President Harry Truman
President Harry Truman was one of the U.S. presidents who became famous for his
involvement in the Middle East. During his eight years in office, he confronted unprecedented
challenges in international affairs. Truman was known for his ability to please America’s status
of power in the Middle East while promoting peace and freedom for the region. Truman led the
country during challenging transitions and wars across three global regions. One of his attempts
was to support the restoration of the region affected by the creation of the Jewish state through
the support of the United Nations, hoping to establish peace in the area among Jews and Arabs.
Truman trusted that diplomatic intervention through the U.N. would lead to a peaceful regional
agreement. It was through the American mediator Ralph Bunche that in 1949, a peace agreement
between Israel and the neighboring Arab states like Egypt, Lebanon, Jordan, and Syria gave the
start for future treaties among the neighbors (Oren, pg. 506, 2011). It is important to note that
although Americans had the illusion that both groups would be able to live peacefully, everyone
forgot that Arabs in Palestine had not been given a chance to form their leadership under the
British-controlled period and had no support to establish its government. Arabs were treated as
incapable of leading their people and living peacefully in the eyes of Britain. They had no
official representation nor status as colonized people. Instead, they had no political
representation like their neighboring states and had no chance to form their national leadership
(Devine et al., 2005).
Truman became president during a period of military-political issues between the end of
World War II and the beginning of the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet
Union. While continuing to support peace and freedom in the Middle East, Truman also searched
for ways to remove the Soviet Union's control in Iran by creating diplomatic relationships with
influential figures like Mohammad Mossadegh, who claimed the nationalism of the Iranian oil
company. Truman was caught between the rise of communism in the area through the Soviet
Union and the rise of nationalism in the region, which got some support back home from
Americans who believed that Mossadegh was neutral in his approach to the area. During his time
in office, Truman managed to create and maintain relationships in the Middle East as he searched
for the protection of the new state of Israel (Oren, pg. 507, 2011).
Scholars believe what happened before and during Truman’s influence and leadership
still affects and reflects the region’s conflicts in the twenty-first century. Truman inherited the
national security team of the former U.S. President, which was President Roosevelt. Truman
eventually transformed national security and its personnel during his administration, but he also
reorganized the nation’s military by passing the National Security Act in 1947. The new law had
three primary purposes: first, to unify the Army, Navy, and Air Force under a National Military
Establishment (NME), which the Secretary of Defense would lead. Two years later, the National
Military Establishment was branded the Department of Defense, which became an executive
division. Consequently, the National Security Act gave birth to the Central Intelligence Agency,
which became the nation’s leading arm of the nation’s intelligence system. The National
Security Agency became one of the primary instruments to advise future American presidents in
American Foreign Policy in the Middle East and worldwide (Hamby, August 28, 2023).
However, the effects of former presidents' policies had already impacted the Middle East
in a way that was not easy to reverse. Truman was caught between the North Korean and South
Korean war, the disestablishment of the Soviet Union, and the creation of the Israel state.
Between 1945 and 1948, Truman struggled with the conflicts between Jews and Arabs in
Palestine under British control of the region. The British government failed to bring an
agreement between the two groups and eventually passed the region's power to the United
Nations. In 1947, the United Nations offered to divide the area into two states, one for the
majority Arab population and the other for the minority Jewish community. Still, Arabs were
against the idea of giving away their land for the creation of a national home for Jews. The
violent and harmful insurgents that started back then initiated a war between the two groups for
decades to come (Hamby, August 28, 2023).
Truman was caught between his personal beliefs of bringing Jews to their homeland in
Palestine and supporting the proposal of the U.N. separation of the region into two states or to
maintain the country away from the conflict and focus on access to oil as an American priority as
this conflict involved both domestic and foreign policies. Truman knew that his involvement in
the region’s conflict could require a deeper participation of the American military in the Middle
East. His actionsCcould harm the relationship between Arab leaders and American foreign policy
among neighboring Arab countries. Nonetheless, Truman commanded the American delegation
at the U.N. to support the split plan of Palestine. Under the pressure of advisors, Turman would
make a mistake that scholars believe has influenced the region's future. Apparently, under
pressure from his advisors, Truman authorized a plan to establish Israel as a United Nations trust
territory rather than a sovereign entity (Hamby, August 28, 2023). Scholars believe that Truman
tried to back down from his statement. Still, even his advisors were divided regarding the Middle
East aboutCwhat was the right thing to do—Truman’s central foreign policy and defense advisors,
involving Secretary of State George C. Marshall and Defense Secretary James Forrestal,
stubbornly opposed the idea of recognizing Israel as a state, everyone was aware of what that
decision would mean to the relationship between Arab nations (Devine et al., 2005). On May 14,
1948, Truman recognized the State of Israel, believing it would eventually lead the region to
peace and prosperity. Nevertheless, the next day, May 15, a war broke out in the region between
Israel and its neighboring states, Egypt, Lebanon, Jordan, Syria, and Iraq, which barred the
formation of Israel as a state during Truman’s administration. Consequently, as 100,000 Jewish
refugees were coming back into the region, thousands of Palestinians were being displaced at the
same time. The Illusionary idea that both the Arabs and Jewish population would eventually
come into agreement and live in peace was very clearly not accurate (Devine et al., 2005).
President George W. Bush
President George W. Bush took over the American government at a time when the
Middle East had already been in conflict for decades. His presidency left a significant mark on
the beginning of the war against terrorism in response to the September 11th attack on the Twin
Towers of the World Trade Center in New York City and the military presence in the Middle
East that would shape American Foreign Policy in the region. The 9/11 attack, which took place
on American soil, had an international impact on the rest of theCworld and the way other
countries responded to foreign policy in the Middle East. As a response to the attacks on
American soil, the Bush administration started a series of quick responses to protect American
soil. One of them was to sign the legislation which would federalize all airport security
screeners. His action would go entirely against what he had believed before: the government
should have a minimum of political and economic intervention in the country (Greg II, August
29, 2023).
Together with Vice President Dick Cheney, National Security Advisor Condoleezza Rice,
Chief of Staff Andy Card, Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld, and Secretary of State Colin
Powell, President Bush created a war cabinet. The focus of the U.S. military intelligence was to
detect and address the sources of the attacks on U.S. soil. Quickly, the Central Intelligence
Agency (CIA) identified al Qaeda, a militant Islamic terrorist organization, and its leader, Osama
bin Laden, as the leaders behind the attacks. Osama bin Laden was a great supporter of the
Taliban and was offered to stay in the country so al Qaeda could train thousands of terrorists in
their camps in Afghanistan. Until before the attacks, Osama bin Laden was considered a threat to
the U.S. The Bush administration believed a greater response was necessary as the U.S. had lost
its credibility in the region due to weak responses to attacks during the 1990s (Gregg II, accessed
August 11, 2024). The U.S. was present in the Middle East for many years especially when
Soviet Union invaded the country. The U.S. was one of the
The attacks of September 11, 2001, drew attention to the issues of terrorism, the Israeli-
Palestinian conflict, and the lack of civil rights and liberties in the Middle East, which opened the
eyes of the American government to the course of foreign policy in the region. In the first 100
days of the war against terrorism, the Bush Administration increased America’s homeland
security and built a worldwide alliance that would begin to break al-Qaeda’s global operations
and terrorist financing groups, destroy al-Qaeda terrorist training camps, begin to destroy al-
Qaeda’s grip on Afghanistan by driving Taliban from control. It would also help Afghans form a
new interim government representing all Afghans, including women (U.S. Department of State,
accessed August 10, 2024). It is important to note that the Bush administration did not work
against terrorism alone. As more than 80 countries suffered losses on the September 11 attack,
the U.S. received the support of about 136 countries in a diverse range of military assistance. At
the same time, 46 mutual organizations also offered their support. With such international
support, Afghans joined forces and put aside their ethical and political differences to form a
coalition against terrorism (U.S. Department of State, accessed August 10, 2024). The Bush
Administration entered a new focus on the country after the September 11 attack; the country
would merge military action overseas and create strong security measures at home. The goal was
to defeat terrorism and guard the American people.
President George W. Bush led the country for eight years, which changed for future
generations the relationship between the U.S. and the Middle East’s foreign policy. His
presidency was marked by the awareness of terrorism, which was spreading its beliefs
throughout the world. At the same time, the United States was recovering from its involvement
with the Cold War and was still regaining its popularity worldwide. The international community
was still split about the real intentions of the U.S. in the Cold War and the consequences of it
when the American government had to enter a new phase with the attacks of September 11th.
President Bush’s administration made decisions based on the threats that the country was facing
with the increase of terrorism affiliations like Al-Qaida in Iraq and the recruitment of jihadists in
the Middle East and worldwide (Pressman, 2009). The Bush administration was deeply involved
in the Middle East. However, critics state that under his administration, the American
government raised the standards against terrorism, democracy advancement, and
nonconventional proliferation, but it was done by force rather than influence. The lack of a soft
approach only contributed to the rise of more enemies and fewer affiliations to the relationship in
the Middle East. Some believe that the Bush administration exacerbated nuclear proliferation
rather than tamed it. In addition, the Middle East was never the same after the U.S. infiltration
and support of dictator leadership in the region in the name of democracy and peace.
References:
Devine, M. J., Watson, R. P., & Wolz, R. J. (Eds.). (2005, May 14). Israel and the Legacy of
Harry S. Truman (Truman Legacy Series, 3): Devine, Michael J., Watson, Robert P., Wolz,
Robert J.: 9781931112802: Amazon.com: Books. https://www.amazon.com/Israel-Legacy-
Harry-S-Truman/dp/1931112800
Gregg, G. L. (2023, August 29). George W. Bush: Foreign affairs. Miller Center.
https://millercenter.org/president/gwbush/foreign-affairs
Hamby, A. L., Alonzo L. HambyC C C C C C C C C C Professor of History Ohio University,
Hamby, A. L., & University, P. of History Ohio. (2023, August 28). Harry S. Truman: Foreign
affairs. Miller Center. https://millercenter.org/president/truman/foreign-affairs
Oren, M. B. (2011). Power, faith, and fantasy: America in the Middle East, 1776 to the
Present. W.W. Norton & Company.
Pressman, J. (2009). Power without Influence: The Bush Administration’s Foreign Policy
Failure in the Middle East.CInternational SecurityC33(4), 149-
179. https://muse.jhu.edu/article/262319.
Saiya, N. (2012). Onward Christian Soldiers: American Dispensationalists, George W.
Bush and the Middle East.CHoly Land Studies.,C11(2), 175–204.
https://doi.org/10.3366/hls.2012.0044
The Global War on Terrorism: The First 100 Days. https://www.state.gov/. (n.d.).
https://2001-2009.state.gov/s/ct/rls/wh/6947.htm
