Introduction
Research has shown just how imperative human to human interaction truly is to the
overall well-being of mankind. Over many decades, researchers have been able to identify a
connection between the lack or minimal human to human contact and physiological damage it
has on long-term health. The collected data has shown an increase in hypertension, diabetes,
high cholesterol, and many more. “Emerging evidence also suggests that adverse childhood
experiences have long-term consequences on adult physical health and health care utilization”
(Chartier et al., pg. 455, 2009).
This new data only piqued the curiosity of other researchers within this field of study to
investigate the connection further. As more studies were being conducted and more data
surfaced, there were researchers that turned their attention from physiological damage and
focused on how mental health is affect by this variable. The question of, “is mental health
equally or even more negatively impacted by such a human-to-human void?” As researchers
pondered the effect of minimal to no human-to-human interaction on long term mental health,
they thought it would be more beneficial to start from the genesis of it all.
Background
It has been discovered very early on that it is critical for an offspring to bond with their
parent(s). This bond is being developed naturally with the mother while the infant is within the
womb, as the need for survival commence in the very beginning. The parent-child interaction in
some cases has been documented by researchers as life or death as the clock begins weeks after
conception. Making healthy diet choices, sustaining from harmful recreational substances,
presenting a soothing tone when the embryo seems to be unsettled. The child is completely
dependent on the mother at this time and then that dependency on the parent(s) continues until
they have developed the necessary skills or tools for the various stages of life. Without the
needed interaction, the child, if you will become under-developed both physically and
cognitively, and worst-case scenario can become a danger to oneself and others. “In mammals,
species survival critically depends on an extensive repertoire of conserved parental behavior to
sustain each infant through an extensive dependency period and contribute to long-term health
(Ellison, 2006; Gerhardt, 2006; Leckman &Mayes, 1998; Schore, 2005; Sroufe, 2005)” (Swain
et al., pg. 262, 2007).
The development of a child is comprised of multiple facets. For researchers within this
area of study, every specific area that is designated for specific growth was a focal point and
continues to be under a magnifying glass to capture any new findings that may have been
overlooked. Grasping the severity of damage to the physical development, researchers are
presenting strong hypotheses regarding just how vulnerable early childhood cognitive
development is when it comes to parent-child interaction. If a greater understanding could be
obtained at the root, then clarity may be given on various behaviors identified in adolescence and
even into later adulthood.
Parent-Child Interaction
Early childhood parent-child interaction plays a significant role in how we as individuals
view ourselves, how we interact with others, how we respond to stressful and non-stressful
situations, how display emotion, and even how we may process our thoughts. Data has shown
that the absence of parent-child interaction can be identified as a key contributor to early
behavior problems that extend into adulthood. “Epidemiological studies have recently
documented a spike in internalizing and adolescent behavior health problems in children (Bor et
al., 2014; Collishaw, 2015)” (Katsantonis et al., 2022).
A once child seeks to obtain validation from their parent/caregiver continuously and
when that validity is not given, that now adult may result to at-risk behavior or succumb to
depression due to their not understanding why they are not acknowledged. “Most developmental
theorists concur that early forms of self-control are necessarily linked to caregivers' behavior:
"Control" is imposed dextrally first, then gradually internalized” (Olson et al., pg. 318, 1999).
A child constantly seeks to cognitively understand how to convey their needs at birth.
What action prompts food, a diaper change, a stomach ache, and fear? The brain is constantly
trying to compute what triggers and how the triggers respond. If there is no response to the
outcry, then the cognitive development is halted. Here is were researchers observe a clear
delineation between nature vs. nurture, as as specific life-preparing examples are to be supplied
by the parents. When those specific life-lessons are missing, the child turned adult in some cases
find it hard to compute reasoning that would offer a solution. For many researchers, such a
finding within this area of research ignites the “nature vs. nurture” debate yet again.
Parent-child interaction is the first glimpse a child has into how the world is conducted
and how to conduct oneself in it. Author/Researcher James Swain and his fellow colleagues
stated the role of the parent in the parent-child interaction. Swain et al., indicated within their
research that parent(s) essentially provides a template for what the child can expect from others
and what they can expect from themselves. Parents are setting the tone for how their child will
embrace the world around them or how they will succumb to its adversities. The “parent–infant
relationship provides infants with their first social experiences, forming templates of what they
can expect from others and how to best meet others’ expectations” (Swain et al., p. 262, 2007)
Brain Imaging
Over the past few decades, researchers have found brain imaging to be extremely
beneficial to their research when it comes to obtaining further clarity on brain development,
especially within children. While there are various ways imaging equipment, researchers and
doctors alike found equipment such as the Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) to offer better
resolution imagery and most importantly a level of safety that made them comfortable with
utilizing on children. “MRI has many advantages over other imaging modalities including high
image resolution without radiation exposure, offering a safe tool for investigating early brain
development in young children” (Wedderburn, pg. 220, 2020).
The MRI is a tool that is used globally to observer a child’s brain at various stages during
development and just how it is impacted by both negative and positive interaction.
Understanding that most of the brain’s development occurs within the first three years, brain
imagining provides and in-depth view of either growths, delays, or damage. “Magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI) is an indispensable tool for investigating brain development in young children and the
neurobiological mechanisms underlying developmental risk and resilience” (Weddburn, pg. 219, 2020).
Despite the MRI being safe and offering a high level of imagery, researchers and doctors have found it
extremely difficult to utilize on infants due to their inability to lie still.
As previously stated, large numbers of studies to better understand brain development
have been and continue to be conducted. Since researcher are seeking to connect every dot,
using brain imaging equipment has become ideal in understanding brain development and
parent-child interaction. When there is a healthy interaction between parent and child, the brain
imaging scans show positive peaks in the brain. Research scans that were collected during a
cross-sectional and longitudinal study presented evidence of increase brain activity. Researchers
have captured evidence of left-brain development when there is a continuous healthy parent-
child interaction. In addition, when there is an absence of parent-child interaction or negative
interaction, the brain images present an increase of gray matter. Negative verbal communication,
abusive behavior, avoidance, and other maltreatment had an immense impact on the child
cognitive development.
Researchers Takeuchi and fellow colleagues having conducted extensive research
utilizing brain imaging protocols to emphasize just how imperative parent-child interaction is to
early cognitive development. Results from each of their clinical studies have confirmed that the
presence or absence of parent-child interaction carries a reward or consequence that has a long-
term effect. Imagining data is continuously confirming that a child’s neurocognitive
development relies heavily on how engaged a parent is with their child.
Pandora’s box has opened, and researchers are conducting more and more studies that
utilize brain imaging. These studies repeatedly support hypothesis that are argue that even the
most basic of functions such as speech, critical thinking, impulse, and comprehension are at risk
when there is no parent-child interaction. “Spending time with parents is directly or indirectly
associated with the neurocognitive development of children” (Takeuchi et al., pg. 2234, 2015).
Parent-Child Interaction and Mental Health
When the most basic of function are compromised by the absence of parent-child
interaction, researchers derive to a hypothesis that mental health diagnosis are lurking nearby.
Mental health diagnoses such as depression, general anxiety disorder (GAD), substance abuse
disorder, and ADD/ADHD to name a few have been identified within children to young adults
due to the absence of parent-child interaction in early childhood. Researcher Katsantonis and his
colleagues echo a similarly hypothesis as Takeuchi and his team. What is meant by this is, no
matter how one views the developmental process of a child, the process will be affected by
parent-child interaction; however, Takeuchi et al., dives directly into the development of negative
mental health due to the absence of parent-child interaction. “It is a well-known fact that
familial factors have been connected to multiple developmental outcomes and can exert either a
protective or harmful influence on children’s mental health symptoms (Bayer et al.,
2011; Katsantonis & Symonds, 2023)” (Katsantonis, 2023).
Katsantonis research bring to the forefront not just the destruction of cognitive
development early on but the lifespan of mental health problems that plague adults that did not
experience positive parent-child interaction. In Katsantonis et al studies, there is an introduction
of specificity to parent-child interaction. Katsantonis speaks of parent-child closeness and
parent-child conflict, both of which are two dimensions of parent-child interaction. The two
dimensions present two different parenting styles that generate two very different outcomes.
“Parent–child conflict refers to quarrels, disagreements, and conflict emotions (e.g.,
anger; Laursen et al., 1998). In contrast, parent–child closeness is very similar to the concept of
attachment, which includes secure relationships with parents characterized by warmth, caring,
and communication (Ge et al., 2009; Yan et al., 2019)” (Katsantonis, 2023).
Nonetheless, researchers have observed and collected data that has shown the
development of mental health within children that fall into the category of parent-child closeness
and parent-child conflict, but yet still develop mental health problems. What researchers are
examining more closely is the living examples parents are presenting to their children very early
on, as those “templates” if you will may be in need of revisions. Can a mother that is verbally
abusive and disconnected be just as negatively impactful as a smoothing mother that is teaching
their child to be continuously dependent?
Looking at the presented question above, it is not a matter of pointing out good and bad
parenting styles but understanding that constructive parent-child interaction clarity is needed
even for the most loving of parents. Parents are there to assist their children with navigating
through emotions, helping them to understand what they are feeling and how to bring context to
it. In doing this, the “template” is being developed in a manner that will enable the child to
better deal with stressful situations, identify toxicity, better control emotion, etc. “Parents play a
pivotal role in supporting and promoting emotion regulation during early childhood” (Havinga et
al., pg. 1155, 2019).
Besides ensuring that a parent is understanding of just how important their interaction is
with their child, researchers are also presenting within cross-sectional and longitudinal studies
the importance of parents being aware of their mental health. If a parent is unaware of their
mental health, then they may also be unaware of how their condition is impacting their cognitive
development of their child’s. The line of thinking also relates to parents that are aware of a
mental condition and chooses not to address it, leaving their child subject to harmful parent-child
interaction.
“Depression in parents increases the development of depressive symptoms in (very)
young children amongst other factors through influencing parenting practices” (Havinga et al.,
pg. 1155, 2019). For example, postpartum depression are giving birth is critical for both the
mother and the child. This is were the external parent-child interaction begins and if it is
disrupted this early on, long-term negative cognitive development is at a high risk. “These
disturbances in early mother–infant interactions were found to predict poorer infant cognitive
outcome at18 months (Murray & Cooper, 2003) and later time-points such as 7 years (Kim-
Cohen, Moffitt, Taylor,Pawlby, & Caspi, 2005)” (Swain et al., pg. 268, 2007).
Conclusion
With decades of research continuously providing data that shows just how important the
parent-child interaction really is to cognitive development, researchers can aim to assist parents
with developing constructive parent-child skills and tools at the most critical time of their child’s
life. New discoveries on brain development in the realm of parent-child interaction will invoke
the nature vs. nurture age-old debate. Researchers are learning by way of cross-sectional and
longitudinal studies how vulnerable a child remains until adolescence into adulthood. The
collected data will help extend our preview beyond what has becoming the obvious in mental
health disorders develop. The Word of God reminds followers to obtain understanding in all that
they do and so in this area of research, researcher such as I will continue to seek to strengthen the
constructive parent-child interaction. “Getting wisdom is the wisest thing you can do!
And whatever else you do, develop good judgment” (Prvb. 4:7, New Living
Translation).
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