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Week 7 Reading notes
Knowledge Synthesis for Professional and Personal Development (Liberty
University)
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Week 7 reading notes
DIY: Writing a Research Proposal
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Chapter Introduction
At the beginning of any major research project, a researcher needs to identify the focus and
purpose of the research, something you have been working toward in Chapters 1, 2, 3. A
researcher may write a research proposal to establish the focus and purpose of research,
especially if seeking permission, funding, or approval of some sort: Proposals ask the reader to
make a decision about the proposed project. Depending on the nature of the research project and
the rhetorical situation, a formal written proposal might or might not be necessary. Regardless of
whether the researcher writes a proposal, the questions outlined in this section are valuable for
defining a focus.
In this section, we offer guidelines and examples of research proposals along with a sample
assignment for a research proposal, but keep in mind that proposals can take many forms. We’ll
introduce you to three kinds of research proposals:
•Topic Proposals
•Conference and Article Proposals
•Funded Project Proposals
1-1 Common Features of Research Proposals
The goal of a research proposal is to help the audience understand the focus of the proposed
research. Because the audience will base an approval or funding decision on the proposal, it is an
important persuasive document in its own right. To achieve this persuasive goal, nearly all
research proposals share some common key features, the wording of which also can serve as
subject headings for longer proposals.
•Introduction to the subject of the proposal: The introduction should provide enough
information about the subject of the proposed research to inform the audience adequately
but should avoid providing too much information that the audience already knows.
Readers need to have an understanding of the subject of the research project and/or the
issue at stake to make a decision about the project (to approve a topic, to provide funding
or resources, etc.), and the author of the proposal should have an understanding of the
readers’ familiarity with the subject.
•Explanation of the significance of the project: In addition to explaining the subject of
the proposed research, the author must give a rationale for why the project is important
and relevant. You might think about this section in terms of kairos, as discussed in
Chapter 3 : Why is this research, at this time, in this context, to this audience, important
to
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pursue? This section could include a description of the researcher’s interest in and
experience with the subject, where the idea for the project came from, and/or what kind
of contribution the project will make. If appropriate to the guidelines for the proposal you
are writing, evidence or data to support the need for the proposed project can be included
here as well.
•Clear research question: Research proposals should always contain a clear research
question (or set of questions) that highlight the specific focus of the project. The research
question(s) might appear before or after the “significance” section in a research proposal,
depending on the requirements of the proposal and the author’s preference. Some authors
like to use the significance section to lead up to a research question, whereas others
prefer to state the question after the introduction of the subject and then use the
significance section to justify the importance of the question. In Chapter 3, we discussed
principles for writing a research question in more detail.
•Statement of objectives: At some point in the research proposal, the author must
clearly state the objectives (goals) and expected outcomes for the research. What do you
hope to achieve through this research? What is your purpose in researching this subject?
The objectives might be stated in a separate section, or they might be incorporated into
the description of the significance of the project. In either case, the author should
indicate a clear connection between the research question(s); the intended audience; and
the expected outcomes, or purpose, of the research.
•Statement about the researcher’s ability to complete the project: Again, depending
on the requirements for the research proposal, this section might include a description of
the author’s credentials, past research, or experience with and knowledge about the
subject matter. Additionally, this section could include a list of resources available to the
researcher to complete the project, if relevant. For example, if you are planning to
conduct a survey, how will you do so? Do you have access to the participants who will
complete the survey? Will you conduct the survey online or in print, and do you have
access to the resources to do so? Finally, this section should include an indication of the
researcher’s commitment to the project.
•Timeline for the research project: Most research proposals include a timeline for
completion of the project, breaking the project down into manageable steps with clear
deadlines. Even if a timeline is not required, it can be helpful to draft a timeline for
yourself to make sure that the scope of the project you are proposing is manageable
given the amount of time that you have.
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1-1
a Additional Features Found in Some Research Proposals
Other features are not as universal, but you may find them in certain kinds of research proposals:
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•Review of prior research: Depending on the nature of your research, you may include a
brief review of research already conducted on the topic. The purpose of the review of
research is to show your knowledge of the work that has already been done on the
subject and to demonstrate that your research fills a gap in the existing knowledge or
thinking about the subject. For more information about writing a review of prior
research, see the Part 2 DIY .
•Description of methodology: Detailed proposals often include a description of the
methodology that will be used to complete the project. Depending on the nature of the
research project, the description of methodology might take various forms. For a research
project that proposes conducting secondary research, the author might describe where and
how he or she intends to find relevant resources for the project. (See Chapter 4 for help
with conducting secondary research.) For a research project that involves primary
research, the author should include a specific description of how he or she will conduct
that research (conducting observations or interviews, distributing surveys, analyzing
data). (See Chapter 5 for help with conducting primary research.) Additionally, the
proposal might include a copy of any interview questions, surveys, or observation
methods used in the project. If the research proposal you are writing requires a
description of methodology, we recommend reading Chapters 4 and 5 before proceeding.
•Budget: If you are requesting funding, your proposal must include a detailed budget that
justifies the amount of the request. In a research proposal budget, you should include
specific expenses with justifications for those expenses. In some cases, you might also
attach evidence in support of the amount you request (for example, if you ask for
funding for a subscription to SurveyMonkey.com to conduct an extensive online survey,
you should include a link to or printed copy of the fees for use of the software).
1-2 Types of Proposals
Research proposals can take many forms, mainly depending on purpose. In this section, we
describe the specific features of topic proposals, conference or article proposals, and funded
project proposals. We also include examples of the two types you are most likely to write as an
undergraduate: the topic proposal and conference proposal.
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1-2
a Topic Proposals
Features of Topic Proposals
Topic proposals are often written in an academic context, usually for an instructor who requires
a research project for the course. In such a context, depending on the formality of the proposal
and the requirements of the instructor, a topic proposal would include all of the features listed
(Common Features of Research Proposals).
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Some of the elements may not be necessary if the assignment already dictates specific
parameters for the research project. For example, the instructor may give you a specific timeline
to follow, rather than require you to specify one. Additionally, the instructor may not expect you
to discuss your ability to complete the project, but he or she may expect you to talk about your
prior knowledge of the subject and any perspectives that might influence the way you approach
the subject.
In addition to these features, topic proposals may include the following:
•brief description of methodology
•statement of the intended audience
•review of prior research
Again, the specific requirements of the topic proposal should be drawn from the assignment
given by the instructor.
Example of a Topic
Proposal
The following topic proposal was written by Alexandra McMullin, a student in a first-year
writing class. She wrote this proposal in response to an assignment that asked her to propose a
topic for research that is potentially controversial. The assignment also asked that she do a little
reading and thinking about the topic prior to writing her proposal and that she submit the final
proposal electronically, via BlackBoard. Alexandra chose to write about the option of attending
a community college instead of a four-year college or university. She discusses her reasons for
pursuing this topic and what she believes her focus will be in her research.
As you read, keep in mind that there are both strengths and opportunities for revision within the
proposal. We have included the instructor’s comments on Alexandra’s proposal so that you can
see the feedback that she received on this paper.
Discussion Questions
•Can you clearly tell what Alexandra McMullin’s research question is? If you think
it needs clarification, what suggestions would you make to the author?
•What is the author’s purpose in researching this topic? Where does the author discuss
the purpose, and what recommendations would you make for clarifying the purpose?
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•Whom does the author intend to address with the final research project?
What suggestions would you make to clarify the intended audience?
•What suggestions would you make to Alexandra about issues she could clarify or
expand upon in her proposal?
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b Conference or Article Proposals
Features of Conference or Article Proposals
Conference or article proposals are similar to topic proposals in that they propose a research
topic that is of interest to the author. Two major differences exist, however. First, the conference
or article proposal is often written in response to a specific Call for Proposals (especially in the
case of the conference), and it has to follow the guidelines given for proposals to that conference
or journal. Second, conference or article proposals tend to be far more concise than topic
proposals written for a class. For some conferences, proposals might not be allowed to exceed
two hundred words, which is generally less than a page, double-spaced. When they are required
to be concise, conference and article proposals rarely use subject headings. Other conferences
and journals might expect proposals to be longer and more detailed. The author must make sure
that the subject matter is appropriate for the conference or journal and carefully read the
requirements for writing the proposal for that context.
Conference or article proposals generally share most of the features of topic proposals, except
that they are written more concisely. In addition, they nearly always include:
•a review of prior research
•a description of methodology, especially if the author proposes to conduct
primary research
Because these proposals are generally written for academic audiences, readers are specifically
interested in the researcher’s sound knowledge of the subject matter and the suitability of the
methodology to the research project.
Example of a Conference Proposal
The following conference proposal was written by a student interested in presenting her work at
a conference on science fiction and fantasy literature. This proposal is for an individual
presentation, but some conference proposals discuss a theme and include multiple speakers who
will address different topics. Most conference proposals have a word count limit; therefore, it
can be tricky to include references to outside sources and full bibliographic citations. Check with
whomever is collecting the proposals for guidelines about whether to include a Works Cited
page. Conference proposals are generally submitted with no identifying information on them so
that the proposal can be reviewed without bias related to the author’s identity.
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Discussion Questions
•What is the overarching purpose of the research proposed for this conference
presentation?
•What kinds of external sources does the author refer to? What might be the advantage
of including both primary sources (the literature she is analyzing) and secondary
sources (scholars who have already written about themes in these books)?
•Who does the author intend to address in the conference proposal? What
suggestions would you make to clarify the intended audience?
•What suggestions would you make to the author to revise this proposal?
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c Funded Project Proposals
Features of Funded Project Proposals
Sometimes researchers write proposals to ask for resources or funding to conduct a specific
project. The request might be modest or it might be quite large, depending on the scope of the
research project. Some funded project proposals are written in response to a specific call for
grant proposals. In other words, a funding organization advertises that they are willing to fund
research about a specific topic, and the researcher must fit her or his request into the parameters
of the Call for Proposals. At other times, researchers might write unsolicited requests for
funding or support, directed to an audience who might have interest in the project and the
resources to fund it, but who hasn’t advertised a specific grant to fund such work.
Research proposals that ask for funding generally share features that are unique to this type of
request. In addition to the features mentioned in the two types of proposals discussed above,
funded research projects include:
•a connection between the research and intended audience
•a budget
The connection with the intended audience should address the specific interests of the funding
agency. The budget should carefully justify each item requested.
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1-3 Steps to Developing a Researched
Topic Proposal
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If you are writing a topic proposal, your goal is to introduce the issue that you are interested in
exploring in your major research project. This might be a topic that you will develop throughout
a course (perhaps for the entire semester), or one of several you might eventually research and
write about. Either way, you will want to narrow your focus to one issue. Your topic proposal
should include the following features:
•introduction to the subject or issue you wish to research
•explanation of why that subject or issue is significant
•one clearly stated research question
•identification of a rhetorical situation for the project that includes
odiscussing your own interests and prior experience with the issue
oarticulating your purpose in researching the specific issue (your statement
of objectives)
ofocusing on a specific audience to whom you will communicate the results
of your research
odiscussing how all of these elements construct a rhetorical situation in which
you will be researching and writing
obrief timeline that presents the plan you will follow to complete the project
You will likely follow four major steps in completing this research proposal: first, choosing a
focused topic; second, exploring what you already know about the topic; third, writing a research
question; and fourth, determining your audience.
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1-3
a Choosing a Focused Topic
The proposal is an opportunity to narrow your research to a specific, guiding research question
and focus. Depending on the specific assignment prompt, you may not need to use many, if
any, outside resources for a proposal assignment; your primary resource is your own experience
and knowledge of the issue. You are exploring what you know, what you need to find out, what
your focus is, and who your audience is. For more information about developing your
credibility, or ethos, as an author, see Chapter 8, Developing an Argument.
To keep yourself interested and inspired in your research topic, be sure to select something that
interests and engages you. In addition, you need to choose a topic that will interest and engage
your readers. To complicate things further, if you are writing in the context of a class for which
you have to complete an assignment, then you must choose a topic that will meet the criteria for
the assignment.
No wonder it can be so difficult to choose a topic—writers have to balance the needs and
interests of several different groups! Sometimes those needs and interests can compete with one
another, too. Perhaps you can think of a time when you heard someone go on and on about a
topic to the point of completely boring the people who were listening. It’s very possible that the
speaker was interested in the topic, but the audience wasn’t. Or imagine taking a course on
Ethics in Science and the instructor assigns a term paper having to do with one of the ethical
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issues discussed in class that semester. If you write a paper about the development of the
designated hitter rule in baseball, then you probably won’t meet the criteria for the assignment—
even though you may be very interested in the topic.
What we suggest is that you start with your own interests and then think about the purpose for
your writing and who your audience will be. Weighing each of these factors into your topic
choice will help you find something to write about that you will be interested in, that your
audience will enjoy reading, and that will fulfill your purpose in writing.
•Write: Find Out What’s Important to You
When students are confronted with a research assignment where they need to choose a topic, the
most difficult part often is finding something to research and write about. Sometimes we are able
to start with an idea of what we’re interested in, and then we can go to the Internet or other
research sources to find more information and focus our topics. Other times, we don’t really
know where to start and we need some help thinking of possible topics to focus on.
•Techno Tip: Use the Internet to Explore a Possible Topic
Once you have chosen a broad topic for your writing, it is important to focus your attention on a
particular issue that you will research and write about. Topics are broad, general subject areas,
and issues are specific conversations, and sometimes points of disagreement, within a topic. If
you’ve had difficulty in the past with researching and writing about something for which you
found too much information, then you might have been researching a topic instead of focusing
on a specific issue within that topic. For example, let’s say we’re back in that Ethics in Science
class. One of the students decides to write about the use of animals in laboratory testing. This
topic is rather broad, and it doesn’t tell us what the student is interested in within that topic. The
student needs to think about what kinds of conversations people have about animal testing, and
might specifically brainstorm a list of the points on which people disagree. Each of these points
is an issue, and the student could then choose one of them for extended research and writing.
•Reflect: How Can I Make a Topic Manageable?
•Write: Focus Your Research Topic
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b Exploring What You Already Know about the Topic
One way to focus a research topic is to think about what you already know about a subject and
why you are invested in researching it. This step can help you determine what aspect of a subject
is most likely to sustain your interest long term and be most satisfying to you. Additionally,
exploring what you already know about a subject can help you think about your own personal
biases and how that might influence your research. Part of our responsibility as researchers is to
understand that we all work from specific frames of reference, and an awareness of our own
biases can help us adopt the most neutral stance possible when conducting our research. Your
experience and interest in the issue are part of your rhetorical context. Nobody looks at an issue
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entirely objectively, so by describing the perspective you already bring to the table you will
begin to define your unique position on the issue. For example, a single mother who chooses to
write about the controversy over spanking a child might describe her struggle to determine the
best way to discipline her own children and whether or not she chooses to spank them. She
might describe her experience with discipline as a child, or she might choose to describe the
influence of others on her decision. Finally, she would describe how these experiences influence
her opinion on the issue of whether or not parents should spank their children.
•Techno Tip: Use the Internet to Explore a Possible Topic
•Reflect: What Is the Writer’s Place in the Rhetorical Situation?
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c Writing a Research Question
An important component of your research proposal is a clear statement of your research
question. Writing a clear research question can be one of the most difficult parts of the research
process; however, it is an essential link between your purpose in writing and the methodology
you use to conduct your research. Be certain to give yourself plenty of time to draft and revise
your research question.
•“Write: Write a Research Question ”
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d Determining Your Audience
Your final researched argument will be addressed to a specific audience whose thinking you
want to influence. Your credibility as a reliable researcher will be very important in persuading
this audience to adopt your evaluation of the issue or position. To establish this credibility, you
should present yourself as someone who is well-informed about the issue you are discussing.
You might be addressing an audience that is open-minded about your evaluation, or, you might
be addressing an audience that is skeptical or even hostile to you or your evaluation. If you are
evaluating the merits of gun control, for example, you could imagine yourself writing to
members of the National Rifle Association. A primary goal of this particular assignment is to
focus on the specific audience you will address in your final research paper and to determine the
purpose of addressing your argument to that audience.
You have multiple audiences for this assignment. If you are completing this proposal in the
context of a class, one of your audiences is your instructor and potentially your fellow
classmates. If you are assigned a research project for work, you may want to share your research
proposal with your supervisor to be sure you both understand the requirements of the research
project. In addition, your audience is yourself—this is a chance to explore your own perspective
on your issue and become more aware of the ways in which your perspective influences how you
research. You should also, however, identify an audience whose thinking you want to influence
on your issue. Be specific about that audience, and think about what you need to include or
consider to persuade that audience.
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Make It with Multiple Media:
Oral Presentations of Proposals
In professional settings, many research project proposals are delivered as oral presentations.
Organizational officers and managers usually have to approve research projects because of the
time and money the organization will dedicate to the project. Oral presentations of proposals
generally include the same information we listed in the various features lists; however, most of
the information is conveyed orally. Oral presentations generally include three major
components:
•Oral script: This is the information you will convey orally. You can do this in real-
time (speaking) or through software such as VoiceThread. Other options include
creating a screencast overlay of digital slides using something like Screencast-O-Matic
or the open source application Open Broadcast Software.
•Visuals: This is the information you will convey visually (many people use
presentation software such as Microsoft PowerPoint, Prezi, or Keynote to visually
supplement their oral presentations).
•Informational handout: This is the written information you will provide to every
member in your audience to supplement your presentation and to remind your
audience later of important aspects of your presentation.
Good presenters do not duplicate the information in each component. The majority of your
information should be conveyed orally. In other words, if someone receives only copies of your
visuals and your informational handout, he or she will not have all of the details of your
proposal, only a general overview. The informational handout should include only bibliographic
information (name, title, date, etc.), summative information, and any critical details the audience
might need to refer to later. The visuals should visually enhance only what is being said;
therefore, they should primarily be pictures, tables, or key words. It is a good rule of thumb to
never use smaller than 30-point font in presentation slides; 30-point font is big enough for the
audience to see and keeps you from putting too much text on the slides.
Write
Analyzing Audience
As you analyze audiences for your research, take a moment to think about who you would want
to persuade to see the issue you are researching differently or to take action on the issue. Who
might be able to make a difference? As you identify invested groups or stakeholders invested in
your topic, you might think about the rhetorical situation of your research as a whole to target the
audience you think would be most appropriate.
Once you have narrowed your choices to a few options for a specific audience, you need to
analyze the expectations, needs, prior knowledge, and motivations of that audience. Make a table
in a word processing document similar to Table DIY 1.1 (this table is completed based on
Alexandra’s topic of going to community college). Find representative pictures and try to
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complete the rest of the table. This will help you more deeply understand a primary, and
potentially even secondary, audience. It will also help prepare you for the type of research both
you and your audience will need. In your proposal, you might spend some time discussing your
primary audience and what work you need to do for them.
Table DIY 1.1
Potential Audience #1: High School Teachers, Potential Audience #2: High School Students
Thinkin
Advisers, and Administrators about College
Representative
Image #1 Jasminko Ibrakovic/Shutterstock.com Ammentorp Photography/Shutterstock.com
Representative
Image #2 Racorn/Shutterstock.com Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock.com
What are the Want students to “be successful” because it Want to take steps towards their professional goals.
expectations and reflects positively on the institution. Some want more freedom in their daily and
academic
motivations of this
audience?
Definition of “success” might be narrow:
attend a prestigious university. choices.
•Sincerely believe a “good” college Friends, family, and mentors (including teachers)
affec
What do they
already believe
about the topic?
education will lead to a
“good” job.
how students define “success.” Students might know
individuals who are happy with their lives and did
not attend college. Students will consider individual
Why do they think •Local, state, and national circumstances that greatly impact their ability to go
to
this way?
What impact does
this audience have
on future scenarios
related to this
topic?
governments influence how high
school teachers, advisers, and
administrators define “success.”
Teachers and advisers not only influence
their current students but will continue to
influence future students in the same way.
college (income, transportation, high school grades,
etc.).
What students choose will affect them for the rest of
their lives. This is a very important decision to make.
This group went to college and also mentored Students are dependent on the experiences of
others
What prior plenty of students through the high school
to (family, friends, mentors, etc.). Friends and family
also
experiences does
this audience have
college transition. They might even have
statistics on where high school graduates know and understand the individual student and
are able to synthesize their primary experience with
an
with the topic? went immediately after high school and individual student’s wants, needs, and
characteristics.
where they were five or ten years later.
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What does this
audience need to
know about the
topic?
•Available options
•Varying definitions of what
•Available options
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Potential Audience #1: High School Teachers, Potential Audience #2: High School Students
Thinkin
Advisers, and Administrators about College
students might think is
successful
•Individual student’s goals
and resources
•How to find additional resources
•How their circumstances, goals, and
characteristics might impact access and
success
What do you know
I know they have more experience on
this topic than me. I also know they
sincerely
I know this is a very stressful topic and that some
about this want me to be successful. However, if they students have overbearing family members or
mentor
audience? went to college a long time ago, their ideas of that force a specific definition of “success” or
college might be different than the current understand of what/how/why going to college.
reality.
I know I cannot assume they are like me. I might
eithe
What do you need
draftto know about
the audience?
I need to have a very specific audience in have to focus on a specific sub-section of the audienc
mind (maybe even a specific school or school (students who know they want a bachelors degree an
district). I then need to understand what they are concerned about paying for college, e.g.) or
already know and believe. compare and contrast different wants and needs of
th
different groups.
