CROSS_CULTURAL_TRANSITION_SUCCESS.pdf.pdf

Running head: CROSS CULTURAL TRANSITION SUCCESS 1

Cross Cultural Transition Success: Personality Variables Influencing Cross-Cultural Transitions

According to the Perceptions of a Population of Third Culture Kids

A Senior Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment

of the requirements for graduation

in the Honors Program

Liberty University

______________________________

______________________________

Beth Sites, Ph.D.

Committee Member

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Honors Assistant Director

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Date

Abstract

Cross-cultural transitions are often difficult for individuals of any background, and are associated

with such difficulties as missing friends and family, ignorance of one’s home culture, culture

shock, and cultural homelessness. These issues have led researchers to seek out those factors that

are common to resilient individuals. Third Culture Kids are a unique population that commonly

experiences periods of adjustment and transition, and are a focus of this study. From the literature,

several protective trait-based features have been identified: self-efficacy, self-esteem,

considered critically important, while ethnic identity and cross-culture had minimal importance.

These results, though having limited generalizability, could be useful to laypeople and mental

health professionals seeking to meet the needs of TCKs, and for parents seeking to raise resilient

TCKs.

Cross Cultural Transition Success: A Study of Personality Variables Influencing Cross-Cultural

Transitions in a Population of Third Culture Kids

In a rapidly globalizing world, expatriation and repatriation are increasingly common

features of work in international business, politics, and non-profits. In the midst of this

movement is an increasing awareness of the difficulties that are associated with cross-cultural

transitions. In order to avoid issues related to burnout and culture shock, research with

application toward navigating complex cross-cultural interplay is becoming more relevant.

Third Culture Kid Defined

Outside of the expatriate community, the phenomenon of the Third Culture Kid, or TCK,

remains largely understudied. Warna Gillies’ 1998 article on education and Third Culture Kids

described this population succinctly: “Third Culture Kids (TCKs) are the children of diplomats,

missionaries, business persons, and military personnel who live outside of their native country

for a period of time” (p. 36). Pollock and Van Reken (2001), pioneers of cross-cultural studies

with decades of experience working with TCKs, offered a more comprehensive definition:

A Third Culture Kid (TCK) is a person who has spent a significant part of his or her

developmental years outside the parents’ culture. The TCK builds relationships with all

of the cultures (in which he or she is engaged), while not having full ownership in any.

Although elements from each culture are assimilated into the TCKs life experience, the

sense of belonging is in relationship to others of similar background. (p.19)

TCKs are most commonly children of overseas military personnel, government officials,

and missionaries/Non-Governmental Organization (NGO) workers. The term “Third Culture”

refers to the tendency of people growing up in this environment to synthesize features of their

national/ethnic home culture and adopted culture to create a new Third Culture identity. This

“Third Culture” or “interstitial culture” is greater than the sum of the parts of home and host

variety of sources of cultural input that at times can obfuscate each other. At the same time, some

even struggle to fully integrate into the culture that they grow up in. For example, the child of an

American missionary working in the nation of Senegal may struggle to connect with American

peers, yet not feel completely welcome in the local culture because of external differences and

limited assimilation. Thus, TCKs tend to relate best to other TCKs and individuals with their

shared experiences (Gillies, 1998).

The latter idea has been supported by recent qualitative research. Through an

autobiographical Collage Life-story Elicitation Technique, facilitators have students visually

construct their experiences by having them find pictures that represent their experience, tell a

story that is connected to the image, and relate the image back to the self while elaborating on

and comparing and contrasting the image with their own experience. In a 2014 study by Lijadi

and Van Schalkwyk, it was found that the majority of TCK participants typically chose to use

magazines pictures that used a language that they were most familiar with. However, only 10

participants were used, making it difficult to generalize this theme to all TCKs. Additionally, it is

possible that a preference for the familiar is a feature that is common to most individuals, not

only TCKs.

Pollock and Van Reken (2001) identified two other key features of TCKs, “Being raised

and an identity that is closely connected to the expatriating body that they or their parents

represent.

Qualitative research based on Bandura’s Triadic Reciprocality Model identified three

main social cognitive domains operating in the lives of TCKs: Environment, personal attributes,

and overt behaviors. A TCK’s identity can be understood as an interaction of external factors that

affect and shape certain traits and behaviors. Common external environmental features include

geographical distance from parents (in the case of TCKs attending university in their home

country), and changing educational experiences (attending a variety of co-ops, local schools, and

international schools). Regarding personal attributes, it is typical for TCKs to recognize the

shared experience of acculturative stress, especially when adjusting to their home culture (Bikos

et al., 2014).

Benefits of a Cross-Cultural Lifestyle

TCKs may benefit from their experiences in several ways. For example, TCKs score

significantly higher in social sensitivity assessments (Lyttle, Barker, & Cornwell, 2011),

suggesting that experience in a wide variety of cultural settings could be connected to a greater

sensitivity to the perceptions of people from different backgrounds. It could be that multicultural

transitions, speak multiple languages, connect with those of diverse backgrounds, develop

heightened cultural competence, adopt an inclusive worldview and a personal awareness of

global issues, and cross-cultural enrichment (Moore & Barker, 2012; Pollock & Van Reken,

2001). A level of familiarity with a number of different cultural settings allows one the potential

to feel at home in any environment. Additionally, an understanding of the points of view of

people from other cultures tends to grant one greater empathy and sympathy. This is consistent

with a Recognition of Prior Learning approach of Honneth’s Recognition Theory, in which

recognition of others, especially in a participatory sense, has a mutually positive effect on self-

esteem (Sandberg & Kubiak, 2013).

In many ways, the above variables can be summed up in the concept of cultural

competence. Cultural competence consists of, "Knowledge of others; knowledge of self; skills to

interpret and relate; skills to discover and/or to interact; valuing others’ values, beliefs, and

behaviors; and relativizing one’s self” (Byram, 1997, p. 34). TCKs exemplify these values due to

their lived experience aside locals from their host culture and other TCKs, leading to a greater

capacity for placing oneself in a greater context.

Challenges of a Cross-Cultural Lifestyle

(Moore & Barker, 2012). Having membership in many cultures is connected to not having

ownership in any, leading to a sense of instability.

Significant sources of difficulty in students' transition to their parents’ culture were

missing friends and family, feeling misunderstood, and the pressure to keep in touch with friends

from previous homes (Hervey, 2009). Pollock and Van Reken (2001) identified various

challenges of the TCK lifestyle in their book, such as confused loyalties in national and

international debates, heightened sensitivity and emotional pain in response to international

crises, and ignorance of home culture, which at times can be construed as unpatriotic.

However, it is possible that more experience with cross-cultural transitions predicts better

overall adjustments, based on the finding that those participants who had made 11+ moves had

significantly better adjustment levels than those with less than 10 (Hervey, 2009). The latter

study also showed a negative correlation between the amount of time spent with friends from

their home culture (parent country, i.e. United States/Canada) prior to moving to their home

culture, and difficulty adjusting and making friends (Hervey, 2009). Having experience relating

to people from the “destination culture” may have the effect of giving the sojourner practice in

building relationships and familiarity with certain aspects of a new cultural setting before

moving there. This may help sojourning TCKs become more comfortable taking ownership of

highly transient lifestyle (Gillies, 1998; Lijadi & Van Schalkwyk, 2014) Feelings of insecurity

often stem from a lack of familiarity with the home culture (Gillies, 1998), and these feelings

often lead to cultural homelessness.

Cultural homelessness is common in individuals of mixed ethnicity or culture in those

who do not identify with the cultural framework of any one group (Hoersting & Jenkins, 2011;

Vivero & Jenkins, 1999). This is characteristic of many TCKs, as they grow up among different

cultures, yet have innate or acquired characteristics that prevent them from becoming a full

member of any culture. The cultural homelessness experience among TCKs is nearly identical to

those of mixed race or ethnicity (Navarrete & Jenkins, 2011). Individuals who come from

multiethnic, multiracial, and multicultural background are significantly higher in cultural

Features of Successful Cross-Cultural Adjustment: Personality and Situational Variables

Of particular interest in this study is the effect of personality variables on cross-cultural

adjustment. Of the Big Five personality traits, extroversion, agreeableness, and openness have

been correlated with general living, interaction, and work adjustment in new settings (Huang,

Chi, & Lawler, 2005; Shaffer et al., 2006; Ward, Leong, & Low, 2016; Wilson et al., 2013).

Conscientiousness (Ward et al., 2016; Wilson et al., 2013) and openness (Ward et al., 2016) are

also positively correlated with sociocultural adaptation, while neuroticism is negatively

such as discrimination and familiarity with host culture and host culture language. In situations

of perceived discrimination, sociocultural adjustment is difficult because external factors

imposed by the host community prevent the newcomer from assimilating. In contrast, a previous

understanding of distinct features and languages can essentially “jump-start” the process of

sociocultural adjustment for a newcomer (Wilson et al., 2013).

TCKs and other individuals who grew up in a culture that is different from their culture

of birth or origin, though showing above average social sensitivity and cultural competence,

often struggle with acculturation problems and cultural homelessness. Frequent cross-cultural

adjustments due to a transient lifestyle often result in a strong sense of homesickness and

psychological stress that can be attributed to culture shock. Navigating the stress of culture shock

involves developing healthy coping mechanisms and social skills that can be practically applied

to the relevant setting. Certain features such as cultural flexibility, cultural intelligence, cross-

cultural self-efficacy and social initiative, and personality variables such as openness,

agreeableness, and extroversion are correlated with healthy cross-cultural transitions. The present

study is similar in focus to the 2006 study by Shaffer et al. that was concerned with identifying

several factors of expatriate success. These factors were said to be affected by a number of

personality traits, such as emotional stability and agreeableness, and cross-cultural behavioral

Hypothesis 2: The constructs which will rank significantly lower than average in perceived

importance will include acquisition of ethnic identity, acquisition of cross-cultural identity, and

conscientiousness. The remaining constructs will not significantly differ from the mean.

Method

Participants

The sample population was a group of Missionary Kids (MKs), aged 18-22, at a private

American university. Each participant had already, or was in the process of, adjusting to life in

the United States as a full-time student. Each participant attended mandatory classes as part of

the requirements of the school’s full-tuition scholarship for MKs. The researcher’s relationship

with the director of the MK Scholars program, who facilitates services and provides counseling

for MKs, and personal identity as an MK allowed access to these classes as an observant and

participant. Participants were recruited through an email sent out from the LU Shepherd’s office

Measure

A 30-item survey (Appendix) was administered to the participants for the purpose of

assessing which factors the sample population considers most important for a successful cross-

cultural transition. Given that the sample had recent experiences with cross-cultural transitions,

its perception of what makes up a successful adjustment carries particular relevance. The survey

et al., 2013), agreeableness (Huang et al., 2005; Shaffer et al., 2006; Ward, et al. 2016; Wilson et

al., 2013), conscientiousness (Ward et al., 2016; Wilson et al., 2013), social connectedness

(Hervey, 2009; Huang et al., 2005; Li & Gasser, 2005; Pollock & Van Reken, 2001), ethnic

identity (identification with one’s ethnic group; Hoersting & Jenkins, 2011, Li & Gasser, 2005;

Navarrete & Jenkins, 2011; Ward & Kennedy, 1993), cross-cultural identity (identification with

a Third Culture identity) (Hoersting & Jenkins, 2011; Navarrete & Jenkins, 2011), emotional

stability (Shaffer et al., 2006; Van der Zee & Van Outdenhoven, 2013), or cultural flexibility

(Shaffer et al., 2006; Wilson et al., 2013) on the success of one’s cross-cultural sojourning

experiences.

The survey was reviewed by faculty members at the university in which this study was

conducted, and field tested with peers of the researcher to ensure that questions were

understandable. IRB approval was obtained in November of 2017, and each question was tested

to ensure that it accurately measured the variable that it was intended to measure. Questions were

organized as follows: Questions 1, 11, and 21 assess self-efficacy; 2, 12, and 22 assess self-

esteem; 3, 13, and 23 assess extroversion, 4, 14, and 24 agreeableness; 5, 15, and 25

conscientiousness; 6, 16, and 26 social connectedness; 7, 17, and 27 ethnic identity; 8, 18, and 28

back to a third-party email address, and returned to the researcher from the latter source as a

collection of anonymous attachments. Though the researcher was unable to determine the total

number of possible participants, 15 surveys were returned. Answers were coded to a score from

1-4, with answers indicating “Not At All Important” earning a score of 1, “Sometimes

Important” earning a score of 2, “Important” earning a score of 3, and “Very Important” earning

a score of 4. For each participant, total scores of questions assessing each construct were

calculated. For example, a participant who gave answers of “Very Important” (4 points),

“Important” (3 points), and “Important” (3 points) for questions 1, 11, and 21, which assess the

importance of self-efficacy, the participant’s total self-efficacy importance score would add up to

10. The highest maximum score for a construct was 12, indicating answers of 4 to all three

relevant questions, while the lowest possible score was 3, indicating answers of 1 to all three

relevant questions. Individual scores closer to 12 indicate that a participant gives a construct a

high level of importance in making a cross-cultural transition, while individual scores closer to 3

indicate that a participant gives a factor a low level of importance in making a cross-cultural

transition. A collective mean score for all individual scores was calculated, and compared to the

mean score of each individual variable using a one-sample t-test, in order to determine if

particular variables showed significant differences in means to the overall sample population. In

clinical significance. Thus, it was not the case that “low” average scores indicated objectively

low levels of importance toward successful cross-cultural transitions, only low importance in

comparison with other given factors in the survey.

Results

The mean score across all factors, for the population as a whole, was 9.01. Mean scores

for individual variables can be seen in Table 1.

Table 1

of MKs

Table 2

One-sample t-test for a group of variables relating to cross-cultural transitions for a sample of

MKs

Self-Efficacy

The mean score of the self-efficacy factor was 9.93, with a standard deviation of 1.438, and

standard error of .371. This score was significantly higher than the mean, t(14)=2.488, p=.026.

Self-Esteem

The mean score of the self-esteem factor was 9.93, with a standard deviation of 2.052, and

standard error of .530. This score was not significantly different from the mean, t(14)=1.743,

p=ns.

Extroversion

standard error of .431. This score was significantly higher than the mean, t(14)=2.919, p=.011.

Conscientiousness

The mean score of the conscientiousness factor was 8.93, with a standard deviation of 1.335, and

standard error of .345. This score was not significantly different from the mean, t(14)=-.222,

p=ns.

Social Connectedness

The mean score of the social connectedness factor was 8.33, with a standard deviation of 1.718

and standard error of .444. This score was not significantly different from the mean, t(14)=-

1.525, p=ns.

Ethnic Identity

The mean score of the ethnic identity factor was 7.13, with a standard deviation of 1.685, and

standard error of .435. This score was significantly below the mean, t(14)=-4.314, p=001.

Cross-Cultural Identity

The mean score of the cross-cultural identity factor was 7.80, with a standard deviation of 2.178,

and standard error of .562. This score was significantly below the mean, t(14)=-2.152, p=.049.

Emotional Stability

The mean score of the emotional stability factor was 9.67, with a standard deviation of

1.195, with a standard error of .309. This score was significantly above the mean, t(14)=3.208,

p=.006.

In comparison with the overall mean of 9.01, self-efficacy, agreeableness, and cultural

flexibility were significantly higher. Thus, hypothesis 1 was partially supported in that self-

efficacy and cultural flexibility were significantly higher than average. However, emotional

stability was not significantly different from the mean, and agreeableness was significantly

higher.

In contrast, extroversion, strong ethnic identity, and strong cross-cultural identity were all

significantly below the mean. Hypothesis 2 was partially supported in that ethnic identity and

cross-cultural identity were significantly lower than average. However, conscientiousness was

not significantly different from the mean, and extroversion was significantly lower.

Discussion

Application

Just as is the case with all mental health clients, raising well-adjusted TCKs requires a

special effort to meet both perceived and real needs. The results of this study are practically

applicable to counselors and laypeople working to build resilience in repatriating TCKs and

cultural adjustment as found in the 2013 meta-analysis by Wilson et al. These results are also

indirectly consistent with Li & Gasser’s (2005) correlation between self-efficacy and contact

with host nationals (which was in turn highly correlated with successful sociocultural

adaptation). Correlations found in a 2016 study of the relationship between Big Five personality

traits and cross-cultural transitions which indicate the importance of agreeableness (Ward et al.),

and an analysis by Shaffer et al. (2006) on specific personality traits and socio-behavioral

competencies indicated that cultural flexibility is a strong predictor of cross-cultural adjustment.

From the sample of TCKs being studied, it could be inferred that an emphasis on self-

efficacy, encouraging interpersonal positivity and agreeableness, and developing cultural

flexibility are important for cross-cultural transitions. This could involve using motivational

techniques and integrating readiness to change scales, teaching and modeling social skills that

are important for the destination culture, or educating individuals about cultural features of their

new destination to mitigate the effects of culture shock and help them develop greater cultural

flexibility.

Limitations

It is important to note that the results from this study do not necessarily indicate objective

standards of the importance of particular socio-cognitive factors toward making successful cross-

population of TCKs. Future studies that assess similar constructs should seek to obtain a larger

response of self-report surveys in order to increase validity and reduce standard error.

These results should also not be generalized to high school students or younger children.

Future research should replicate this study with different groups in order to compare the

perceptions of younger students or older adults with the perceptions of the sample in this study.

Different results could carry different implications for interventions, depending on age. Different

sub-populations of TCKs may yield different results, as the sample population in this study may

only represent a particular group of TCKs that may differ in key ways from the overall

population of TCKs. Thus, further research comparing the perceptions of MKs and other TCKs

(for example, children of military personnel or children of diplomats) could help researchers