observed.
• Time-consuming and may lack control over outside variables.
• Provides in-depth, detailed information about one person or a small group.
• Can help generate hypotheses for further research.
• Useful for studying rare or unusual cases (e.g., Phineas Gage). Disadvantages:
• Lack of generalizability: findings may not apply to others.
• Subjectivity: researcher bias can influence interpretation.
• Cannot establish cause and effect relationships.
b)
Tests and Other Assessments
Advantages
:
c
)
Physiological Measure
s
(
e.g., heart rate, brain imaging, hormone levels
)
Advantages
:
d)
Observations (Including Naturalistic Observations)
Advantages
:
e)
Case Studie
s
Advantages
:
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
✅ Example Study Question:
Question: What is one advantage and one disadvantage of using case studies in abnormal
psychology research?
Answer:
• Advantage: Provides rich, detailed data about an individual’s experience.
Disadvantage: Findings may not generalize to other people
6. Describe the main features of experimental research, including a) independent vs.
dependent variables, b) experimental vs. control groups, and c) random assignment vs.
random sample.
-Independent variables: The variable in an experiment that is manipulated to determine
if it has effect on another variable
-dependent variable: the variable in an experiment that is expected to change as the
independent is manipulated
-Experimental group: In an experiment, the participants who are exposed to the
independent variable under investigation
-Control group: A group of participants who are not exposed to the independent variable
-Random assignment: A selection process that ensures that participants are randomly
placed either in the control or in the experimental group.
7. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of correlational studies
Correlational Studies Definition:
A correlational study examines the relationship between two or more variables to
determine whether they are associated (correlated).
👉 It does not involve manipulating variables — it simply measures them as they
naturally occur.
Strengths of Correlational Studies
57. Shows Relationships Between Variables o Helps researchers identify whether
variables are related (e.g., stress levels and depression).
58. Useful When Experiments Are Unethical or Impossible o Some variables can’t be
ethically manipulated (e.g., childhood trauma, mental illness).
59. Can Help Predict Behavior
o If two variables are strongly related, one can help predict the other (e.g., substance
abuse and risk of relapse).
60. Often Quick and Inexpensive o Data can be collected from surveys, archives, or
existing datasets.
Weaknesses of Correlational Studies
57. Cannot Determine Cause and Effect (No Causation!) o Correlation does not
mean one variable causes the other — there may be a third variable influencing
both.
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
58. Possible Third-Variable Problem o A hidden variable may explain the relationship
(e.g., poverty might explain the link between stress and illness).
59. Directionality Problem o Even if two variables are related, it’s unclear which
causes which (e.g., does depression cause isolation, or does isolation cause
depression?).
60. Potential for Misinterpretation o People often assume a correlation means
causation, which can lead to false conclusions.
✅
Example Study Question and Answer:
Question: What is a major limitation of correlational research?
Answer: Correlational research cannot determine cause-and-effect relationships between
variables.
Question: What is one strength of correlational studies?
Answer: They can identify and measure the strength and direction of relationships
between variables.
8.
Distinguish cross-sectional from longitudinal studies (incidence and prevalence).
Cross-Sectional vs. Longitudinal Studies
Both are non-experimental research designs used to study patterns of behavior, mental
disorders, or health over time.
1. Cross-Sectional Studies
• Examine different groups of people at a single point in time.
• Often used to measure prevalence (how common a disorder is at a given time). Key
Features:
• Quick and relatively inexpensive.
• Provides a “snapshot” of a population.
• Can compare different age groups or demographics at once. Strengths:
• Efficient for studying large populations.
• Useful for identifying prevalence rates.
Weaknesses:
• Cannot measure incidence (new cases over time).
• Cannot establish cause-and-effect or track changes within individuals. Example:
• Surveying 1,000 people of various ages to find the current prevalence of depression.
2. Longitudinal Studies
• Follow the same group of people over time to see how variables change.
• Often used to measure incidence (number of new cases of a disorder that develop over a
specific period).
Key Features:
• Tracks changes in the same participants over months, years, or decades.
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
• Can study developmental trends and causal relationships more effectively.
Strengths:
• Can measure incidence (new cases) and patterns of change.
• Useful for studying long-term effects of risk factors or treatments. Weaknesses:
• Time-consuming and expensive.
• Participant dropout can bias results.
• Not always practical for very long periods.
Example:
• Following a group of 500 children for 10 years to see how many develop anxiety
disorders over time.
Key Terms: Prevalence vs. Incidence
• Prevalence: Total number of cases (old + new) of a disorder in a population at a given
time.
• Incidence: Number of new cases that develop in a population over a specific time period.
✅ Example Study Questions:
29. Question: What is the main difference between cross-sectional and longitudinal studies?
Answer: Cross-sectional studies examine different groups at one point in time
(prevalence), while longitudinal studies follow the same group over time to track new
cases (incidence).
30. Question: Which type of study is best for measuring the incidence of a disorder?
Answer: Longitudinal study.
471. Define the terms epidemiological studies, incidence, and prevalence.
472. What are other terms used interchangeably for the term “perspective” in
psychology?
473. Discuss the types of available biological treatments.
474. What are the three levels of Freud’s theory of the psyche, and what three
components inhabit these levels?
475. Discuss the elements seen in psychodynamic therapy, including free association,
resistance, transference, countertransference, dream analysis, catharsis, and “working
through.”
476. Discuss the features of the cognitive model and cognitive-behavioral therapy,
including theorist’s contributions: Ellis’ REBT, Beck’s cognitive therapy, and
Meichenbaum’s selfinstructional training.
477. Discuss the cognitive-behavioral model and how it integrates the cognitive and
behavioral models into one unified perspective/model.
478. Discuss the features of humanistic psychology and therapy, including self-
actualization, client-centered therapy, conditions of worth, and unconditional vs.
conditional positive regard.
479. Discuss the features of Gestalt theory and therapy, including skillful frustration,
role playing, rules, and here-and-now.
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
480. Contrast the family-social and multicultural perspectives found in the
sociocultural model. Include social labels, roles, social support and family systems theory
in your answer.
481. How does anxiety differ from fear? Define both.
482. Define the types of anxiety: free-floating, specific, fearful
483. How do phobias differ from normal fears?
484. Define astra-, agora-, social, claustro-, acro-, and zoophobia.
485. Contrast the following models related to approaches for anxiety: sociocultural,
psychodynamic, humanistic-existential, cognitive
486. Understand and know the different functions of the nervous system: peripheral,
sympathetic, parasympathetic
487. What role does the hypothalamus have in the production and release of
corticosteroids?
488. What types of events can trigger a psychological stress disorder?
489. Explain how the following factors play a role in developing a psychological stress
disorder: biological and genetic factors, personality factors, childhood experiences, social
support, multicultural factors, and severity of the trauma.
490. Understand and know the difference between: Dissociative disorder, post-
traumatic stress disorder, dissociative amnesia.
491. How are psychophysiological disorders affected by biological, psychological, and
sociocultural factors?
492. Describe the differences among: depression, mania, unipolar depression,
anhedonia, dysthymic disorder, cyclothymic disorder, and bipolar disorder.
493. Understand and be familiar with persistent depressive disorder symptoms and
diagnostic criteria.
494. Differentiate among automatic and intrusive thoughts.
495. Explain how depression may be caused by psychological factors, including
psychoanalytic, behavioral, and cognitive views (include Beck’s cognitive triad in your
answer).
496. Explain how Weiner’s attribution model and Abramson’s revision explain how
learned helplessness occurs. Know the difference between Internal and External, stable
versus unstable, and global versus specific within each of the attributions. Be prepared to
offer an example of each.
497. Discuss the benefits and weaknesses of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). Can this
form of therapy cause damage or be dangerous? What are some consequences of ECT?
498. Discuss the rise of antidepressant medications in recent years, including MAOs,
tricyclics, and SSRIs. Be familiar with each.
499. Discuss the use of brain stimulation techniques, including vagus nerve
stimulation, transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), and deep brain stimulation.
500. Describe mood stabilizing drug types and efficacy on bipolar disorders.
501. Explain the key features of somatoform and dissociative disorders.
502. Discuss how the three hysterical somatoform disorders (conversion disorder,
somatization disorder, and pain disorder with psychological factors) differ from each
other (include glove anesthesia in your answer).
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
503. Discuss the differences between: hysterical and factitious disorders (include
malingering and Munchausen syndrome and Munchausen syndrome by proxy in your
answer).
( Extra Key Notes )
4. Key Figures in the History of Abnormal Psychology
127. Philippe Pinel (1745–1826)
• French physician who reformed mental hospitals in France.
• Introduced moral treatment, emphasizing kindness, humane conditions, and talking with
patients.
• Freed patients from chains at La Bicêtre Hospital, improving their quality of life.
128. William Tuke (1732–1822)
• English Quaker who founded the York Retreat, a country house for the mentally ill.
• Promoted moral treatment focused on rest, prayer, and gentle care rather than
punishment.
129. Dorothea Dix (1802–1887)
• American schoolteacher and reformer.
• Campaigned for better treatment and conditions for people with mental illness in the
U.S. and helped establish state mental hospitals.
130. Emil Kraepelin (1856–1926)
• German psychiatrist who developed the first modern system for classifying mental
disorders.
• Identified patterns of symptoms and laid the groundwork for the DSM (Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders).
131. Benjamin Rush (1746–1813)
• Known as the father of American psychiatry.
• Advocated for humane treatment of patients and better hospital conditions, but also used
early medical treatments (like bloodletting).
132. Socrates (470–399 BCE)
• Ancient Greek philosopher who believed self-examination and rational thought could
lead to better understanding of one’s behavior.
133. Hippocrates (460–377 BCE)
• Known as the father of modern medicine.
• Believed mental illness had natural (biological) causes, not demonic possession.
• Introduced the theory of the four humors (blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile)
— imbalance was thought to cause abnormal behavior.
134. Aristotle (384–322 BCE)
• Greek philosopher who emphasized the connection between the mind and body,
believing mental disorders could stem from physical causes.
135. Plato (427–347 BCE)
• Believed abnormal behavior resulted from internal conflicts and emphasized the
importance of reason over emotion.
• Advocated for a hospital setting away from society for treatment.
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
Ancient Views and Treatments for Mental Disorders
Trephining (Trepanation):
An ancient practice where holes were drilled into the skull to “release evil spirits”
thought to cause abnormal behavior.
• Humors:
Based on Hippocrates’ theory, mental disorders were caused by an imbalance of bodily
fluids:
o Blood (sanguine – cheerful) o
Phlegm (phlegmatic – sluggish) o
Yellow bile (choleric – irritable) o
Black bile (melancholic –
depressed) Bedlam
(Bethlehem Hospital in London):
One of the first asylums, notorious for poor and inhumane treatment. Patients were
often chained, beaten, and displayed to the public. The word “bedlam” later came to
mean chaos or madness.
This resource has been provided to help you be successful in studying for the Topic 4 Midterm. It
is recommended you complete this document as you read the assigned chapters for Topics 1-4.
1. Discuss the “four Ds” of abnormal psychology; how does culture play a role in labeling a
behavior as deviant?
Distress-He seems to be experiencing emotional distress, though he might not openly
admit it.
Deviance-Variance from common patterns of behavior. - behaviors that stray from what
society considers “normal.” Example ( Alex’s behavior is certainly deviating from his
usual patterns and from what’s expected of a college student.)
Danger-While there’s no immediate threat, prolonged isolation and neglect of
responsibilities could lead to more serious consequences.
Dysfunction-When Life Goes Off the Rails, Our third D, Dysfunction, is where the
rubber meets the road. Take the case of Michael, a once-sociable marketing executive
who now struggles to leave his house due to severe panic attacks. His behavior is deviant
(most people don’t have trouble leaving their homes), it causes him distress (he’s
frustrated and anxious about his situation), and it’s clearly dysfunctional (he can’t work
or maintain relationships). This trifecta of Ds paints a clear picture of a potential anxiety
disorder.( His academic performance and social relationships are clearly suffering.)
2. Define abnormal psychology- The scientific study of abnormal behavior undertaken to
describe, predict, explain, and change abnormal patterns of functioning. Multiple
Choice Questions (Examples)
61. What is the best definition of abnormal psychology?
A) The study of human development and learning
B) The scientific study of normal behavior and emotions
C) The scientific study of abnormal behavior undertaken to describe, predict, explain,
andchange abnormal patterns of functioning ✅
D) The study of brain anatomy and intelligence
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
62. Which of the following is NOT one of the goals of abnormal psychology?
A) Describe abnormal behavior
B) Predict abnormal behavior
C) Explain abnormal behavior
D) Ignore abnormal behavior ✅
True/False Questions
63. Abnormal psychology aims to describe, predict, explain, and change abnormal patterns of
functioning.
Answer: True ✅
64. Abnormal psychology only describes abnormal behavior and does not attempt to change
it.
Answer: False ✅
48. Familiarize yourself with theorist Jerome Frank. What are the three essential features of
therapy?
A sufferer who seeks relief from the healer.
A trained, socially accepted healer, whose expertise is accepted by the sufferer
and his or her social group.
A series of contacts between the healer and the sufferer, through which the healer
... tries to produce certain changes in the sufferer's emotional state, attitudes, and
behavior.
49. Discuss the role of the following people in the history of abnormal psychology: Pinel,
Tuke, Dix, Kraepelin, Rush, Socrates, Hippocrates, Aristotle and Plato. List ancient views
of “treatments” for mental disorders (include trephining, humors, and Bedlam in your
answer).
-Pinel: The first chief physician for the asylum located in France. Argued that the
mentally challenged people should not be in chains and receive beatings, rather
than, they should show sympathy and kindness
-Tuke: Founder of York Retreat and treated patients with a combination of rest,
talk, prayer, and manual work.
- Boston schoolteacher who made human care more of a public and political
concern in the U.S. Believed in moral treatment
-Kraeplein: A German researcher who published a book arguing that physical
factors (e.g. fatigue) are responsible for mental dysfunction
-Rush: Father of American psychiatry; developed humane approaches to
treatment
- Often called the father of medicine, taught illnesses as
natural causes. Saw mental illness as uprising from internal
Dix:
Hippocrates:
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
physical illness -Aristotle/Plato: shared ideas with Hippocrates about the internal
focus on abnormality
50. List the advantages and disadvantages of the following non-experimental methods: a)
self-report (including surveys and questionnaires), b) tests and other assessments, c)
physiological measures, d) observations (including naturalistic observations), and e) case
studies.
a) Self-Report Methods (Surveys and Questionnaires)
Advantages:
• Easy and inexpensive to collect large amounts of data.
• Can reach many people quickly.
• Allows researchers to study thoughts, feelings, and attitudes directly from participants.
Disadvantages:
• Social desirability bias: participants may give answers they think are “acceptable” rather
than truthful.
• Response bias or inaccuracy: people may not remember accurately or may misunderstand
questions.
• Limited depth: lacks detailed, in-depth information about individual experiences.
• Can provide objective, standardized measurements (e.g., IQ tests, personality
inventories).
• Useful for diagnosis and treatment planning.
• Allows comparison across individuals using established norms. Disadvantages:
• May be culturally biased or not valid for all populations.
• Results can be affected by test anxiety or situational factors.
• Does not always capture the complexity of human behavior or emotions.
• Provides objective and precise data about biological processes.
• Can reveal physical correlates of mental states (e.g., brain activity linked to anxiety).
Less influenced by participant bias or self-report errors. Disadvantages:
• Can be expensive and require specialized equipment.
• May be invasive or uncomfortable for participants.
• Results can be hard to interpret — biological responses don’t always clearly explain
behavior.
• Allows researchers to see real behavior in context, not just what people say they do.
• Useful for studying behaviors that can’t be easily measured through tests or surveys.
Can reveal patterns and social interactions in natural settings. Disadvantages:
• Observer bias: researcher’s expectations can influence what they notice or record.
b)
Tests and Other Assessments
Advantages
:
c
)
Physiological Measure
s
(
e.g., heart rate, brain imaging, hormone levels
)
Advantages
:
d)
Observations (Including Naturalistic Observations)
Advantages
:
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
• Reactivity (Hawthorne effect): people may change behavior when they know they’re
being observed.
• Time-consuming and may lack control over outside variables.
• Provides in-depth, detailed information about one person or a small group.
• Can help generate hypotheses for further research.
• Useful for studying rare or unusual cases (e.g., Phineas Gage). Disadvantages:
• Lack of generalizability: findings may not apply to others.
• Subjectivity: researcher bias can influence interpretation.
• Cannot establish cause and effect relationships.
✅ Example Study Question:
Question: What is one advantage and one disadvantage of using case studies in abnormal
psychology research?
Answer:
• Advantage: Provides rich, detailed data about an individual’s experience.
Disadvantage: Findings may not generalize to other people
6. Describe the main features of experimental research, including a) independent vs.
dependent variables, b) experimental vs. control groups, and c) random assignment vs.
random sample.
-Independent variables: The variable in an experiment that is manipulated to determine
if it has effect on another variable
-dependent variable: the variable in an experiment that is expected to change as the
independent is manipulated
-Experimental group: In an experiment, the participants who are exposed to the
independent variable under investigation
-Control group: A group of participants who are not exposed to the independent variable
-Random assignment: A selection process that ensures that participants are randomly
placed either in the control or in the experimental group.
7. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of correlational studies
Correlational Studies Definition:
A correlational study examines the relationship between two or more variables to
determine whether they are associated (correlated).
👉 It does not involve manipulating variables — it simply measures them as they
naturally occur.
Strengths of Correlational Studies
61. Shows Relationships Between Variables o Helps researchers identify whether
variables are related (e.g., stress levels and depression).
e)
Case Studie
s
Advantages
:
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
62. Useful When Experiments Are Unethical or Impossible o Some variables can’t be
ethically manipulated (e.g., childhood trauma, mental illness).
63. Can Help Predict Behavior
o If two variables are strongly related, one can help predict the other (e.g., substance
abuse and risk of relapse).
64. Often Quick and Inexpensive o Data can be collected from surveys, archives, or
existing datasets.
Weaknesses of Correlational Studies
61. Cannot Determine Cause and Effect (No Causation!) o Correlation does not
mean one variable causes the other — there may be a third variable influencing
both.
62. Possible Third-Variable Problem o A hidden variable may explain the relationship
(e.g., poverty might explain the link between stress and illness).
63. Directionality Problem o Even if two variables are related, it’s unclear which
causes which (e.g., does depression cause isolation, or does isolation cause
depression?).
64. Potential for Misinterpretation o People often assume a correlation means
causation, which can lead to false conclusions.
✅
Example Study Question and Answer:
Question: What is a major limitation of correlational research?
Answer: Correlational research cannot determine cause-and-effect relationships between
variables.
Question: What is one strength of correlational studies?
Answer: They can identify and measure the strength and direction of relationships
between variables.
8.
Distinguish cross-sectional from longitudinal studies (incidence and prevalence).
Cross-Sectional vs. Longitudinal Studies
Both are non-experimental research designs used to study patterns of behavior, mental
disorders, or health over time.
1. Cross-Sectional Studies
• Examine different groups of people at a single point in time.
• Often used to measure prevalence (how common a disorder is at a given time). Key
Features:
• Quick and relatively inexpensive.
• Provides a “snapshot” of a population.
• Can compare different age groups or demographics at once. Strengths:
• Efficient for studying large populations.
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
• Useful for identifying prevalence rates.
Weaknesses:
• Cannot measure incidence (new cases over time).
• Cannot establish cause-and-effect or track changes within individuals. Example:
• Surveying 1,000 people of various ages to find the current prevalence of depression.
2. Longitudinal Studies
• Follow the same group of people over time to see how variables change.
• Often used to measure incidence (number of new cases of a disorder that develop over a
specific period).
Key Features:
• Tracks changes in the same participants over months, years, or decades.
• Can study developmental trends and causal relationships more effectively.
Strengths:
• Can measure incidence (new cases) and patterns of change.
• Useful for studying long-term effects of risk factors or treatments. Weaknesses:
• Time-consuming and expensive.
• Participant dropout can bias results.
• Not always practical for very long periods.
Example:
• Following a group of 500 children for 10 years to see how many develop anxiety
disorders over time.
Key Terms: Prevalence vs. Incidence
• Prevalence: Total number of cases (old + new) of a disorder in a population at a given
time.
• Incidence: Number of new cases that develop in a population over a specific time period.
✅ Example Study Questions:
31. Question: What is the main difference between cross-sectional and longitudinal studies?
Answer: Cross-sectional studies examine different groups at one point in time
(prevalence), while longitudinal studies follow the same group over time to track new
cases (incidence).
32. Question: Which type of study is best for measuring the incidence of a disorder?
Answer: Longitudinal study.
504. Define the terms epidemiological studies, incidence, and prevalence.
505. What are other terms used interchangeably for the term “perspective” in
psychology?
506. Discuss the types of available biological treatments.
507. What are the three levels of Freud’s theory of the psyche, and what three
components inhabit these levels?
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
508. Discuss the elements seen in psychodynamic therapy, including free association,
resistance, transference, countertransference, dream analysis, catharsis, and “working
through.”
509. Discuss the features of the cognitive model and cognitive-behavioral therapy,
including theorist’s contributions: Ellis’ REBT, Beck’s cognitive therapy, and
Meichenbaum’s selfinstructional training.
510. Discuss the cognitive-behavioral model and how it integrates the cognitive and
behavioral models into one unified perspective/model.
511. Discuss the features of humanistic psychology and therapy, including self-
actualization, client-centered therapy, conditions of worth, and unconditional vs.
conditional positive regard.
512. Discuss the features of Gestalt theory and therapy, including skillful frustration,
role playing, rules, and here-and-now.
513. Contrast the family-social and multicultural perspectives found in the
sociocultural model. Include social labels, roles, social support and family systems theory
in your answer.
514. How does anxiety differ from fear? Define both.
515. Define the types of anxiety: free-floating, specific, fearful
516. How do phobias differ from normal fears?
517. Define astra-, agora-, social, claustro-, acro-, and zoophobia.
518. Contrast the following models related to approaches for anxiety: sociocultural,
psychodynamic, humanistic-existential, cognitive
519. Understand and know the different functions of the nervous system: peripheral,
sympathetic, parasympathetic
520. What role does the hypothalamus have in the production and release of
corticosteroids?
521. What types of events can trigger a psychological stress disorder?
522. Explain how the following factors play a role in developing a psychological stress
disorder: biological and genetic factors, personality factors, childhood experiences, social
support, multicultural factors, and severity of the trauma.
523. Understand and know the difference between: Dissociative disorder, post-
traumatic stress disorder, dissociative amnesia.
524. How are psychophysiological disorders affected by biological, psychological, and
sociocultural factors?
525. Describe the differences among: depression, mania, unipolar depression,
anhedonia, dysthymic disorder, cyclothymic disorder, and bipolar disorder.
526. Understand and be familiar with persistent depressive disorder symptoms and
diagnostic criteria.
527. Differentiate among automatic and intrusive thoughts.
528. Explain how depression may be caused by psychological factors, including
psychoanalytic, behavioral, and cognitive views (include Beck’s cognitive triad in your
answer).
529. Explain how Weiner’s attribution model and Abramson’s revision explain how
learned helplessness occurs. Know the difference between Internal and External, stable
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
versus unstable, and global versus specific within each of the attributions. Be prepared to
offer an example of each.
530. Discuss the benefits and weaknesses of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). Can this
form of therapy cause damage or be dangerous? What are some consequences of ECT?
531. Discuss the rise of antidepressant medications in recent years, including MAOs,
tricyclics, and SSRIs. Be familiar with each.
532. Discuss the use of brain stimulation techniques, including vagus nerve
stimulation, transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), and deep brain stimulation.
533. Describe mood stabilizing drug types and efficacy on bipolar disorders.
534. Explain the key features of somatoform and dissociative disorders.
535. Discuss how the three hysterical somatoform disorders (conversion disorder,
somatization disorder, and pain disorder with psychological factors) differ from each
other (include glove anesthesia in your answer).
536. Discuss the differences between: hysterical and factitious disorders (include
malingering and Munchausen syndrome and Munchausen syndrome by proxy in your
answer).
( Extra Key Notes )
4. Key Figures in the History of Abnormal Psychology
136. Philippe Pinel (1745–1826)
• French physician who reformed mental hospitals in France.
• Introduced moral treatment, emphasizing kindness, humane conditions, and talking with
patients.
• Freed patients from chains at La Bicêtre Hospital, improving their quality of life.
137. William Tuke (1732–1822)
• English Quaker who founded the York Retreat, a country house for the mentally ill.
• Promoted moral treatment focused on rest, prayer, and gentle care rather than
punishment.
138. Dorothea Dix (1802–1887)
• American schoolteacher and reformer.
• Campaigned for better treatment and conditions for people with mental illness in the
U.S. and helped establish state mental hospitals.
139. Emil Kraepelin (1856–1926)
• German psychiatrist who developed the first modern system for classifying mental
disorders.
• Identified patterns of symptoms and laid the groundwork for the DSM (Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders).
140. Benjamin Rush (1746–1813)
• Known as the father of American psychiatry.
• Advocated for humane treatment of patients and better hospital conditions, but also used
early medical treatments (like bloodletting).
141. Socrates (470–399 BCE)
• Ancient Greek philosopher who believed self-examination and rational thought could
lead to better understanding of one’s behavior.
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
142. Hippocrates (460–377 BCE)
• Known as the father of modern medicine.
• Believed mental illness had natural (biological) causes, not demonic possession.
• Introduced the theory of the four humors (blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile)
— imbalance was thought to cause abnormal behavior.
143. Aristotle (384–322 BCE)
• Greek philosopher who emphasized the connection between the mind and body,
believing mental disorders could stem from physical causes.
144. Plato (427–347 BCE)
• Believed abnormal behavior resulted from internal conflicts and emphasized the
importance of reason over emotion.
• Advocated for a hospital setting away from society for treatment.
Ancient Views and Treatments for Mental Disorders
Trephining (Trepanation):
An ancient practice where holes were drilled into the skull to “release evil spirits”
thought to cause abnormal behavior.
• Humors:
Based on Hippocrates’ theory, mental disorders were caused by an imbalance of bodily
fluids:
o Blood (sanguine – cheerful) o
Phlegm (phlegmatic – sluggish) o
Yellow bile (choleric – irritable) o
Black bile (melancholic –
depressed) Bedlam
(Bethlehem Hospital in London):
One of the first asylums, notorious for poor and inhumane treatment. Patients were
often chained, beaten, and displayed to the public. The word “bedlam” later came to
mean chaos or madness.
This resource has been provided to help you be successful in studying for the Topic 4 Midterm. It
is recommended you complete this document as you read the assigned chapters for Topics 1-4.
1. Discuss the “four Ds” of abnormal psychology; how does culture play a role in labeling a
behavior as deviant?
Distress-He seems to be experiencing emotional distress, though he might not openly
admit it.
Deviance-Variance from common patterns of behavior. - behaviors that stray from what
society considers “normal.” Example ( Alex’s behavior is certainly deviating from his
usual patterns and from what’s expected of a college student.)
Danger-While there’s no immediate threat, prolonged isolation and neglect of
responsibilities could lead to more serious consequences.
Dysfunction-When Life Goes Off the Rails, Our third D, Dysfunction, is where the
rubber meets the road. Take the case of Michael, a once-sociable marketing executive
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
who now struggles to leave his house due to severe panic attacks. His behavior is deviant
(most people don’t have trouble leaving their homes), it causes him distress (he’s
frustrated and anxious about his situation), and it’s clearly dysfunctional (he can’t work
or maintain relationships). This trifecta of Ds paints a clear picture of a potential anxiety
disorder.( His academic performance and social relationships are clearly suffering.)
2. Define abnormal psychology- The scientific study of abnormal behavior undertaken to
describe, predict, explain, and change abnormal patterns of functioning. Multiple
Choice Questions (Examples)
65. What is the best definition of abnormal psychology?
A) The study of human development and learning
B) The scientific study of normal behavior and emotions
C) The scientific study of abnormal behavior undertaken to describe, predict, explain,
andchange abnormal patterns of functioning ✅
D) The study of brain anatomy and intelligence
66. Which of the following is NOT one of the goals of abnormal psychology?
A) Describe abnormal behavior
B) Predict abnormal behavior
C) Explain abnormal behavior
D) Ignore abnormal behavior ✅
True/False Questions
67. Abnormal psychology aims to describe, predict, explain, and change abnormal patterns of
functioning.
Answer: True ✅
68. Abnormal psychology only describes abnormal behavior and does not attempt to change
it.
Answer: False ✅
51. Familiarize yourself with theorist Jerome Frank. What are the three essential features of
therapy?
A sufferer who seeks relief from the healer.
A trained, socially accepted healer, whose expertise is accepted by the sufferer
and his or her social group.
A series of contacts between the healer and the sufferer, through which the healer
... tries to produce certain changes in the sufferer's emotional state, attitudes, and
behavior.
52. Discuss the role of the following people in the history of abnormal psychology: Pinel,
Tuke, Dix, Kraepelin, Rush, Socrates, Hippocrates, Aristotle and Plato. List ancient views
of “treatments” for mental disorders (include trephining, humors, and Bedlam in your
answer).
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
-Pinel: The first chief physician for the asylum located in France. Argued that the
mentally challenged people should not be in chains and receive beatings, rather
than, they should show sympathy and kindness
-Tuke: Founder of York Retreat and treated patients with a combination of rest,
talk, prayer, and manual work.
- Boston schoolteacher who made human care more of a public and political
concern in the U.S. Believed in moral treatment
-Kraeplein: A German researcher who published a book arguing that physical
factors (e.g. fatigue) are responsible for mental dysfunction
-Rush: Father of American psychiatry; developed humane approaches to
treatment
- Often called the father of medicine, taught illnesses as
natural causes. Saw mental illness as uprising from internal
physical illness -Aristotle/Plato: shared ideas with Hippocrates about the internal
focus on abnormality
53. List the advantages and disadvantages of the following non-experimental methods: a)
self-report (including surveys and questionnaires), b) tests and other assessments, c)
physiological measures, d) observations (including naturalistic observations), and e) case
studies.
a) Self-Report Methods (Surveys and Questionnaires)
Advantages:
• Easy and inexpensive to collect large amounts of data.
• Can reach many people quickly.
• Allows researchers to study thoughts, feelings, and attitudes directly from participants.
Disadvantages:
• Social desirability bias: participants may give answers they think are “acceptable” rather
than truthful.
• Response bias or inaccuracy: people may not remember accurately or may misunderstand
questions.
• Limited depth: lacks detailed, in-depth information about individual experiences.
• Can provide objective, standardized measurements (e.g., IQ tests, personality
inventories).
• Useful for diagnosis and treatment planning.
• Allows comparison across individuals using established norms. Disadvantages:
• May be culturally biased or not valid for all populations.
• Results can be affected by test anxiety or situational factors.
• Does not always capture the complexity of human behavior or emotions.
Dix:
Hippocrates:
b)
Tests and Other Assessments
Advantages
:
c
)
Physiological Measure
s
(
e.g., heart rate, brain imaging, hormone levels
)
Advantages
:
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
• Provides objective and precise data about biological processes.
• Can reveal physical correlates of mental states (e.g., brain activity linked to anxiety).
Less influenced by participant bias or self-report errors. Disadvantages:
• Can be expensive and require specialized equipment.
• May be invasive or uncomfortable for participants.
• Results can be hard to interpret — biological responses don’t always clearly explain
behavior.
• Allows researchers to see real behavior in context, not just what people say they do.
• Useful for studying behaviors that can’t be easily measured through tests or surveys.
Can reveal patterns and social interactions in natural settings. Disadvantages:
• Observer bias: researcher’s expectations can influence what they notice or record.
• Reactivity (Hawthorne effect): people may change behavior when they know they’re
being observed.
• Time-consuming and may lack control over outside variables.
• Provides in-depth, detailed information about one person or a small group.
• Can help generate hypotheses for further research.
• Useful for studying rare or unusual cases (e.g., Phineas Gage). Disadvantages:
• Lack of generalizability: findings may not apply to others.
• Subjectivity: researcher bias can influence interpretation.
• Cannot establish cause and effect relationships.
✅ Example Study Question:
Question: What is one advantage and one disadvantage of using case studies in abnormal
psychology research?
Answer:
• Advantage: Provides rich, detailed data about an individual’s experience.
Disadvantage: Findings may not generalize to other people
6. Describe the main features of experimental research, including a) independent vs.
dependent variables, b) experimental vs. control groups, and c) random assignment vs.
random sample.
-Independent variables: The variable in an experiment that is manipulated to determine
if it has effect on another variable
-dependent variable: the variable in an experiment that is expected to change as the
independent is manipulated
-Experimental group: In an experiment, the participants who are exposed to the
independent variable under investigation
d)
Observations (Including Naturalistic Observations)
Advantages
:
e)
Case Studie
s
Advantages
:
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
-Control group: A group of participants who are not exposed to the independent variable
-Random assignment: A selection process that ensures that participants are randomly
placed either in the control or in the experimental group.
7. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of correlational studies
Correlational Studies Definition:
A correlational study examines the relationship between two or more variables to
determine whether they are associated (correlated).
👉 It does not involve manipulating variables — it simply measures them as they
naturally occur.
Strengths of Correlational Studies
65. Shows Relationships Between Variables o Helps researchers identify whether
variables are related (e.g., stress levels and depression).
66. Useful When Experiments Are Unethical or Impossible o Some variables can’t be
ethically manipulated (e.g., childhood trauma, mental illness).
67. Can Help Predict Behavior
o If two variables are strongly related, one can help predict the other (e.g., substance
abuse and risk of relapse).
68. Often Quick and Inexpensive o Data can be collected from surveys, archives, or
existing datasets.
Weaknesses of Correlational Studies
65. Cannot Determine Cause and Effect (No Causation!) o Correlation does not
mean one variable causes the other — there may be a third variable influencing
both.
66. Possible Third-Variable Problem o A hidden variable may explain the relationship
(e.g., poverty might explain the link between stress and illness).
67. Directionality Problem o Even if two variables are related, it’s unclear which
causes which (e.g., does depression cause isolation, or does isolation cause
depression?).
68. Potential for Misinterpretation o People often assume a correlation means
causation, which can lead to false conclusions.
✅
Example Study Question and Answer:
Question: What is a major limitation of correlational research?
Answer: Correlational research cannot determine cause-and-effect relationships between
variables.
Question: What is one strength of correlational studies?
Answer: They can identify and measure the strength and direction of relationships
between variables.
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
8.
Distinguish cross-sectional from longitudinal studies (incidence and prevalence).
Cross-Sectional vs. Longitudinal Studies
Both are non-experimental research designs used to study patterns of behavior, mental
disorders, or health over time.
1. Cross-Sectional Studies
• Examine different groups of people at a single point in time.
• Often used to measure prevalence (how common a disorder is at a given time). Key
Features:
• Quick and relatively inexpensive.
• Provides a “snapshot” of a population.
• Can compare different age groups or demographics at once. Strengths:
• Efficient for studying large populations.
• Useful for identifying prevalence rates.
Weaknesses:
• Cannot measure incidence (new cases over time).
• Cannot establish cause-and-effect or track changes within individuals. Example:
• Surveying 1,000 people of various ages to find the current prevalence of depression.
2. Longitudinal Studies
• Follow the same group of people over time to see how variables change.
• Often used to measure incidence (number of new cases of a disorder that develop over a
specific period).
Key Features:
• Tracks changes in the same participants over months, years, or decades.
• Can study developmental trends and causal relationships more effectively.
Strengths:
• Can measure incidence (new cases) and patterns of change.
• Useful for studying long-term effects of risk factors or treatments. Weaknesses:
• Time-consuming and expensive.
• Participant dropout can bias results.
• Not always practical for very long periods.
Example:
• Following a group of 500 children for 10 years to see how many develop anxiety
disorders over time.
Key Terms: Prevalence vs. Incidence
• Prevalence: Total number of cases (old + new) of a disorder in a population at a given
time.
• Incidence: Number of new cases that develop in a population over a specific time period.
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
✅ Example Study Questions:
33. Question: What is the main difference between cross-sectional and longitudinal studies?
Answer: Cross-sectional studies examine different groups at one point in time
(prevalence), while longitudinal studies follow the same group over time to track new
cases (incidence).
34. Question: Which type of study is best for measuring the incidence of a disorder?
Answer: Longitudinal study.
537. Define the terms epidemiological studies, incidence, and prevalence.
538. What are other terms used interchangeably for the term “perspective” in
psychology?
539. Discuss the types of available biological treatments.
540. What are the three levels of Freud’s theory of the psyche, and what three
components inhabit these levels?
541. Discuss the elements seen in psychodynamic therapy, including free association,
resistance, transference, countertransference, dream analysis, catharsis, and “working
through.”
542. Discuss the features of the cognitive model and cognitive-behavioral therapy,
including theorist’s contributions: Ellis’ REBT, Beck’s cognitive therapy, and
Meichenbaum’s selfinstructional training.
543. Discuss the cognitive-behavioral model and how it integrates the cognitive and
behavioral models into one unified perspective/model.
544. Discuss the features of humanistic psychology and therapy, including self-
actualization, client-centered therapy, conditions of worth, and unconditional vs.
conditional positive regard.
545. Discuss the features of Gestalt theory and therapy, including skillful frustration,
role playing, rules, and here-and-now.
546. Contrast the family-social and multicultural perspectives found in the
sociocultural model. Include social labels, roles, social support and family systems theory
in your answer.
547. How does anxiety differ from fear? Define both.
548. Define the types of anxiety: free-floating, specific, fearful
549. How do phobias differ from normal fears?
550. Define astra-, agora-, social, claustro-, acro-, and zoophobia.
551. Contrast the following models related to approaches for anxiety: sociocultural,
psychodynamic, humanistic-existential, cognitive
552. Understand and know the different functions of the nervous system: peripheral,
sympathetic, parasympathetic
553. What role does the hypothalamus have in the production and release of
corticosteroids?
554. What types of events can trigger a psychological stress disorder?
555. Explain how the following factors play a role in developing a psychological stress
disorder: biological and genetic factors, personality factors, childhood experiences, social
support, multicultural factors, and severity of the trauma.
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
556. Understand and know the difference between: Dissociative disorder, post-
traumatic stress disorder, dissociative amnesia.
557. How are psychophysiological disorders affected by biological, psychological, and
sociocultural factors?
558. Describe the differences among: depression, mania, unipolar depression,
anhedonia, dysthymic disorder, cyclothymic disorder, and bipolar disorder.
559. Understand and be familiar with persistent depressive disorder symptoms and
diagnostic criteria.
560. Differentiate among automatic and intrusive thoughts.
561. Explain how depression may be caused by psychological factors, including
psychoanalytic, behavioral, and cognitive views (include Beck’s cognitive triad in your
answer).
562. Explain how Weiner’s attribution model and Abramson’s revision explain how
learned helplessness occurs. Know the difference between Internal and External, stable
versus unstable, and global versus specific within each of the attributions. Be prepared to
offer an example of each.
563. Discuss the benefits and weaknesses of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). Can this
form of therapy cause damage or be dangerous? What are some consequences of ECT?
564. Discuss the rise of antidepressant medications in recent years, including MAOs,
tricyclics, and SSRIs. Be familiar with each.
565. Discuss the use of brain stimulation techniques, including vagus nerve
stimulation, transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), and deep brain stimulation.
566. Describe mood stabilizing drug types and efficacy on bipolar disorders.
567. Explain the key features of somatoform and dissociative disorders.
568. Discuss how the three hysterical somatoform disorders (conversion disorder,
somatization disorder, and pain disorder with psychological factors) differ from each
other (include glove anesthesia in your answer).
569. Discuss the differences between: hysterical and factitious disorders (include
malingering and Munchausen syndrome and Munchausen syndrome by proxy in your
answer).
( Extra Key Notes )
4. Key Figures in the History of Abnormal Psychology
145. Philippe Pinel (1745–1826)
• French physician who reformed mental hospitals in France.
• Introduced moral treatment, emphasizing kindness, humane conditions, and talking with
patients.
• Freed patients from chains at La Bicêtre Hospital, improving their quality of life.
146. William Tuke (1732–1822)
• English Quaker who founded the York Retreat, a country house for the mentally ill.
• Promoted moral treatment focused on rest, prayer, and gentle care rather than
punishment.
147. Dorothea Dix (1802–1887)
• American schoolteacher and reformer.
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
• Campaigned for better treatment and conditions for people with mental illness in the
U.S. and helped establish state mental hospitals.
148. Emil Kraepelin (1856–1926)
• German psychiatrist who developed the first modern system for classifying mental
disorders.
• Identified patterns of symptoms and laid the groundwork for the DSM (Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders).
149. Benjamin Rush (1746–1813)
• Known as the father of American psychiatry.
• Advocated for humane treatment of patients and better hospital conditions, but also used
early medical treatments (like bloodletting).
150. Socrates (470–399 BCE)
• Ancient Greek philosopher who believed self-examination and rational thought could
lead to better understanding of one’s behavior.
151. Hippocrates (460–377 BCE)
• Known as the father of modern medicine.
• Believed mental illness had natural (biological) causes, not demonic possession.
• Introduced the theory of the four humors (blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile)
— imbalance was thought to cause abnormal behavior.
152. Aristotle (384–322 BCE)
• Greek philosopher who emphasized the connection between the mind and body,
believing mental disorders could stem from physical causes.
153. Plato (427–347 BCE)
• Believed abnormal behavior resulted from internal conflicts and emphasized the
importance of reason over emotion.
• Advocated for a hospital setting away from society for treatment.
Ancient Views and Treatments for Mental Disorders
Trephining (Trepanation):
An ancient practice where holes were drilled into the skull to “release evil spirits”
thought to cause abnormal behavior.
• Humors:
Based on Hippocrates’ theory, mental disorders were caused by an imbalance of bodily
fluids:
o Blood (sanguine – cheerful) o
Phlegm (phlegmatic – sluggish) o
Yellow bile (choleric – irritable) o
Black bile (melancholic –
depressed) Bedlam
(Bethlehem Hospital in London):
One of the first asylums, notorious for poor and inhumane treatment. Patients were
often chained, beaten, and displayed to the public. The word “bedlam” later came to
mean chaos or madness.
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
This resource has been provided to help you be successful in studying for the Topic 4 Midterm. It
is recommended you complete this document as you read the assigned chapters for Topics 1-4.
1. Discuss the “four Ds” of abnormal psychology; how does culture play a role in labeling a
behavior as deviant?
Distress-He seems to be experiencing emotional distress, though he might not openly
admit it.
Deviance-Variance from common patterns of behavior. - behaviors that stray from what
society considers “normal.” Example ( Alex’s behavior is certainly deviating from his
usual patterns and from what’s expected of a college student.)
Danger-While there’s no immediate threat, prolonged isolation and neglect of
responsibilities could lead to more serious consequences.
Dysfunction-When Life Goes Off the Rails, Our third D, Dysfunction, is where the
rubber meets the road. Take the case of Michael, a once-sociable marketing executive
who now struggles to leave his house due to severe panic attacks. His behavior is deviant
(most people don’t have trouble leaving their homes), it causes him distress (he’s
frustrated and anxious about his situation), and it’s clearly dysfunctional (he can’t work
or maintain relationships). This trifecta of Ds paints a clear picture of a potential anxiety
disorder.( His academic performance and social relationships are clearly suffering.)
2. Define abnormal psychology- The scientific study of abnormal behavior undertaken to
describe, predict, explain, and change abnormal patterns of functioning. Multiple
Choice Questions (Examples)
69. What is the best definition of abnormal psychology?
A) The study of human development and learning
B) The scientific study of normal behavior and emotions
C) The scientific study of abnormal behavior undertaken to describe, predict, explain,
andchange abnormal patterns of functioning ✅
D) The study of brain anatomy and intelligence
70. Which of the following is NOT one of the goals of abnormal psychology?
A) Describe abnormal behavior
B) Predict abnormal behavior
C) Explain abnormal behavior
D) Ignore abnormal behavior ✅
True/False Questions
71. Abnormal psychology aims to describe, predict, explain, and change abnormal patterns of
functioning.
Answer: True ✅
72. Abnormal psychology only describes abnormal behavior and does not attempt to change
it.
Answer: False ✅
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
54. Familiarize yourself with theorist Jerome Frank. What are the three essential features of
therapy?
A sufferer who seeks relief from the healer.
A trained, socially accepted healer, whose expertise is accepted by the sufferer
and his or her social group.
A series of contacts between the healer and the sufferer, through which the healer
... tries to produce certain changes in the sufferer's emotional state, attitudes, and
behavior.
55. Discuss the role of the following people in the history of abnormal psychology: Pinel,
Tuke, Dix, Kraepelin, Rush, Socrates, Hippocrates, Aristotle and Plato. List ancient views
of “treatments” for mental disorders (include trephining, humors, and Bedlam in your
answer).
-Pinel: The first chief physician for the asylum located in France. Argued that the
mentally challenged people should not be in chains and receive beatings, rather
than, they should show sympathy and kindness
-Tuke: Founder of York Retreat and treated patients with a combination of rest,
talk, prayer, and manual work.
- Boston schoolteacher who made human care more of a public and political
concern in the U.S. Believed in moral treatment
-Kraeplein: A German researcher who published a book arguing that physical
factors (e.g. fatigue) are responsible for mental dysfunction
-Rush: Father of American psychiatry; developed humane approaches to
treatment
- Often called the father of medicine, taught illnesses as
natural causes. Saw mental illness as uprising from internal
physical illness -Aristotle/Plato: shared ideas with Hippocrates about the internal
focus on abnormality
56. List the advantages and disadvantages of the following non-experimental methods: a)
self-report (including surveys and questionnaires), b) tests and other assessments, c)
physiological measures, d) observations (including naturalistic observations), and e) case
studies.
a) Self-Report Methods (Surveys and Questionnaires)
Advantages:
• Easy and inexpensive to collect large amounts of data.
• Can reach many people quickly.
• Allows researchers to study thoughts, feelings, and attitudes directly from participants.
Disadvantages:
• Social desirability bias: participants may give answers they think are “acceptable” rather
than truthful.
• Response bias or inaccuracy: people may not remember accurately or may misunderstand
questions.
• Limited depth: lacks detailed, in-depth information about individual experiences.
Dix:
Hippocrates:
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
• Can provide objective, standardized measurements (e.g., IQ tests, personality
inventories).
• Useful for diagnosis and treatment planning.
• Allows comparison across individuals using established norms. Disadvantages:
• May be culturally biased or not valid for all populations.
• Results can be affected by test anxiety or situational factors.
• Does not always capture the complexity of human behavior or emotions.
• Provides objective and precise data about biological processes.
• Can reveal physical correlates of mental states (e.g., brain activity linked to anxiety).
Less influenced by participant bias or self-report errors. Disadvantages:
• Can be expensive and require specialized equipment.
• May be invasive or uncomfortable for participants.
• Results can be hard to interpret — biological responses don’t always clearly explain
behavior.
• Allows researchers to see real behavior in context, not just what people say they do.
• Useful for studying behaviors that can’t be easily measured through tests or surveys.
Can reveal patterns and social interactions in natural settings. Disadvantages:
• Observer bias: researcher’s expectations can influence what they notice or record.
• Reactivity (Hawthorne effect): people may change behavior when they know they’re
being observed.
• Time-consuming and may lack control over outside variables.
• Provides in-depth, detailed information about one person or a small group.
• Can help generate hypotheses for further research.
• Useful for studying rare or unusual cases (e.g., Phineas Gage). Disadvantages:
• Lack of generalizability: findings may not apply to others.
• Subjectivity: researcher bias can influence interpretation.
• Cannot establish cause and effect relationships.
✅ Example Study Question:
Question: What is one advantage and one disadvantage of using case studies in abnormal
psychology research?
Answer:
b)
Tests and Other Assessments
Advantages
:
c
)
Physiological Measure
s
(
e.g., heart rate, brain imaging, hormone levels
)
Advantages
:
d)
Observations (Including Naturalistic Observations)
Advantages
:
e)
Case Studie
s
Advantages
:
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
• Advantage: Provides rich, detailed data about an individual’s experience.
Disadvantage: Findings may not generalize to other people
6. Describe the main features of experimental research, including a) independent vs.
dependent variables, b) experimental vs. control groups, and c) random assignment vs.
random sample.
-Independent variables: The variable in an experiment that is manipulated to determine
if it has effect on another variable
-dependent variable: the variable in an experiment that is expected to change as the
independent is manipulated
-Experimental group: In an experiment, the participants who are exposed to the
independent variable under investigation
-Control group: A group of participants who are not exposed to the independent variable
-Random assignment: A selection process that ensures that participants are randomly
placed either in the control or in the experimental group.
7. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of correlational studies
Correlational Studies Definition:
A correlational study examines the relationship between two or more variables to
determine whether they are associated (correlated).
👉 It does not involve manipulating variables — it simply measures them as they
naturally occur.
Strengths of Correlational Studies
69. Shows Relationships Between Variables o Helps researchers identify whether
variables are related (e.g., stress levels and depression).
70. Useful When Experiments Are Unethical or Impossible o Some variables can’t be
ethically manipulated (e.g., childhood trauma, mental illness).
71. Can Help Predict Behavior
o If two variables are strongly related, one can help predict the other (e.g., substance
abuse and risk of relapse).
72. Often Quick and Inexpensive o Data can be collected from surveys, archives, or
existing datasets.
Weaknesses of Correlational Studies
69. Cannot Determine Cause and Effect (No Causation!) o Correlation does not
mean one variable causes the other — there may be a third variable influencing
both.
70. Possible Third-Variable Problem o A hidden variable may explain the relationship
(e.g., poverty might explain the link between stress and illness).
71. Directionality Problem o Even if two variables are related, it’s unclear which
causes which (e.g., does depression cause isolation, or does isolation cause
depression?).
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
72. Potential for Misinterpretation o People often assume a correlation means
causation, which can lead to false conclusions.
✅
Example Study Question and Answer:
Question: What is a major limitation of correlational research?
Answer: Correlational research cannot determine cause-and-effect relationships between
variables.
Question: What is one strength of correlational studies?
Answer: They can identify and measure the strength and direction of relationships
between variables.
8.
Distinguish cross-sectional from longitudinal studies (incidence and prevalence).
Cross-Sectional vs. Longitudinal Studies
Both are non-experimental research designs used to study patterns of behavior, mental
disorders, or health over time.
1. Cross-Sectional Studies
• Examine different groups of people at a single point in time.
• Often used to measure prevalence (how common a disorder is at a given time). Key
Features:
• Quick and relatively inexpensive.
• Provides a “snapshot” of a population.
• Can compare different age groups or demographics at once. Strengths:
• Efficient for studying large populations.
• Useful for identifying prevalence rates.
Weaknesses:
• Cannot measure incidence (new cases over time).
• Cannot establish cause-and-effect or track changes within individuals. Example:
• Surveying 1,000 people of various ages to find the current prevalence of depression.
2. Longitudinal Studies
• Follow the same group of people over time to see how variables change.
• Often used to measure incidence (number of new cases of a disorder that develop over a
specific period).
Key Features:
• Tracks changes in the same participants over months, years, or decades.
• Can study developmental trends and causal relationships more effectively.
Strengths:
• Can measure incidence (new cases) and patterns of change.
• Useful for studying long-term effects of risk factors or treatments. Weaknesses:
• Time-consuming and expensive.
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
• Participant dropout can bias results.
• Not always practical for very long periods.
Example:
• Following a group of 500 children for 10 years to see how many develop anxiety
disorders over time.
Key Terms: Prevalence vs. Incidence
• Prevalence: Total number of cases (old + new) of a disorder in a population at a given
time.
• Incidence: Number of new cases that develop in a population over a specific time period.
✅ Example Study Questions:
35. Question: What is the main difference between cross-sectional and longitudinal studies?
Answer: Cross-sectional studies examine different groups at one point in time
(prevalence), while longitudinal studies follow the same group over time to track new
cases (incidence).
36. Question: Which type of study is best for measuring the incidence of a disorder?
Answer: Longitudinal study.
570. Define the terms epidemiological studies, incidence, and prevalence.
571. What are other terms used interchangeably for the term “perspective” in
psychology?
572. Discuss the types of available biological treatments.
573. What are the three levels of Freud’s theory of the psyche, and what three
components inhabit these levels?
574. Discuss the elements seen in psychodynamic therapy, including free association,
resistance, transference, countertransference, dream analysis, catharsis, and “working
through.”
575. Discuss the features of the cognitive model and cognitive-behavioral therapy,
including theorist’s contributions: Ellis’ REBT, Beck’s cognitive therapy, and
Meichenbaum’s selfinstructional training.
576. Discuss the cognitive-behavioral model and how it integrates the cognitive and
behavioral models into one unified perspective/model.
577. Discuss the features of humanistic psychology and therapy, including self-
actualization, client-centered therapy, conditions of worth, and unconditional vs.
conditional positive regard.
578. Discuss the features of Gestalt theory and therapy, including skillful frustration,
role playing, rules, and here-and-now.
579. Contrast the family-social and multicultural perspectives found in the
sociocultural model. Include social labels, roles, social support and family systems theory
in your answer.
580. How does anxiety differ from fear? Define both.
581. Define the types of anxiety: free-floating, specific, fearful
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
582. How do phobias differ from normal fears?
583. Define astra-, agora-, social, claustro-, acro-, and zoophobia.
584. Contrast the following models related to approaches for anxiety: sociocultural,
psychodynamic, humanistic-existential, cognitive
585. Understand and know the different functions of the nervous system: peripheral,
sympathetic, parasympathetic
586. What role does the hypothalamus have in the production and release of
corticosteroids?
587. What types of events can trigger a psychological stress disorder?
588. Explain how the following factors play a role in developing a psychological stress
disorder: biological and genetic factors, personality factors, childhood experiences, social
support, multicultural factors, and severity of the trauma.
589. Understand and know the difference between: Dissociative disorder, post-
traumatic stress disorder, dissociative amnesia.
590. How are psychophysiological disorders affected by biological, psychological, and
sociocultural factors?
591. Describe the differences among: depression, mania, unipolar depression,
anhedonia, dysthymic disorder, cyclothymic disorder, and bipolar disorder.
592. Understand and be familiar with persistent depressive disorder symptoms and
diagnostic criteria.
593. Differentiate among automatic and intrusive thoughts.
594. Explain how depression may be caused by psychological factors, including
psychoanalytic, behavioral, and cognitive views (include Beck’s cognitive triad in your
answer).
595. Explain how Weiner’s attribution model and Abramson’s revision explain how
learned helplessness occurs. Know the difference between Internal and External, stable
versus unstable, and global versus specific within each of the attributions. Be prepared to
offer an example of each.
596. Discuss the benefits and weaknesses of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). Can this
form of therapy cause damage or be dangerous? What are some consequences of ECT?
597. Discuss the rise of antidepressant medications in recent years, including MAOs,
tricyclics, and SSRIs. Be familiar with each.
598. Discuss the use of brain stimulation techniques, including vagus nerve
stimulation, transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), and deep brain stimulation.
599. Describe mood stabilizing drug types and efficacy on bipolar disorders.
600. Explain the key features of somatoform and dissociative disorders.
601. Discuss how the three hysterical somatoform disorders (conversion disorder,
somatization disorder, and pain disorder with psychological factors) differ from each
other (include glove anesthesia in your answer).
602. Discuss the differences between: hysterical and factitious disorders (include
malingering and Munchausen syndrome and Munchausen syndrome by proxy in your
answer).
( Extra Key Notes )
4. Key Figures in the History of Abnormal Psychology
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
154. Philippe Pinel (1745–1826)
• French physician who reformed mental hospitals in France.
• Introduced moral treatment, emphasizing kindness, humane conditions, and talking with
patients.
• Freed patients from chains at La Bicêtre Hospital, improving their quality of life.
155. William Tuke (1732–1822)
• English Quaker who founded the York Retreat, a country house for the mentally ill.
• Promoted moral treatment focused on rest, prayer, and gentle care rather than
punishment.
156. Dorothea Dix (1802–1887)
• American schoolteacher and reformer.
• Campaigned for better treatment and conditions for people with mental illness in the
U.S. and helped establish state mental hospitals.
157. Emil Kraepelin (1856–1926)
• German psychiatrist who developed the first modern system for classifying mental
disorders.
• Identified patterns of symptoms and laid the groundwork for the DSM (Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders).
158. Benjamin Rush (1746–1813)
• Known as the father of American psychiatry.
• Advocated for humane treatment of patients and better hospital conditions, but also used
early medical treatments (like bloodletting).
159. Socrates (470–399 BCE)
• Ancient Greek philosopher who believed self-examination and rational thought could
lead to better understanding of one’s behavior.
160. Hippocrates (460–377 BCE)
• Known as the father of modern medicine.
• Believed mental illness had natural (biological) causes, not demonic possession.
• Introduced the theory of the four humors (blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile)
— imbalance was thought to cause abnormal behavior.
161. Aristotle (384–322 BCE)
• Greek philosopher who emphasized the connection between the mind and body,
believing mental disorders could stem from physical causes.
162. Plato (427–347 BCE)
• Believed abnormal behavior resulted from internal conflicts and emphasized the
importance of reason over emotion.
• Advocated for a hospital setting away from society for treatment.
Ancient Views and Treatments for Mental Disorders
Trephining (Trepanation):
An ancient practice where holes were drilled into the skull to “release evil spirits”
thought to cause abnormal behavior.
• Humors:
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
Based on Hippocrates’ theory, mental disorders were caused by an imbalance of bodily
fluids:
o Blood (sanguine – cheerful) o
Phlegm (phlegmatic – sluggish) o
Yellow bile (choleric – irritable) o
Black bile (melancholic –
depressed) Bedlam
(Bethlehem Hospital in London):
One of the first asylums, notorious for poor and inhumane treatment. Patients were
often chained, beaten, and displayed to the public. The word “bedlam” later came to
mean chaos or madness.
This resource has been provided to help you be successful in studying for the Topic 4 Midterm. It
is recommended you complete this document as you read the assigned chapters for Topics 1-4.
1. Discuss the “four Ds” of abnormal psychology; how does culture play a role in labeling a
behavior as deviant?
Distress-He seems to be experiencing emotional distress, though he might not openly
admit it.
Deviance-Variance from common patterns of behavior. - behaviors that stray from what
society considers “normal.” Example ( Alex’s behavior is certainly deviating from his
usual patterns and from what’s expected of a college student.)
Danger-While there’s no immediate threat, prolonged isolation and neglect of
responsibilities could lead to more serious consequences.
Dysfunction-When Life Goes Off the Rails, Our third D, Dysfunction, is where the
rubber meets the road. Take the case of Michael, a once-sociable marketing executive
who now struggles to leave his house due to severe panic attacks. His behavior is deviant
(most people don’t have trouble leaving their homes), it causes him distress (he’s
frustrated and anxious about his situation), and it’s clearly dysfunctional (he can’t work
or maintain relationships). This trifecta of Ds paints a clear picture of a potential anxiety
disorder.( His academic performance and social relationships are clearly suffering.)
2. Define abnormal psychology- The scientific study of abnormal behavior undertaken to
describe, predict, explain, and change abnormal patterns of functioning. Multiple
Choice Questions (Examples)
73. What is the best definition of abnormal psychology?
A) The study of human development and learning
B) The scientific study of normal behavior and emotions
C) The scientific study of abnormal behavior undertaken to describe, predict, explain,
andchange abnormal patterns of functioning ✅
D) The study of brain anatomy and intelligence
74. Which of the following is NOT one of the goals of abnormal psychology?
A) Describe abnormal behavior
B) Predict abnormal behavior
C) Explain abnormal behavior
D) Ignore abnormal behavior ✅
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
True/False Questions
75. Abnormal psychology aims to describe, predict, explain, and change abnormal patterns of
functioning.
Answer: True ✅
76. Abnormal psychology only describes abnormal behavior and does not attempt to change
it.
Answer: False ✅
57. Familiarize yourself with theorist Jerome Frank. What are the three essential features of
therapy?
A sufferer who seeks relief from the healer.
A trained, socially accepted healer, whose expertise is accepted by the sufferer
and his or her social group.
A series of contacts between the healer and the sufferer, through which the healer
... tries to produce certain changes in the sufferer's emotional state, attitudes, and
behavior.
58. Discuss the role of the following people in the history of abnormal psychology: Pinel,
Tuke, Dix, Kraepelin, Rush, Socrates, Hippocrates, Aristotle and Plato. List ancient views
of “treatments” for mental disorders (include trephining, humors, and Bedlam in your
answer).
-Pinel: The first chief physician for the asylum located in France. Argued that the
mentally challenged people should not be in chains and receive beatings, rather
than, they should show sympathy and kindness
-Tuke: Founder of York Retreat and treated patients with a combination of rest,
talk, prayer, and manual work.
- Boston schoolteacher who made human care more of a public and political
concern in the U.S. Believed in moral treatment
-Kraeplein: A German researcher who published a book arguing that physical
factors (e.g. fatigue) are responsible for mental dysfunction
-Rush: Father of American psychiatry; developed humane approaches to
treatment
- Often called the father of medicine, taught illnesses as
natural causes. Saw mental illness as uprising from internal
physical illness -Aristotle/Plato: shared ideas with Hippocrates about the internal
focus on abnormality
59. List the advantages and disadvantages of the following non-experimental methods: a)
self-report (including surveys and questionnaires), b) tests and other assessments, c)
physiological measures, d) observations (including naturalistic observations), and e) case
studies.
Dix:
Hippocrates:
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
a) Self-Report Methods (Surveys and Questionnaires)
Advantages:
• Easy and inexpensive to collect large amounts of data.
• Can reach many people quickly.
• Allows researchers to study thoughts, feelings, and attitudes directly from participants.
Disadvantages:
• Social desirability bias: participants may give answers they think are “acceptable” rather
than truthful.
• Response bias or inaccuracy: people may not remember accurately or may misunderstand
questions.
• Limited depth: lacks detailed, in-depth information about individual experiences.
• Can provide objective, standardized measurements (e.g., IQ tests, personality
inventories).
• Useful for diagnosis and treatment planning.
• Allows comparison across individuals using established norms. Disadvantages:
• May be culturally biased or not valid for all populations.
• Results can be affected by test anxiety or situational factors.
• Does not always capture the complexity of human behavior or emotions.
• Provides objective and precise data about biological processes.
• Can reveal physical correlates of mental states (e.g., brain activity linked to anxiety).
Less influenced by participant bias or self-report errors. Disadvantages:
• Can be expensive and require specialized equipment.
• May be invasive or uncomfortable for participants.
• Results can be hard to interpret — biological responses don’t always clearly explain
behavior.
• Allows researchers to see real behavior in context, not just what people say they do.
• Useful for studying behaviors that can’t be easily measured through tests or surveys.
Can reveal patterns and social interactions in natural settings. Disadvantages:
• Observer bias: researcher’s expectations can influence what they notice or record.
• Reactivity (Hawthorne effect): people may change behavior when they know they’re
being observed.
• Time-consuming and may lack control over outside variables.
b)
Tests and Other Assessments
Advantages
:
c
)
Physiological Measure
s
(
e.g., heart rate, brain imaging, hormone levels
)
Advantages
:
d)
Observations (Including Naturalistic Observations)
Advantages
:
e)
Case Studie
s
Advantages
:
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
• Provides in-depth, detailed information about one person or a small group.
• Can help generate hypotheses for further research.
• Useful for studying rare or unusual cases (e.g., Phineas Gage). Disadvantages:
• Lack of generalizability: findings may not apply to others.
• Subjectivity: researcher bias can influence interpretation.
• Cannot establish cause and effect relationships.
✅ Example Study Question:
Question: What is one advantage and one disadvantage of using case studies in abnormal
psychology research?
Answer:
• Advantage: Provides rich, detailed data about an individual’s experience.
Disadvantage: Findings may not generalize to other people
6. Describe the main features of experimental research, including a) independent vs.
dependent variables, b) experimental vs. control groups, and c) random assignment vs.
random sample.
-Independent variables: The variable in an experiment that is manipulated to determine
if it has effect on another variable
-dependent variable: the variable in an experiment that is expected to change as the
independent is manipulated
-Experimental group: In an experiment, the participants who are exposed to the
independent variable under investigation
-Control group: A group of participants who are not exposed to the independent variable
-Random assignment: A selection process that ensures that participants are randomly
placed either in the control or in the experimental group.
7. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of correlational studies
Correlational Studies Definition:
A correlational study examines the relationship between two or more variables to
determine whether they are associated (correlated).
👉 It does not involve manipulating variables — it simply measures them as they
naturally occur.
Strengths of Correlational Studies
73. Shows Relationships Between Variables o Helps researchers identify whether
variables are related (e.g., stress levels and depression).
74. Useful When Experiments Are Unethical or Impossible o Some variables can’t be
ethically manipulated (e.g., childhood trauma, mental illness).
75. Can Help Predict Behavior
o If two variables are strongly related, one can help predict the other (e.g., substance
abuse and risk of relapse).
76. Often Quick and Inexpensive o Data can be collected from surveys, archives, or
existing datasets.
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
Weaknesses of Correlational Studies
73. Cannot Determine Cause and Effect (No Causation!) o Correlation does not
mean one variable causes the other — there may be a third variable influencing
both.
74. Possible Third-Variable Problem o A hidden variable may explain the relationship
(e.g., poverty might explain the link between stress and illness).
75. Directionality Problem o Even if two variables are related, it’s unclear which
causes which (e.g., does depression cause isolation, or does isolation cause
depression?).
76. Potential for Misinterpretation o People often assume a correlation means
causation, which can lead to false conclusions.
✅
Example Study Question and Answer:
Question: What is a major limitation of correlational research?
Answer: Correlational research cannot determine cause-and-effect relationships between
variables.
Question: What is one strength of correlational studies?
Answer: They can identify and measure the strength and direction of relationships
between variables.
8.
Distinguish cross-sectional from longitudinal studies (incidence and prevalence).
Cross-Sectional vs. Longitudinal Studies
Both are non-experimental research designs used to study patterns of behavior, mental
disorders, or health over time.
1. Cross-Sectional Studies
• Examine different groups of people at a single point in time.
• Often used to measure prevalence (how common a disorder is at a given time). Key
Features:
• Quick and relatively inexpensive.
• Provides a “snapshot” of a population.
• Can compare different age groups or demographics at once. Strengths:
• Efficient for studying large populations.
• Useful for identifying prevalence rates.
Weaknesses:
• Cannot measure incidence (new cases over time).
• Cannot establish cause-and-effect or track changes within individuals. Example:
• Surveying 1,000 people of various ages to find the current prevalence of depression.
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
2. Longitudinal Studies
• Follow the same group of people over time to see how variables change.
• Often used to measure incidence (number of new cases of a disorder that develop over a
specific period).
Key Features:
• Tracks changes in the same participants over months, years, or decades.
• Can study developmental trends and causal relationships more effectively.
Strengths:
• Can measure incidence (new cases) and patterns of change.
• Useful for studying long-term effects of risk factors or treatments. Weaknesses:
• Time-consuming and expensive.
• Participant dropout can bias results.
• Not always practical for very long periods.
Example:
• Following a group of 500 children for 10 years to see how many develop anxiety
disorders over time.
Key Terms: Prevalence vs. Incidence
• Prevalence: Total number of cases (old + new) of a disorder in a population at a given
time.
• Incidence: Number of new cases that develop in a population over a specific time period.
✅ Example Study Questions:
37. Question: What is the main difference between cross-sectional and longitudinal studies?
Answer: Cross-sectional studies examine different groups at one point in time
(prevalence), while longitudinal studies follow the same group over time to track new
cases (incidence).
38. Question: Which type of study is best for measuring the incidence of a disorder?
Answer: Longitudinal study.
603. Define the terms epidemiological studies, incidence, and prevalence.
604. What are other terms used interchangeably for the term “perspective” in
psychology?
605. Discuss the types of available biological treatments.
606. What are the three levels of Freud’s theory of the psyche, and what three
components inhabit these levels?
607. Discuss the elements seen in psychodynamic therapy, including free association,
resistance, transference, countertransference, dream analysis, catharsis, and “working
through.”
608. Discuss the features of the cognitive model and cognitive-behavioral therapy,
including theorist’s contributions: Ellis’ REBT, Beck’s cognitive therapy, and
Meichenbaum’s selfinstructional training.
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
609. Discuss the cognitive-behavioral model and how it integrates the cognitive and
behavioral models into one unified perspective/model.
610. Discuss the features of humanistic psychology and therapy, including self-
actualization, client-centered therapy, conditions of worth, and unconditional vs.
conditional positive regard.
611. Discuss the features of Gestalt theory and therapy, including skillful frustration,
role playing, rules, and here-and-now.
612. Contrast the family-social and multicultural perspectives found in the
sociocultural model. Include social labels, roles, social support and family systems theory
in your answer.
613. How does anxiety differ from fear? Define both.
614. Define the types of anxiety: free-floating, specific, fearful
615. How do phobias differ from normal fears?
616. Define astra-, agora-, social, claustro-, acro-, and zoophobia.
617. Contrast the following models related to approaches for anxiety: sociocultural,
psychodynamic, humanistic-existential, cognitive
618. Understand and know the different functions of the nervous system: peripheral,
sympathetic, parasympathetic
619. What role does the hypothalamus have in the production and release of
corticosteroids?
620. What types of events can trigger a psychological stress disorder?
621. Explain how the following factors play a role in developing a psychological stress
disorder: biological and genetic factors, personality factors, childhood experiences, social
support, multicultural factors, and severity of the trauma.
622. Understand and know the difference between: Dissociative disorder, post-
traumatic stress disorder, dissociative amnesia.
623. How are psychophysiological disorders affected by biological, psychological, and
sociocultural factors?
624. Describe the differences among: depression, mania, unipolar depression,
anhedonia, dysthymic disorder, cyclothymic disorder, and bipolar disorder.
625. Understand and be familiar with persistent depressive disorder symptoms and
diagnostic criteria.
626. Differentiate among automatic and intrusive thoughts.
627. Explain how depression may be caused by psychological factors, including
psychoanalytic, behavioral, and cognitive views (include Beck’s cognitive triad in your
answer).
628. Explain how Weiner’s attribution model and Abramson’s revision explain how
learned helplessness occurs. Know the difference between Internal and External, stable
versus unstable, and global versus specific within each of the attributions. Be prepared to
offer an example of each.
629. Discuss the benefits and weaknesses of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). Can this
form of therapy cause damage or be dangerous? What are some consequences of ECT?
630. Discuss the rise of antidepressant medications in recent years, including MAOs,
tricyclics, and SSRIs. Be familiar with each.
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
631. Discuss the use of brain stimulation techniques, including vagus nerve
stimulation, transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), and deep brain stimulation.
632. Describe mood stabilizing drug types and efficacy on bipolar disorders.
633. Explain the key features of somatoform and dissociative disorders.
634. Discuss how the three hysterical somatoform disorders (conversion disorder,
somatization disorder, and pain disorder with psychological factors) differ from each
other (include glove anesthesia in your answer).
635. Discuss the differences between: hysterical and factitious disorders (include
malingering and Munchausen syndrome and Munchausen syndrome by proxy in your
answer).
( Extra Key Notes )
4. Key Figures in the History of Abnormal Psychology
163. Philippe Pinel (1745–1826)
• French physician who reformed mental hospitals in France.
• Introduced moral treatment, emphasizing kindness, humane conditions, and talking with
patients.
• Freed patients from chains at La Bicêtre Hospital, improving their quality of life.
164. William Tuke (1732–1822)
• English Quaker who founded the York Retreat, a country house for the mentally ill.
• Promoted moral treatment focused on rest, prayer, and gentle care rather than
punishment.
165. Dorothea Dix (1802–1887)
• American schoolteacher and reformer.
• Campaigned for better treatment and conditions for people with mental illness in the
U.S. and helped establish state mental hospitals.
166. Emil Kraepelin (1856–1926)
• German psychiatrist who developed the first modern system for classifying mental
disorders.
• Identified patterns of symptoms and laid the groundwork for the DSM (Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders).
167. Benjamin Rush (1746–1813)
• Known as the father of American psychiatry.
• Advocated for humane treatment of patients and better hospital conditions, but also used
early medical treatments (like bloodletting).
168. Socrates (470–399 BCE)
• Ancient Greek philosopher who believed self-examination and rational thought could
lead to better understanding of one’s behavior.
169. Hippocrates (460–377 BCE)
• Known as the father of modern medicine.
• Believed mental illness had natural (biological) causes, not demonic possession.
• Introduced the theory of the four humors (blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile)
— imbalance was thought to cause abnormal behavior.
170. Aristotle (384–322 BCE)
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
• Greek philosopher who emphasized the connection between the mind and body,
believing mental disorders could stem from physical causes.
171. Plato (427–347 BCE)
• Believed abnormal behavior resulted from internal conflicts and emphasized the
importance of reason over emotion.
• Advocated for a hospital setting away from society for treatment.
Ancient Views and Treatments for Mental Disorders
Trephining (Trepanation):
An ancient practice where holes were drilled into the skull to “release evil spirits”
thought to cause abnormal behavior.
• Humors:
Based on Hippocrates’ theory, mental disorders were caused by an imbalance of bodily
fluids:
o Blood (sanguine – cheerful) o
Phlegm (phlegmatic – sluggish) o
Yellow bile (choleric – irritable) o
Black bile (melancholic –
depressed) Bedlam
(Bethlehem Hospital in London):
One of the first asylums, notorious for poor and inhumane treatment. Patients were
often chained, beaten, and displayed to the public. The word “bedlam” later came to
mean chaos or madness.
This resource has been provided to help you be successful in studying for the Topic 4 Midterm. It
is recommended you complete this document as you read the assigned chapters for Topics 1-4.
1. Discuss the “four Ds” of abnormal psychology; how does culture play a role in labeling a
behavior as deviant?
Distress-He seems to be experiencing emotional distress, though he might not openly
admit it.
Deviance-Variance from common patterns of behavior. - behaviors that stray from what
society considers “normal.” Example ( Alex’s behavior is certainly deviating from his
usual patterns and from what’s expected of a college student.)
Danger-While there’s no immediate threat, prolonged isolation and neglect of
responsibilities could lead to more serious consequences.
Dysfunction-When Life Goes Off the Rails, Our third D, Dysfunction, is where the
rubber meets the road. Take the case of Michael, a once-sociable marketing executive
who now struggles to leave his house due to severe panic attacks. His behavior is deviant
(most people don’t have trouble leaving their homes), it causes him distress (he’s
frustrated and anxious about his situation), and it’s clearly dysfunctional (he can’t work
or maintain relationships). This trifecta of Ds paints a clear picture of a potential anxiety
disorder.( His academic performance and social relationships are clearly suffering.)
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
2. Define abnormal psychology- The scientific study of abnormal behavior undertaken to
describe, predict, explain, and change abnormal patterns of functioning. Multiple
Choice Questions (Examples)
77. What is the best definition of abnormal psychology?
A) The study of human development and learning
B) The scientific study of normal behavior and emotions
C) The scientific study of abnormal behavior undertaken to describe, predict, explain,
andchange abnormal patterns of functioning ✅
D) The study of brain anatomy and intelligence
78. Which of the following is NOT one of the goals of abnormal psychology?
A) Describe abnormal behavior
B) Predict abnormal behavior
C) Explain abnormal behavior
D) Ignore abnormal behavior ✅
True/False Questions
79. Abnormal psychology aims to describe, predict, explain, and change abnormal patterns of
functioning.
Answer: True ✅
80. Abnormal psychology only describes abnormal behavior and does not attempt to change
it.
Answer: False ✅
60. Familiarize yourself with theorist Jerome Frank. What are the three essential features of
therapy?
A sufferer who seeks relief from the healer.
A trained, socially accepted healer, whose expertise is accepted by the sufferer
and his or her social group.
A series of contacts between the healer and the sufferer, through which the healer
... tries to produce certain changes in the sufferer's emotional state, attitudes, and
behavior.
61. Discuss the role of the following people in the history of abnormal psychology: Pinel,
Tuke, Dix, Kraepelin, Rush, Socrates, Hippocrates, Aristotle and Plato. List ancient views
of “treatments” for mental disorders (include trephining, humors, and Bedlam in your
answer).
-Pinel: The first chief physician for the asylum located in France. Argued that the
mentally challenged people should not be in chains and receive beatings, rather
than, they should show sympathy and kindness
-Tuke: Founder of York Retreat and treated patients with a combination of rest,
talk, prayer, and manual work.
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- Boston schoolteacher who made human care more of a public and political
concern in the U.S. Believed in moral treatment
-Kraeplein: A German researcher who published a book arguing that physical
factors (e.g. fatigue) are responsible for mental dysfunction
-Rush: Father of American psychiatry; developed humane approaches to
treatment
- Often called the father of medicine, taught illnesses as
natural causes. Saw mental illness as uprising from internal
physical illness -Aristotle/Plato: shared ideas with Hippocrates about the internal
focus on abnormality
62. List the advantages and disadvantages of the following non-experimental methods: a)
self-report (including surveys and questionnaires), b) tests and other assessments, c)
physiological measures, d) observations (including naturalistic observations), and e) case
studies.
a) Self-Report Methods (Surveys and Questionnaires)
Advantages:
• Easy and inexpensive to collect large amounts of data.
• Can reach many people quickly.
• Allows researchers to study thoughts, feelings, and attitudes directly from participants.
Disadvantages:
• Social desirability bias: participants may give answers they think are “acceptable” rather
than truthful.
• Response bias or inaccuracy: people may not remember accurately or may misunderstand
questions.
• Limited depth: lacks detailed, in-depth information about individual experiences.
• Can provide objective, standardized measurements (e.g., IQ tests, personality
inventories).
• Useful for diagnosis and treatment planning.
• Allows comparison across individuals using established norms. Disadvantages:
• May be culturally biased or not valid for all populations.
• Results can be affected by test anxiety or situational factors.
• Does not always capture the complexity of human behavior or emotions.
• Provides objective and precise data about biological processes.
• Can reveal physical correlates of mental states (e.g., brain activity linked to anxiety).
Less influenced by participant bias or self-report errors. Disadvantages:
• Can be expensive and require specialized equipment.
• May be invasive or uncomfortable for participants.
Dix:
Hippocrates:
b)
Tests and Other Assessments
Advantages
:
c
)
Physiological Measure
s
(
e.g., heart rate, brain imaging, hormone levels
)
Advantages
:
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
• Results can be hard to interpret — biological responses don’t always clearly explain
behavior.
• Allows researchers to see real behavior in context, not just what people say they do.
• Useful for studying behaviors that can’t be easily measured through tests or surveys.
Can reveal patterns and social interactions in natural settings. Disadvantages:
• Observer bias: researcher’s expectations can influence what they notice or record.
• Reactivity (Hawthorne effect): people may change behavior when they know they’re
being observed.
• Time-consuming and may lack control over outside variables.
• Provides in-depth, detailed information about one person or a small group.
• Can help generate hypotheses for further research.
• Useful for studying rare or unusual cases (e.g., Phineas Gage). Disadvantages:
• Lack of generalizability: findings may not apply to others.
• Subjectivity: researcher bias can influence interpretation.
• Cannot establish cause and effect relationships.
✅ Example Study Question:
Question: What is one advantage and one disadvantage of using case studies in abnormal
psychology research?
Answer:
• Advantage: Provides rich, detailed data about an individual’s experience.
Disadvantage: Findings may not generalize to other people
6. Describe the main features of experimental research, including a) independent vs.
dependent variables, b) experimental vs. control groups, and c) random assignment vs.
random sample.
-Independent variables: The variable in an experiment that is manipulated to determine
if it has effect on another variable
-dependent variable: the variable in an experiment that is expected to change as the
independent is manipulated
-Experimental group: In an experiment, the participants who are exposed to the
independent variable under investigation
-Control group: A group of participants who are not exposed to the independent variable
-Random assignment: A selection process that ensures that participants are randomly
placed either in the control or in the experimental group.
7. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of correlational studies
Correlational Studies Definition:
A correlational study examines the relationship between two or more variables to
determine whether they are associated (correlated).
d)
Observations (Including Naturalistic Observations)
Advantages
:
e)
Case Studie
s
Advantages
:
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
👉 It does not involve manipulating variables — it simply measures them as they
naturally occur.
Strengths of Correlational Studies
77. Shows Relationships Between Variables o Helps researchers identify whether
variables are related (e.g., stress levels and depression).
78. Useful When Experiments Are Unethical or Impossible o Some variables can’t be
ethically manipulated (e.g., childhood trauma, mental illness).
79. Can Help Predict Behavior
o If two variables are strongly related, one can help predict the other (e.g., substance
abuse and risk of relapse).
80. Often Quick and Inexpensive o Data can be collected from surveys, archives, or
existing datasets.
Weaknesses of Correlational Studies
77. Cannot Determine Cause and Effect (No Causation!) o Correlation does not
mean one variable causes the other — there may be a third variable influencing
both.
78. Possible Third-Variable Problem o A hidden variable may explain the relationship
(e.g., poverty might explain the link between stress and illness).
79. Directionality Problem o Even if two variables are related, it’s unclear which
causes which (e.g., does depression cause isolation, or does isolation cause
depression?).
80. Potential for Misinterpretation o People often assume a correlation means
causation, which can lead to false conclusions.
✅
Example Study Question and Answer:
Question: What is a major limitation of correlational research?
Answer: Correlational research cannot determine cause-and-effect relationships between
variables.
Question: What is one strength of correlational studies?
Answer: They can identify and measure the strength and direction of relationships
between variables.
8.
Distinguish cross-sectional from longitudinal studies (incidence and prevalence).
Cross-Sectional vs. Longitudinal Studies
Both are non-experimental research designs used to study patterns of behavior, mental
disorders, or health over time.
1. Cross-Sectional Studies
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
• Examine different groups of people at a single point in time.
• Often used to measure prevalence (how common a disorder is at a given time). Key
Features:
• Quick and relatively inexpensive.
• Provides a “snapshot” of a population.
• Can compare different age groups or demographics at once. Strengths:
• Efficient for studying large populations.
• Useful for identifying prevalence rates.
Weaknesses:
• Cannot measure incidence (new cases over time).
• Cannot establish cause-and-effect or track changes within individuals. Example:
• Surveying 1,000 people of various ages to find the current prevalence of depression.
2. Longitudinal Studies
• Follow the same group of people over time to see how variables change.
• Often used to measure incidence (number of new cases of a disorder that develop over a
specific period).
Key Features:
• Tracks changes in the same participants over months, years, or decades.
• Can study developmental trends and causal relationships more effectively.
Strengths:
• Can measure incidence (new cases) and patterns of change.
• Useful for studying long-term effects of risk factors or treatments. Weaknesses:
• Time-consuming and expensive.
• Participant dropout can bias results.
• Not always practical for very long periods.
Example:
• Following a group of 500 children for 10 years to see how many develop anxiety
disorders over time.
Key Terms: Prevalence vs. Incidence
• Prevalence: Total number of cases (old + new) of a disorder in a population at a given
time.
• Incidence: Number of new cases that develop in a population over a specific time period.
✅ Example Study Questions:
39. Question: What is the main difference between cross-sectional and longitudinal studies?
Answer: Cross-sectional studies examine different groups at one point in time
(prevalence), while longitudinal studies follow the same group over time to track new
cases (incidence).
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
40. Question: Which type of study is best for measuring the incidence of a disorder?
Answer: Longitudinal study.
636. Define the terms epidemiological studies, incidence, and prevalence.
637. What are other terms used interchangeably for the term “perspective” in
psychology?
638. Discuss the types of available biological treatments.
639. What are the three levels of Freud’s theory of the psyche, and what three
components inhabit these levels?
640. Discuss the elements seen in psychodynamic therapy, including free association,
resistance, transference, countertransference, dream analysis, catharsis, and “working
through.”
641. Discuss the features of the cognitive model and cognitive-behavioral therapy,
including theorist’s contributions: Ellis’ REBT, Beck’s cognitive therapy, and
Meichenbaum’s selfinstructional training.
642. Discuss the cognitive-behavioral model and how it integrates the cognitive and
behavioral models into one unified perspective/model.
643. Discuss the features of humanistic psychology and therapy, including self-
actualization, client-centered therapy, conditions of worth, and unconditional vs.
conditional positive regard.
644. Discuss the features of Gestalt theory and therapy, including skillful frustration,
role playing, rules, and here-and-now.
645. Contrast the family-social and multicultural perspectives found in the
sociocultural model. Include social labels, roles, social support and family systems theory
in your answer.
646. How does anxiety differ from fear? Define both.
647. Define the types of anxiety: free-floating, specific, fearful
648. How do phobias differ from normal fears?
649. Define astra-, agora-, social, claustro-, acro-, and zoophobia.
650. Contrast the following models related to approaches for anxiety: sociocultural,
psychodynamic, humanistic-existential, cognitive
651. Understand and know the different functions of the nervous system: peripheral,
sympathetic, parasympathetic
652. What role does the hypothalamus have in the production and release of
corticosteroids?
653. What types of events can trigger a psychological stress disorder?
654. Explain how the following factors play a role in developing a psychological stress
disorder: biological and genetic factors, personality factors, childhood experiences, social
support, multicultural factors, and severity of the trauma.
655. Understand and know the difference between: Dissociative disorder, post-
traumatic stress disorder, dissociative amnesia.
656. How are psychophysiological disorders affected by biological, psychological, and
sociocultural factors?
657. Describe the differences among: depression, mania, unipolar depression,
anhedonia, dysthymic disorder, cyclothymic disorder, and bipolar disorder.
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
658. Understand and be familiar with persistent depressive disorder symptoms and
diagnostic criteria.
659. Differentiate among automatic and intrusive thoughts.
660. Explain how depression may be caused by psychological factors, including
psychoanalytic, behavioral, and cognitive views (include Beck’s cognitive triad in your
answer).
661. Explain how Weiner’s attribution model and Abramson’s revision explain how
learned helplessness occurs. Know the difference between Internal and External, stable
versus unstable, and global versus specific within each of the attributions. Be prepared to
offer an example of each.
662. Discuss the benefits and weaknesses of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). Can this
form of therapy cause damage or be dangerous? What are some consequences of ECT?
663. Discuss the rise of antidepressant medications in recent years, including MAOs,
tricyclics, and SSRIs. Be familiar with each.
664. Discuss the use of brain stimulation techniques, including vagus nerve
stimulation, transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), and deep brain stimulation.
665. Describe mood stabilizing drug types and efficacy on bipolar disorders.
666. Explain the key features of somatoform and dissociative disorders.
667. Discuss how the three hysterical somatoform disorders (conversion disorder,
somatization disorder, and pain disorder with psychological factors) differ from each
other (include glove anesthesia in your answer).
668. Discuss the differences between: hysterical and factitious disorders (include
malingering and Munchausen syndrome and Munchausen syndrome by proxy in your
answer).
( Extra Key Notes )
4. Key Figures in the History of Abnormal Psychology
172. Philippe Pinel (1745–1826)
• French physician who reformed mental hospitals in France.
• Introduced moral treatment, emphasizing kindness, humane conditions, and talking with
patients.
• Freed patients from chains at La Bicêtre Hospital, improving their quality of life.
173. William Tuke (1732–1822)
• English Quaker who founded the York Retreat, a country house for the mentally ill.
• Promoted moral treatment focused on rest, prayer, and gentle care rather than
punishment.
174. Dorothea Dix (1802–1887)
• American schoolteacher and reformer.
• Campaigned for better treatment and conditions for people with mental illness in the
U.S. and helped establish state mental hospitals.
175. Emil Kraepelin (1856–1926)
• German psychiatrist who developed the first modern system for classifying mental
disorders.
lOMoARcPSD| 59331229
• Identified patterns of symptoms and laid the groundwork for the DSM (Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders).
176. Benjamin Rush (1746–1813)
• Known as the father of American psychiatry.
• Advocated for humane treatment of patients and better hospital conditions, but also used
early medical treatments (like bloodletting).
177. Socrates (470–399 BCE)
• Ancient Greek philosopher who believed self-examination and rational thought could
lead to better understanding of one’s behavior.
178. Hippocrates (460–377 BCE)
• Known as the father of modern medicine.
• Believed mental illness had natural (biological) causes, not demonic possession.
• Introduced the theory of the four humors (blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile)
— imbalance was thought to cause abnormal behavior.
179. Aristotle (384–322 BCE)
• Greek philosopher who emphasized the connection between the mind and body,
believing mental disorders could stem from physical causes.
180. Plato (427–347 BCE)
• Believed abnormal behavior resulted from internal conflicts and emphasized the
importance of reason over emotion.
• Advocated for a hospital setting away from society for treatment.
Ancient Views and Treatments for Mental Disorders
Trephining (Trepanation):
An ancient practice where holes were drilled into the skull to “release evil spirits”
thought to cause abnormal behavior.
• Humors:
Based on Hippocrates’ theory, mental disorders were caused by an imbalance of bodily
fluids:
o Blood (sanguine – cheerful) o
Phlegm (phlegmatic – sluggish) o
Yellow bile (choleric – irritable) o
Black bile (melancholic –
depressed) Bedlam
(Bethlehem Hospital in London):
One of the first asylums, notorious for poor and inhumane treatment. Patients were
often chained, beaten, and displayed to the public. The word “bedlam” later came to
mean chaos or madness.
