EVOLUTIONARY AND MATURATIONAL UNDERPINNINGS: GENERAL
COGNITIVE AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
The evolution of morality remains debated. Some components may have
evolved, like emotions or reasoning capacities, but full-blown moral stance
probably did not directly evolve.
Minimum maturation levels are needed for proto-moral behaviors to
develop. Important changes in early childhood include:
Shift from concrete to abstract reasoning enabling moral judgment
Expanding social world broadening moral concerns
Increasing autonomy and self-regulation
Adopting standards reflecting more complex cognition and social
world
Key emerging capacities:
Ego processes like selective awareness needed for moral reasoning
Decentration for balancing all aspects of a moral dilemma
Self-concept distinct from others combined with empathy enables
caring
Theory of mind for understanding others' intentions
Altruistic responsiveness to others' distress
Ethical sensitivity based on awareness of one's actions on others
Moral Development
Two dominant paradigms in studying moral development:
Cultural transmission model: morality is learned from society
Cognitive stage theory: morality develops through hierarchical
stages reflecting increasing sophistication
Both approaches seen as incomplete. An interactionist model integrating
biological, cognitive, social and cultural influences may be most
comprehensive.
COMPARING RULES VERSUS CONSEQUENCES, AND THE RE-
EMERGENCE OF VIRTUE ETHICS
I. Comparing Rules versus Consequences
Deontological (duty/rule-based) vs consequentialist (outcome-
based) theories have disagreements, but also similarities.
Kantian duty can seem utilitarian; utilitarianism can incorporate
duty.
Act-deontology developed to address criticisms of rule-deontology.
Still not very popular due to its situational uncertainties.
Rule-utilitarianism developed to address act-utilitarianism criticisms.
Works better for consequentialists.
Disagreements play out in politics - e.g. cost-benefit analysis vs
duty-based protections.
II. The Problem of Dirty Hands
When is it acceptable to violate moral rules for a greater good?
Can be justified in supreme emergencies, but remains contentious.
Specific role principles may override general ones.
III. The Re-emergence of Virtue Ethics
Dissatisfaction with deontology and utilitarianism overlooking
personal factors.
Corresponds to psychology identifying Big Five personality factors
relevant to ethics.
Virtue ethics focuses on character over rules or consequences.
Requires conceptual analysis of virtues. Influential work by
Macintyre.
Popular in business ethics and moral psychology.
MORALITY AS BASED ON THE TRANSMISSION OF CULTURAL
STANDARDS
Durkheim's functionalism sees morality as internalizing society's
norms and values.
Socialization transmits morals externally via laws, customs,
sanctions.
Internalization makes them part of us through common values and
expectations.
Starts early - preschoolers sensitive to others violating norms.
Theories since Durkheim share notion of internalizing societal
standards.
Freud - morality from oedipal situation and introjecting parental
prohibitions.
Social learning - emotions to social reinforcers or modeling.
Recent focus on cultural differences in moral socialization.
Hoffman's Empathy-Based Internalization Model
Emphasizes active internalization via empathy.
Sees empathy as inborn, motivating prosocial behavior.
Documents early emerging social skills.
Outlines 3 types of moral dilemmas:
1. Bystander to others' distress - empathy motivates helping
2. Cause of harm to others - discipline techniques affect internalization
3. Beneficiary of another's altruism - develops gratitude, guilt,
reciprocity
Details developmental increases in empathy complexity
Inductions generate guilt, embed moral content, and lead to
internalization
PIAGET'S STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Based on his stages of cognitive development.
Saw moral development as qualitative changes through sequential
stages.
Depends on intellectual growth.
2 stages:
1. Morality of constraint - obedience, punishment, rules are
unchangeable.
2. Morality of cooperation - mutual respect, fairness, intention matters.
Shift occurs in childhood with cognitive maturation.
Influenced by Kantian notions of moral equals, good intentions.
Emphasizes cooperative social relations like Rawls.
Kohlberg's Cognitive Stage Model
Reaction to socialization models, influenced by Piaget.
Focuses on individual cognitive construction of moral reasoning.
Invariant sequence through 6 hierarchical stages.
Each stage more complex reasoning.
Assessed through dilemmas requiring reasoning.
Movement to higher stages depends on capacity and life
experiences.
Stages seen as universal across cultures.
Based on logic that simpler reasoning must precede complex.
THE DISPOSITION VERSUS CONTEXT ISSUE
I. Virtue as a Stable Disposition
Virtue seen as a relatively stable, unitary composite.
Personality traits show longitudinal continuity.
Big Five traits like conscientiousness and agreeableness have moral
implications.
Important for job performance, especially in weak situations.
II. The Role of Context
Intraindividual variation also observed.
Attributed to competing motives and contextual influences.
Led to emphasis on situationism.
Skepticism about virtue consistency.
Interactionist perspective accepted - both disposition and situation
important.
Virtue theory allows for contextual factors.
III. Intuitions as Antecedents
Haidt's theory - innate intuitions are foundation for virtues if given
learning opportunities.
Proposed 4 moral modules: suffering, hierarchy, reciprocity, purity.
Provide basis for manifest morality and virtues.
Virtue Ethics in Business, I-O Psychology and Organizational
Behavior
I. Business
Literature on virtue ethics in business grown extensively.
Focuses on individual and organizational character.
Virtue aids judgment where principles insufficient.
Organization must balance internal and external goods.
Virtue important for leadership.
II. I-O Psychology
Little empirical research.
Study of personality accelerated with Big Five model.
Recent focus on "dark side" - leadership failure, abusive supervision.
Examines dispositional causes and contextual influences.
