PSYC 565
ARTICLE REVIEW ASSIGNMENT INSTRUCTIONS
1. APA reference of the article being reviewed.
Sankalaite, S., Huizinga, M., Warreyn, P., Dewandeleer, J., & Baeyens, D. (2023). The
association between working memory, teacher-student relationship, and academic
performance in primary school children. Frontiers in Psychology, 14.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1240741
2. What is the research problem that is being investigated? What is the purpose of the
research being conducted?
The research problem being investigated is the interplay between teacher-student
relationship (TSR) quality, working memory (WM) skills, and academic performance in
children's development. The study examines the role of working memory (WM) skills as
a predictor of academic achievement, particularly in reading and arithmetic outcomes.
The purpose of the research being conducted is to understand the associations between
these constructs and their potential bidirectional and temporal nature. Another purpose of
the research is to contribute to the understanding of how teacher-student relationships and
working memory skills influence children's academic outcomes and to provide insights
for developing effective interventions in educational settings.
3. What is the research question?
"What is the nature of the relationship between teacher-student relationship (TSR)
quality, working memory (WM) skills, and academic performance in children's
development, and how do these factors interact over time?”
4. How many sources are used in the introduction? List each one. Tell how many sentences
are written about each source.
Thank you
5. Outline the introduction (Divide the introduction into thematic groups with their own
subheadings—and include what information is provided about each source. The end of
your outline should point you to the research question and design—these need to be
included in your outline).
I. Background Information
Overview of Early Relationships in Education
Discussion on the significance of early relationships between teachers and
students in shaping cognitive and academic development.
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Emphasis on the importance of positive teacher-student relationship (TSR)
quality.
II. Working Memory and Academic Achievement
Role of Working Memory (WM) in Academic Performance
Explanation of WM as a strong predictor of academic achievement, particularly in
reading and arithmetic outcomes.
III. Associations Between TSR Quality, WM Skills, and Academic Performance
Observational Studies on TSR Quality and WM Skills
Summary of previous research highlighting associations between TSR quality,
WM skills, and academic performance.
Mention of studies suggesting correlations between positive TSR quality and
improved WM skills, leading to enhanced academic outcomes.
IV. Bidirectional Relationships and Temporality
Bidirectional Nature of Relationships
Discussion on the potential bidirectional relationships between TSR quality, WM
skills, and academic performance.
Consideration of how improvements in one area may lead to enhancements in
others, and vice versa, over time.
V. Purpose of the Research
Research Objectives
Explanation of the study's aims, including understanding the interplay between
TSR quality, WM skills, and academic performance.
Mention of the investigation into potential bidirectional relationships and
temporal aspects.
VI. Research Question
Main Research Question
Formulation of the central research question addressing the nature of the
relationships between TSR quality, WM skills, and academic performance, and
their interactions over time.
Mention of potential sub-questions that delve into specific aspects of the main
research question.
VII. Research Design
Overview of Research Design
Brief explanation of the proposed research methodology, such as observational
studies or longitudinal analysis.
Mention of data collection methods and analysis techniques to address the
research question.
6. What are two (or more) theories that are discussed in the introduction? How are they used
to motivate (or set up) the research question? Do the authors agree or disagree with these
theories?
There are two theories discussed in the article.
The first theory is the Early Relationships in Education Influence Cognitive and
Academic Development. This theory suggests that the quality of early relationships
between teachers and students plays a crucial role in shaping children's cognitive and
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academic development. Positive teacher-student relationship (TSR) quality is believed to
foster an environment conducive to learning and intellectual growth. This theory sets up
the research question by implying that understanding the dynamics of TSR quality and its
impact on cognitive and academic outcomes is essential for educational improvement.
The second theory discussed is theWorking Memory (WM) Predicts Academic
Achievement. According to this theory, working memory (WM) is a strong predictor of
academic achievement, particularly in areas such as reading and arithmetic. WM skills
are thought to be fundamental for successful learning and problem-solving in academic
contexts. This theory motivates the research question by suggesting that investigating the
relationship between TSR quality, WM skills, and academic performance can provide
insights into improving educational outcomes.
The authors likely agree with these theories, as they are using them as foundational
principles to drive their research question. If their hypothesis is correct and supported by
evidence, it would align with these theories. Specifically, if the research findings
demonstrate significant associations between TSR quality, WM skills, and academic
performance, it would support both theories. Conversely, if the findings were inconsistent
with these theories, it would prompt a reassessment of their validity or require further
exploration to understand the discrepancies. However, without direct access to the
authors' specific stance, it can be inferred that their research aims to validate and build
upon these theories rather than contradict them.
7. What previous research (not theories) have been conducted on this topic? How do these
previous studies relate to the current research question?
In previous research cited in the introduction, several observational studies have
examined the associations between teacher-student relationship (TSR) quality, working
memory (WM) skills, and academic performance in children's development.
One study found correlations between positive TSR quality and improved WM skills,
leading to enhanced academic outcomes. Another study suggested that children with WM
problems may benefit from interventions focusing on improving their relationships with
teachers. Additionally, there is evidence indicating that interventions targeting WM may
also have positive effects on children's academic performance.
These findings are relevant to the current research question as they provide insights into
the potential relationships between TSR quality, WM skills, and academic performance.
Specifically, they suggest that positive TSR quality can contribute to improved WM
skills, which in turn may lead to better academic outcomes. Furthermore, interventions
targeting either TSR quality or WM skills have been shown to have positive effects on
academic performance, indicating the importance of considering both factors in
educational interventions. Therefore, the current research aims to build upon and further
investigate these associations, potentially providing additional evidence to support the
existing findings and inform educational practices.
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8. Why is the proposed research the logical next step (that is—what rationale and
motivation) is there for this research? What hole in psychological knowledge is this study
following?
The authors likely argue that previous research has established correlations between TSR
quality, WM skills, and academic performance. Therefore, investigating the nature of
these relationships in more depth is a logical progression to build upon existing
knowledge. Given the potential bidirectional nature of these relationships, the authors
may argue that further exploration is needed to understand how TSR quality influences
WM skills and academic performance, and vice versa, over time.
The authors may suggest that understanding the associations between TSR quality, WM
skills, and academic performance can inform the development of interventions aimed at
improving educational outcomes, particularly for children with WM problems. It is likely
that the author highlight that while previous research has identified correlations between
these constructs, there is still a gap in understanding the underlying mechanisms and
temporal dynamics of these relationships. Therefore, this study aims to fill in this gap by
conducting more detailed investigations.
9. How is the research question operationalized? (First, identify the abstract constructs
being studied. Next identify the concrete way these are being observed or measured. This
should include your IV and DV.)
Abstract Constructs:
oTeacher-Student Relationship (TSR) Quality:
This refers to the overall quality of the relationship between teachers and
students, encompassing factors such as trust, communication, support, and
emotional connection.
oWorking Memory (WM) Skills:
This refers to the cognitive ability to temporarily hold and manipulate
information needed for complex cognitive tasks, such as problem-solving
and comprehension.
Operationalized Constructs:
oMeasurement of TSR Quality:
TSR quality may be measured using standardized questionnaires or
observational methods. For example, researchers may use surveys or
scales that assess students' perceptions of their relationship with their
teachers, focusing on aspects such as teacher support, warmth, trust, and
communication. Alternatively, observational methods may involve trained
observers evaluating the interactions between teachers and students in
classroom settings to assess the quality of the relationship.
oMeasurement of WM Skills:
WM skills are typically assessed using standardized cognitive tasks
designed to measure the ability to temporarily hold and manipulate
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information. Common tasks used to measure WM include digit span tasks,
where participants are asked to repeat sequences of numbers in forward or
backward order, and n-back tasks, where participants are required to
remember and update a sequence of stimuli. Performance on these tasks,
such as the number of items recalled or the accuracy of responses, serves
as an indicator of WM skills.
Independent Variable (IV): The independent variable in this research is the Teacher-
Student Relationship (TSR) Quality, which may be manipulated or observed across
different levels.
Dependent Variable (DV): The dependent variable in this research is Academic
Performance, which is typically measured using standardized assessments or grades in
subjects such as reading, mathematics, or overall academic achievement. The relationship
between TSR quality and academic performance, mediated by working memory skills, is
investigated to understand how TSR quality influences academic outcomes through its
effects on working memory.
By operationalizing these abstract constructs into concrete measures, the researchers can
quantitatively assess the relationships between TSR quality, WM skills, and academic
performance, providing empirical evidence to address the research question.
10. What is the research design? (I.e., between or within subjects, what type of statistical
tests were used, what were the levels of each variable?)
The research design used in the study likely involves a combination of observational and
correlational methods, given the nature of the research questions and the variables being
investigated.
Research Design:
The research design used in the study likely involved a combination of observational and
correlational methods, possibly with longitudinal elements to examine changes over time.
Here's an overview of the research design based on the provided information:
Type of Design:
The study likely employed a correlational design to investigate associations between
variables without manipulation of variables.
Variables:
Independent Variable (IV): The independent variable may include factors related to
teacher-student relationship (TSR) quality, such as perceptions of teacher support,
communication, and trust.
Dependent Variable (DV): The dependent variable is likely academic performance,
measured using standardized assessments or grades in subjects such as reading,
mathematics, or overall academic achievement.
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Mediating Variable: Working memory (WM) skills may serve as a mediating
variable, influencing the relationship between TSR quality and academic
performance.
Levels of Variables:
Levels of TSR quality may have been assessed based on varying levels of perceived
support, communication, and trust between teachers and students.
WM skills may have been measured based on varying levels of performance on
cognitive tasks assessing working memory capacity.
Academic performance may have been measured based on varying levels of
achievement in reading, mathematics, or other academic subjects.
11. Describe the results (but not their broader implications). Were the results significant?
Which ones? Do these support or not support the hypothesis?
The results indicate that each of the variables measured at baseline significantly and
strongly predicted their corresponding 5-month follow-up measurements. Additionally,
significant cross-lagged effects between variables were observed, suggesting predictive
relationships over time.
1. Perceived working memory (WM) problems at baseline predicted arithmetic
performance at Wave 3 (5-month follow-up).
2. Arithmetic performance at baseline predicted both perceived WM problems and
performance WM at the 5-month follow-up.
3. Conflict at baseline predicted closeness at the 5-month follow-up.
All of these findings were statistically significant, indicating that the relationships
observed were unlikely to have occurred by chance.
These results generally support the hypothesis that teacher-student relationship (TSR)
quality and working memory (WM) skills influence academic performance over time.
The significant predictive relationships between variables at baseline and their
corresponding outcomes at the 5-month follow-up suggest that TSR quality and WM
skills play important roles in shaping academic outcomes longitudinally.
12. Outline the discussion.
Summary of Results:
The discussion begins with a summary of the key findings, including the associations
between teacher-student relationship (TSR), working memory (WM), and academic
performance, as well as the temporal relationships observed over the study period.
Association between TSR and WM:
This section explores the implications of the significant association found between
TSR and WM, highlighting the importance of positive teacher-student relationships in
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supporting students' cognitive functioning and classroom behavior. The discussion
may reference previous studies that have also found similar associations, reinforcing
the validity of the current findings.
Temporal Relationships between TSR and WM:
The discussion delves into the temporal relationships observed between TSR and
WM, emphasizing the bidirectional influences over time. It discusses how WM-
related problematic behavior may impact TSR quality, and vice versa, providing
insights into the dynamic nature of teacher-student relationships and cognitive
functioning in the classroom.
Perceived WM vs. Actual WM Performance:
This section addresses the discrepancy between perceived WM, reported by teachers
and parents, and actual WM performance on tasks conducted in controlled
environments. It explores the implications of this finding for understanding the
relationship between TSR and student outcomes, suggesting that perceived WM may
play a more significant role in shaping teacher-student relationships.
TSR and Academic Performance:
The discussion examines the lack of significant associations between TSR and
academic performance at baseline, contrasting with previous research findings. It
considers potential explanations for this discrepancy, such as the limitations of the
academic performance tasks used in the study, and suggests directions for future
research to explore this relationship further.
Bidirectional Relationship between TSR and Academic Performance:
This section discusses the absence of a bidirectional relationship between TSR and
academic performance, contrary to expectations. It considers possible factors
contributing to this finding, such as the context-specific nature of academic
performance measures, and proposes avenues for future research to investigate
additional variables that may influence this relationship.
Integration of Findings with Previous Literature:
The discussion integrates the current study's findings with existing literature on TSR,
WM, and academic performance, highlighting both consistencies and inconsistencies
across studies. It synthesizes the contributions of the current study to the broader
body of research and identifies gaps in knowledge that warrant further investigation.
Implications for Interventions and Educational Practice:
This section outlines the practical implications of the study's findings for
interventions aimed at improving teacher-student relationships and supporting
students' cognitive and academic development. It discusses strategies for fostering
positive relationships in the classroom and addressing cognitive difficulties to
enhance student outcomes.
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13. What limitations are mentioned? Why are these limitations theoretically interesting?
The discussion acknowledges the limitations of the study, such as the reliance on teacher-
reported data and the use of academic performance tasks that may not fully capture
students' performance in real-life settings. It proposes recommendations for future
research to address these limitations and expand our understanding of the complex
interplay between TSR, WM, and academic performance.
The study acknowledges that teacher-reported data were used for both TSR quality and
children's WM-related problems. This reliance on subjective reports may introduce biases
and limitations, as teachers who have a closer relationship with the child may provide
more favorable ratings. This limitation is theoretically interesting because it highlights
the potential for subjective perceptions of teacher-student relationships to influence
research findings. It underscores the importance of considering multiple perspectives and
utilizing objective measures where possible to minimize bias.
The academic performance tasks used were highly structured and administered in stress-
free home environments, which may not fully capture students' performance in real
academic settings. This limitation is theoretically interesting because it raises questions
about the validity of academic performance measures and their ability to reflect students'
abilities and achievements in authentic learning environments. It highlights the need for
future research to explore alternative assessment methods that provide a more
comprehensive picture of students' academic performance.
The study found no bidirectional relationship between TSR and academic performance,
contrary to expectations and previous research findings. This limitation is theoretically
interesting because it challenges existing assumptions about the causal relationships
between TSR quality and academic outcomes. It suggests that factors beyond teacher-
student relationships may play a more significant role in influencing academic
performance, such as student engagement, motivation, and participation in classroom
activities. The study acknowledges the potential for method variance, where variables
measured using the same method may show stronger correlations than variables
measured through different methods. This limitation is theoretically interesting because it
highlights the importance of considering the measurement methods used and their
potential impact on research findings. It underscores the need for researchers to employ
diverse measurement approaches to triangulate findings and minimize methodological
biases.
14. What future research is anticipated? Why is the future research theoretically interesting?
Future research could utilize objective measures of TSR quality and WM skills to
complement subjective teacher-reported data. Objective measures, such as observations
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of classroom interactions or neurocognitive assessments, would provide a more
comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the relationship between TSR, WM, and
academic performance. This research would be theoretically important as it addresses the
limitation of relying solely on subjective reports and offers insights into the underlying
mechanisms linking TSR and cognitive functioning. Future research could employ multi-
method approaches to assess TSR, WM, and academic performance across different
contexts and measurement modalities. By combining qualitative and quantitative
methods, researchers could capture the complexity of teacher-student relationships and
cognitive functioning in diverse educational settings. This research would be theoretically
important as it enhances the ecological validity of findings and provides a more holistic
understanding of the factors that influence student learning and achievement.
15. What is the Eigenfactor of the journal that published this article? Is it high or low? Do
you think that the impact factor influences the quality of the article (or vise-versa)?
16. How many times has this article been cited?
After another visit to the Web of Science site, I was still unsuccessful with finding
the accurate total of how many times this article was cited. An outside source
reported that this journal was sited one time.
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