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Introduction
Lawrence Kohlberg, influenced by the works of Jean Piaget on moral development, believed in
constructivism deeming that people played an active role in their own development. Kohlberg identified
three distinct levels of moral reasoning each with two sub-stages based on how an individual’s reasons
about moral dilemmas (McLeod, 2013; Moshman, 2011). Levels one, two, and three are the pre-
conventional, conventional, and post-conventional morality levels, respectively, with the late pre-
conventional and conventional levels corresponding to pre-adolescent and adolescent development. Level
one contains stages 1 and 2 titled, obedience and punishment orientation and individualism and exchange,
respectively. Level two contains stages 3 and 4: good interpersonal relationships and maintaining social
order, respectively. Finally, level 3, the most controversial level, contains levels 5 and 6: social contract
and individual rights and universal principles, respectively. More about these level and sub-stages can be
read in our textbook.
In addition, prosocial behavior is defined as voluntary behavior intended to benefit a person with
regard of self-interest (Eisenberg, Morris, McDaniel, & Spinard, 2009). Similarly, altruistic behavior is
defined as voluntary behavior intended to benefit a person without regard of self-interest. According to
Eisenberg and colleagues (2009), as a child enters pre-adolescence and adolescence, the [pre]teenager can
conceptualize the importance of understanding another’s perspective for sympathy, other oriented social
behaviors, and higher-level moral reasoning leading to more prosocial and altruistic tendencies (stage 2 of
Kohlberg’s theory). Also, the advances in social problem-solving skills and interpersonal negotiation
skills are noted within adolescence while by late adolescence, a teenager is defined in terms of social and
psychological aspects of the self and morality is a major contributor of social interactions (stages 3 and 4
of Kohlberg’s theory) (Eisenberg et al., 2009).
There are some determining factors of prosocial/altruistic behaviors that vary throughout
adolescence such as age, consistency, and familial and peer interactions. These factors can either promote
or discourage self-regulation, social competence, self-esteem, grades/motivation, risky behavior,
attachment, involvement in extracurricular activities, family cohesion, moral discussion, and religion
(Eisenberg et al., 2009). However, for this discussion board, solely gender roles in prosocial behavior will
be mentioned as a source of dynamism in prosocial behavior. The stereotype of gender roles in prosocial
behaviors is that females are more altruistic than males throughout childhood and adolescence. Although
true based on cultural idiosyncrasies, males should be more encouraged to portray altruistic and prosocial
behavior (Eisenberg et al., 2009).
Example
As one reads the biography of any celebrity (in pre-adolescence, adolescence, or post-
adolescence), one will come across a section titled “philanthropy,” where the prosocial/altruistic
behaviors and actions of that celebrity are cohesively written. But, why do celebrities take part in such
behavior? How does this impact and encourage juvenile generations to take part in volunteer events,
fundraisers, and to donate? According to Forbes (2008), if celebrities impart in prosocial behavior it is
because it provides a better image for them, the younger generation will want to become involved as well.
Also according to the Forbes (2012), the thirty most philanthropic celebrities to date are mostly males that
donate hundreds of thousands to millions of dollars to organization! Turning the tables, companies also
have been gaining attentions for their prosocial contributions like monetary donations (cause-related
movement), fundraisers, or volunteer events. Their participation can benefit them by not only presenting
favorable images of themselves to customers, but also an increase in product visibility and sales (Chang
& Chen, 2019).
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Word of Encouragement
“…and He who searches the hearts knows what the mind of the spirit is because He intercedes for the
saints according to the will of God” (Romans 8:27, New American Standard Version). What Paul is
stating here is that God searches our hearts; He knows us from the inside-out. Whether we perform
actions for the appreciation of others or for the appreciation of God, He knows this and he will guide our
hearts towards His will.
My questions to you fellow classmates are:
In this age of consumerism and the need of approval from others, do you think celebrities and
organizations impart in prosocial behavior to help needy foundations/non-profits/events, boost their ego,
or both? Also, do you find it alarming that many male celebrities are more prosocial than their
counterparts based on Forbes list?
(Antunes, 2012; Randall, 2008)
Antunes, A. (2012). The 30 most generous celebrities. Retrieved March 29, 2019, from
https://www.forbes.com/sites/andersonantunes/2012/01/11/the-30-most-generous-
celebrities/#41b1fc7e4994
Chang, C.-C., & Chen, P.-Y. (2019). Which maximizes donations: Charitable giving as an incentive or
incentives for charitable giving? Journal of Business Research, 97, 65–75.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2018.12.046
Eisenberg, N., Morris, A. S., McDaniel, B., & Spinard, T. (2009). Responding in adolescence. In
Handbook of Adolescent Psychology (pp. 229–265).
McLeod, S. (2013). Kohlberg’s stages of moral development.
Moshman, D. (2011). Kohlberg’s stages of moral development. In Adolescent Psychological
Development: Rational, Morality, and Development (3rd ed.).
Randall, D. (2008). The truth about celebrity giving. Retrieved March 29, 2019, from
https://www.forbes.com/2008/11/24/oprah-philanthropy-celebrity-biz-media-
cz_dkr_1124charitycelebs.html#4a90dd195dbf
