CHAPTER 14
PSYCHEDELICS
A. Animism and Religion
The concept of animism, which posits that the distinctive attributes of animals,
plants, rocks, streams, and other natural phenomena are attributed to an inherent spirit
within the entity, is a prevalent motif in the majority of global religions. Plants possessing
the ability to modify our perception of the environment and self are congruent with this
perspective. In some belief systems, it is posited that the consumption of a plant imbues
the consumer with the plant's spirit, thereby enabling communication between the two
entities. This communion may result in the individual experiencing the plant's emotional
state, gaining unique abilities or acquiring novel perspectives. During the early stages of
hunter-gatherer societies, specific individuals developed expertise in the knowledge and
practices of plant cultivation. They acquired the ability to discern the optimal time for
harvesting and the appropriate quantity to utilize in varying situations. The transmission
of these customs occurred intergenerationally, and vivid narratives were employed as
pedagogical tools to impart the fundamental tenets to novices. The contemporary
designation for these persons is shaman, owing to their expertise in plants that contain
psychoactive substances. The role of the experts in acquiring power from the spirit world
was not limited to the origins of modern medicine, but also extended to the origins of
religion in hunter-gatherer societies. The psychoactive properties of certain plants may
have played a significant role in the emergence of spiritual and religious customs and
folklore across various cultures worldwide.
There has been a contentious debate regarding the nomenclature of this class of
pharmaceuticals. The drugs possess the ability to induce hallucinations and modify an
individual's perception of reality, thereby inducing a state that can be described as
psychotic. As a result, they have been classified as psychotomimetic drugs. The term
connotes that the pharmaceutical substances elicit hazardous outcomes and a type of
psychological ailment, a notion that remains a subject of debate. In contemporary times,
advocates have gained traction in promoting novel vocabulary, such as entheogen and
entactogen, to delineate these compounds. The term "entheogen" is utilized to refer to
certain substances, such as sacred mushrooms, which are believed to induce spiritual or
religious experiences. On the other hand, the term "entactogen" is employed to describe
substances like MDMA that have the potential to amplify feelings of empathy, as it
connotes "to produce a touching within."
Whilst the term "psychedelics" is commonly used to refer to all of these
substances, it is crucial to acknowledge that there exist significant distinctions between
them. The categorization of substances can be based on their chemical compositions,
established pharmacological characteristics, degree of consciousness impairment
resulting from their administration, and potential hazards associated with their use. The
initial categories that we shall examine are the classical psychedelics. These entities
possess the ability to modify one's perceptions without impeding their ability to interact
with the current reality. Individuals who are under the influence of these drugs may
exhibit concurrent awareness of both the "fantasy" realm and reality, express enthusiastic
discourse regarding their experiences, and retain a significant portion of the recollection
thereafter. Several of these pharmaceuticals can induce psychedelic outcomes with
minimal acute physiological toxicity. This implies that the likelihood of fatality due to an
overdose of LSD, psilocybin, or mescaline is comparatively low. Psychedelics are
classified into two major categories, namely indoles and catechols, based on their
chemical structures. The fundamental configuration of the neurotransmitter serotonin is
denoted as an indole nucleus.
The nomenclature of "indoles" is attributed to the structural similarity of certain
chemicals that exhibit psychedelic properties, thereby establishing a correlation between
their chemical structure and psychoactive effects. The psychedelic substance that
garnered significant attention in the 1960s and is considered to be the most powerful
among its counterparts is not naturally occurring. The identification of naturally
occurring compounds with psychedelic properties resembling indole d-lysergic acid
diethylamide (LSD) was not established until the discovery of LSD. The compound in
question was initially produced through the synthesis of ergot alkaloids obtained from the
Claviceps purpurea fungus. Ergotism is a pathological condition that may arise from the
consumption of grain, particularly rye, contaminated with a fungus that sporadically
develops on it. The ingestion of such infected grain can lead to various symptoms,
including but not limited to headaches, vomiting, diarrhea, and gangrene of the digits.
B. Terminology and Types
In 1938, Dr. Albert Hofmann synthesized LSD during his tenure as a scientist at
Sandoz Laboratories located in Basel, Switzerland. The advent of LSD in the field of
psychopharmacology occurred in 1943, when Hofmann documented his experiences
resulting from the ingestion of LSD. Hofmann's identification of LSD and his promotion
of its conscientious usage elevated him to a revered status among devotees of psychedelic
substances. Until his passing in April 2008 at the age of 102, he maintained an
unwavering perspective regarding the potential psychotherapeutic benefits of LSD and its
capacity to augment human comprehension of their ecological position. The discovery
made by Hofmann also instigated extensive research on LSD during the period spanning
from the early 1950s to the 1970s. A considerable body of literature has been dedicated to
the development of a psychoses model and the exploration of the subconscious mind. The
emphasis on the subconscious mind may have been influenced by the dream-like nature
of LSD experiences and the psychoanalytic notion that dreams serve as a medium for the
expression of subconscious thoughts. Therefore, LSD was commonly utilized as a
supplementary treatment to psychotherapy. In cases where a psychiatrist perceives a
patient to have encountered an impasse in the retrieval of repressed memories and
motives, the administration of LSD may be considered for its capacity to facilitate "mind-
viewing". Therefore, LSD has emerged as a contemporary veracity-inducing substance,
supplanting sodium pentothal, scopolamine, and amphetamines. The efficacy of LSD in
providing long-term benefits to patients remains a topic of debate, with some arguing that
its perceived benefits were limited to the subjective beliefs of the administering
psychiatrists.
The renowned psychologist Timothy Leary gained significant popularity as a
proponent of LSD consumption. During the early 1960s, the individual in question
undertook a research study aimed at examining the psychological impacts of LSD and
psilocybin at Harvard University. Leary's research faced mounting criticism as a result of
allegations that his methodologies lacked rigor and were unethical. Instances were found
where appropriate measures, such as meticulous screening of participants before drug
administration and adequate medical oversight, were disregarded. The aforementioned
concerns may have played a role in Leary's termination from Harvard and the research
community, however, his efforts were pivotal in the dissemination of LSD usage among
the broader populace.
LSD is commonly administered orally and exhibits rapid absorption from the
gastrointestinal tract. Upon consumption, LSD is found to be present in lower
concentrations in the brain as compared to other organs of the body, indicating that it is
not preferentially absorbed by the brain. The peak blood concentrations are attained
approximately 90 minutes post-ingestion. The half-life of LSD is approximately three
hours. The substance undergoes hepatic metabolism and subsequently eliminated from
the body in the form of 2-oxy-lysergic acid diethylamide, which is rendered biologically
inert. The phenomenon of tolerance typically manifests within a brief span of 3 to 4 days,
provided that the drug is consumed on a daily basis across multiple instances. Studies
have demonstrated the existence of cross-tolerance among LSD, mescaline, and
psilocybin. There is currently no empirical evidence to support the notion that physical
dependence can develop as a result of LSD or other psychedelic substance use.
Over the course of the last four decades, numerous scientific studies have been
conducted to examine the immediate impacts of marijuana, opioids, sedatives, and
stimulants on human behavior, resulting in the publication of hundreds of research
articles. There has been a notable decrease in the number of empirical studies conducted
on psychedelics during this timeframe, partly due to past instances of research
misconduct involving these substances. Consequently, a significant portion of our
understanding regarding the impact of LSD and other psychedelic substances on human
beings is derived from anecdotal accounts. Thankfully, there has been a shift in this
scenario, with a growing number of research studies on LSD being carried out on human
participants.
The dose-dependent nature of the adverse effects of LSD on healthy individuals is
a notable consideration. Greater dosages have a tendency to result in more adverse
responses, particularly among individuals who lack experience. The study found that
concentration and coordination difficulties, teeth grinding, and lack of appetite were the
prevailing adverse effects observed in research settings for doses up to 300 µg. The
aforementioned reactions are transient in nature and typically ameliorate within a 24-hour
timeframe subsequent to the administration of the drug. Conversely, certain informal
accounts have indicated a potentially worrisome trend of unfavorable reactions, such as
heightened anxiety, paranoia, and psychosis. In light of the diverse and unregulated
circumstances, it becomes arduous to ascertain the exact dosage of the drug, potential
adulteration with other compounds, and the authenticity of the LSD-containing substance.
Moreover, the consumption of the substance in an environment that is deemed hazardous
or induces anxiety can result in unfavorable responses, specifically paranoia. The
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) released
guidelines in 2006 for the management of intense adverse reactions associated with
psychedelic use, specifically LSD.
The findings of two prominent literature reviews suggest that LSD may hold
potential as a therapeutic intervention for individuals with alcohol use disorders. The
aforementioned discoveries have sparked renewed attention towards the medicinal
possibilities of LSD in addressing mental health conditions. There have been reports
indicating that LSD may have the potential to mitigate the frequency of cluster headaches
among individuals afflicted with this condition, as well as alleviate anxiety related to life-
threatening ailments. The potential for replication of these findings remains an intriguing
prospect, particularly in light of the possibility of larger-scale and more rigorously
controlled investigations. In a recent publication, Ayelet Waldman, the author,
documented her purportedly efficacious utilization of LSD as a treatment for her major
depressive disorder. Waldman's self-reported regimen consisted of the ingestion of 10 µg
of LSD at a frequency of once every three days over a period of thirty days. The
administered dose is approximately 10% of the standard dose consumed by an individual
using LSD recreationally to achieve significant alterations in mood and perception.
According to Waldman's observations, consistent utilization of this "microdose" did not
result in any apparent immediate alterations in perception, but it proved to be a
revolutionary approach in addressing her depression. Undoubtedly, the experience of
Waldman is merely an anecdote and necessitates validation through rigorous
experimental methodologies.
The utilization of magic mushrooms in Mexico has a lengthy historical
background associated with their religious and ceremonial purposes. Following the
Spanish conquest of the Aztecs and their deliberate eradication of indigenous knowledge
and literature, the utilization of certain flora, including peyote, was relegated to exclusive
use by native populations for a period of three centuries, during which time it was absent
from Western awareness. The utilization of mushrooms was notably repressed. During
the latter part of the 1930s, it was conclusively demonstrated that the indigenous
population of southern Mexico continued to utilize these fungi, and subsequently, the
initial identification of numerous species was made. The significant advancement
occurred in the year 1955. In that particular year, an individual who worked as a banker
in New York transitioned into the field of ethnobotany alongside his spouse. The couple
successfully established a positive relationship with an indigenous community that
continued to utilize mushrooms for their religious rituals. Gordon Wasson was the
inaugural non-indigenous individual to partake in the ritualistic ceremony and consume
the hallucinogenic fungus. In a 1957 article published in Life magazine, the author
recounted his personal encounters with mushrooms, disseminating information regarding
their psychoactive properties and religious significance. Psilocybe cubensis, an additional
mushroom species containing psilocybin, is found growing on bovine excrement
throughout the United States. The Gulf Coast region. In addition to the inherent inquiries
regarding the consumption of substances derived from fecal matter, the process of
accurately discerning psilocybin-containing mushrooms within their natural habitat can
prove to be a challenging endeavor. The majority of Psilocybe species are commonly
referred to as "little brown mushrooms," with a number of potentially hazardous imitators
in existence.
Among the various psychoactive substances that were commonly utilized in
Mexico during the 16th century, ololiuqui, which refers to the seeds of the Rivea
corymbosa plant, held a preeminent position in terms of its religious significance. Even in
contemporary times, these seeds establish a connection between America and Europe.
Upon analyzing the seeds of the morning glory, Albert Hofmann discovered various
active alkaloids, including d-lysergic acid amide, which exhibits approximately one-tenth
of the potency of LSD. The discovery of d-lysergic acid amide is noteworthy to botany
majors due to its remarkable presence. Prior to its discovery in 1960, lysergic acid had
only been identified in less advanced plant groups, such as the ergot fungus. The
utilization of Argyreia nervosa seeds, popularly referred to as Hawaiian baby woodrose,
for recreational purposes has been documented. The concentration of d-lysergic acid
amide in these seeds is comparatively higher than that found in morning glories. Non-
medicinal utilization of these seeds frequently results in unfavorable outcomes,
presumably due to the presence of poisonous cyanogenic glycosides in the fibrous outer
layer (which can induce illness).
Despite its extensive history, Dimethyltryptamine (DMT) has not been
extensively utilized in the United States. Globally, DMT is regarded as a significant
naturally-occurring psychedelic compound and is present in numerous plant species.
DMT serves as the principal psychoactive compound in cohoba snuff, a substance
employed in hunting ceremonies by select indigenous populations residing in South
America and the Caribbean. Despite being synthesized in the 1930s, it was not until 1956
that the psychoactive properties of DMT were first examined in humans, following its
discovery as the active ingredient in cohoba. The oral administration of DMT is typically
deemed ineffective due to its metabolic breakdown by monoamine oxidase (MAO) prior
to crossing the blood-brain barrier. Consequently, the substance is commonly
administered through insufflation, inhalation, or intravenous injection. The optimal
intramuscular dosage is approximately 1 milligram per kilogram of body weight.
Psychedelic effects can be observed intravenously within two minutes of administering
doses of 0.2 mg/kg or higher. The duration of these effects is typically less than 30
minutes. The acute administration of substances is known to elicit classic psychedelic
effects. DMT induces modifications in sensory perception, including visual, auditory, and
tactile modalities. At higher dosages, individuals may experience auditory hallucinations
such as music or whispering voices, as well as visual hallucinations such as intricate
geometric patterns appearing on walls.
Ayahuasca is a psychoactive beverage that has been traditionally employed by
indigenous communities in South America for shamanic, religious, and therapeutic
intentions. Currently, it is utilized on a global scale for a diverse array of purposes,
spanning from ceremonial to medicinal to recreational applications. The primary
psychoactive constituent of the tea is DMT, which is customarily synthesized by blending
the Banisteriopsis caapi vine with the leaves of Psychotria viridis, a plant that contains
DMT. It was previously mentioned that MAO swiftly metabolizes oral DMT prior to its
arrival in the brain. Banisteriopsis caapi, a type of vine, is known to contain harmaline,
which is classified as a monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI). Harmaline's ability to
inhibit monoamine oxidase prevents the degradation of orally administered DMT,
facilitating its transportation to the brain and subsequent manifestation of psychoactive
effects. The category of indole psychedelics appears to encompass a vast array of
substances, although a significant proportion of these compounds are not commonly
employed. Two psychoactive substances that have garnered recent interest are 5-methoxy
DIPT, commonly referred to as "foxy methoxy," and alphamethyltryptamine (AMT).
Although their usage is not widespread, they are typically ingested orally.
The plant commonly referred to as Peyote, derived from the Aztec term peyotl, is
a diminutive, spineless, and conically-shaped cactus scientifically known as Lophophora
williamsii— Lemaire. This species is found in its natural habitat in the Rio Grande
Valley and the Southwestern regions of the United States. Primarily located underground,
the sole visible portion of the entity is the grayish-green protruding apex resembling a
pincushion. During the pre-Columbian era, various Mexican indigenous groups such as
the Aztec and Huichol engaged in ceremonial consumption of a particular plant, either in
its dried or green form. This practice resulted in prolonged psychological effects that
persisted for an entire day. Towards the conclusion of the 1800s, Arthur Heffter
conducted the isolation of various alkaloids from peyote and demonstrated that mescaline
constituted the principal psychoactive constituent present in peyote. The synthesis of
mescaline dates back to 1918, and the majority of investigations into its psychoactive
properties have employed synthesized forms of the compound. Over 30 psychoactive
compounds have been detected in peyote, however, it is widely accepted that mescaline is
the primary agent accountable for the manifestation of vivid colors and other visual
effects.
Mescaline exhibits high oral bioavailability but is impeded by the blood-brain
barrier, necessitating elevated dosages. The drug attains its peak concentration in the
brain within a timeframe of 30 to 120 minutes. Approximately 50% of the administered
dose undergoes elimination from the body within a duration of 6 hours. Empirical data
suggests that certain amounts of mescaline remain present in the brain for a period of up
to 10 hours. Comparable to indole psychedelics, the outcomes achieved at low dosages,
approximately 3 mg/kg of body weight, are predominantly characterized by euphoria,
while dosages ranging from 5 mg/kg result in a complete range of hallucinations. The
majority of mescaline is eliminated from the body without undergoing any alteration and
is excreted through the urine. The metabolites that have been identified thus far do not
possess any psychoactive properties. The administration of a psychoactive dose in
humans results in physiological changes such as dilation of the pupils, elevation in pulse
rate and blood pressure, and an increase in body temperature. All of the aforementioned
effects bear resemblance to those elicited by LSD, psilocybin, and the majority of other
alkaloid psychedelics. Additional indications of central stimulation, such as
electroencephalogram (EEG) arousal, have been observed subsequent to the
administration of mescaline. The LD in rats has been observed to be approximately 370
mg/kg body weight, which is 10 to 30 times higher than the dosage that elicits behavioral
effects. Mortality arises due to convulsive episodes and cessation of respiratory function.
The development of tolerance to mescaline is comparatively gradual when compared to
LSD, however, there exists a cross-tolerance phenomenon between these two substances.
After their initial synthesis in 1910 and 1912 respectively, MDA and MDMA did
not garner significant attention for their psychoactive effects. It took a considerable
number of years before the initial scientific publication emerged, detailing the impact of
these substances on human conduct. In 1942, a study was conducted wherein two patients
who had been diagnosed with Parkinson's disease were administered an intramuscular
dose of MDA (20 mg) to evaluate its efficacy in enhancing their mood or alleviating their
symptoms. The outcome was inconclusive. A dosage of 20 milligrams of MDA is
considered to be relatively low and does not elicit discernible effects. Prior to 1959, the
knowledge regarding this information was not widely disseminated until chemist Gordon
Alles released findings from his personal experimentation. The individual consumed
varying dosages of MDA, ranging from 10 to 120 mg, and recorded the corresponding
outcomes. Alles and subsequent researchers reported that the medication resulted in
heightened self-awareness, improved emotional state, increased capacity for empathy,
heightened sociability, and enhanced tactile perception. The aforementioned range of
effects resulted in the utilization of MDA as a supplementary treatment to psychotherapy
during the decade of the 1960s.
As the incidence of non-medical use of MDA increased, there was a
corresponding rise in informal accounts of unfavorable drug reactions. As an instance, a
Letter to the Editor from 1970 that was featured in the esteemed medical publication
JAMA made several unverified assertions, among them the claim that MDA is among the
most frequently abused substances in the state of Wisconsin. The authors' fervent desire
to denounce MDA resulted in a pessimistic interpretation of typical and potentially
beneficial human interactions. According to the authors, the drug's psychic effects are
primarily focused on elevating the individual's need for interpersonal relationships. This
phenomenon is generally regarded as a positive attribute and is often viewed as a key
indicator of sound human functioning. However, additional articles surfaced in the
medical literature that pathologized typical behavior in the presence of MDA.
The compound referred to as DOM is scientifically known as 2,5-dimethoxy-4-
methylamphetamine. During the 1960s and 1970s, the substance known as DOM was
commonly referred to as STP. According to popular street terminology of the time, the
acronym STP was believed to represent the concepts of serenity, tranquility, and peace.
The compound in question exhibits comparable actions and outcomes to mescaline and
LSD. A complete dose ranging from 1 to 3 mg induces feelings of euphoria, while a
dosage of 3 to 5 mg results in a psychedelic episode lasting for 6 to 8 hours. The relative
potency of DOM is approximately one hundred times greater than that of mescaline, yet
only about one-thirtieth as potent as LSD.
An outcome of implementing restrictions on the availability of a particular
substance is the prompt emergence of an alternative to take its place. The process
operates in the following manner: upon identification of a novel synthetic drug in the
illegal market, law enforcement authorities proceed to prohibit its usage. This is
succeeded by an influx of alternative substances, which have not yet been subjected to
prohibition, and are often more potent and pose a greater risk to public health. A
considerable number of novel psychoactive substances can be categorized as
psychedelics. Two examples that have emerged in recent times are 4-bromo-2, 5-
dimethoxyphenethylamine, commonly referred to as 2-CB, and 4-propylthio-2, 5-
dimethoxyphenethylamine, known as 2-C-T7. Both compounds are classified as
phenylethylamines, which are structurally related to the amphetamine class of
psychoactive substances. The limited data available regarding these substances indicates
that they elicit modestly euphoric and entheogenic outcomes when administered in
dosages spanning from 10 to 30 milligrams. Limited information is available regarding
numerous newly discovered substances. Paradoxically, the implementation of stringent
drug policies has inadvertently led to the proliferation of a bewildering assortment of
substances accessible to individuals who engage in recreational drug use. However, it is
important to note that certain chemicals within this category may not possess the
necessary safety standards for human consumption.
During the 1950s, Parke, Davis & Company conducted an inquiry into a range of
pharmaceuticals with the aim of discovering a potent intravenous anesthetic. The
company opted to conduct human testing of 1-(1-phenylcyclohexyl) piperidine
hydrochloride (PCP), also known as phencyclidine, based on prior animal studies. The
inaugural documentation on the utilization of PCP (Sernyl) for surgical anesthesia in
human subjects was published in 1958. Sernyl exhibited effective analgesic properties
while avoiding any adverse effects on cardiovascular function, respiratory function, and
cardiac rhythm. The onset of sensory impairment manifested within 120 to 180 seconds
of initiating the intravenous administration, subsequent to the delivery of approximately
10 milligrams of the pharmaceutical agent. Subsequent to the procedure, the patients
exhibited no recollection of the event, evinced no retention of verbal communication, and
reported no sensation of pain. In contrast to conventional anesthetics that have a general
depressive effect on the central nervous system, resulting in respiratory and circulatory
depression, this dissociative anesthetic appears to be a safe and efficacious alternative.
However, certain patients experienced distortions of body image and depersonalization
sensations as a result of the medication. At times, these adverse effects endured for a
prolonged duration subsequent to the administration. Consequently, PCP was restricted to
veterinary applications until 1979, at which point it ceased to be manufactured or
employed for medicinal intentions. The substance in question remains classified under
Schedule II of the Controlled Substance Act.
During the early 1970s, there were reports of PCP crystals being distributed onto
oregano, parsley, or alfalfa and being marketed to naive adolescents as marijuana. Under
this configuration, the substance acquired the moniker of "angel dust." Over time, the
expeditious and robust impacts of phencyclidine (PCP), colloquially known as angel dust,
rendered it a sought-after substance in its own regard. Cannabis joints combined with
phencyclidine (PCP) were colloquially referred to as "killer joints" or "sherms," owing to
their potent psychoactive effects on the user. During the 1970s, there were reports
indicating that individuals who consumed PCP exhibited aggressive behavior while under
its influence. The linkage between PCP and violence was reinforced by police accounts
that reported encountering significant challenges in restraining individuals under the
influence of PCP. A commonly cited anecdote within law enforcement circles involves
an individual under the influence of PCP who exhibited extreme aggression, displayed
remarkable physical prowess, and demonstrated a high tolerance for pain. This individual
purportedly sustained a significant number of gunshot wounds, reportedly 28 or more,
before succumbing to the effects of the gunfire. Despite the lack of empirical evidence,
the narrative persists and is perpetuated as if verifiable. The present narrative and
analogous accounts may potentially reinforce the belief that excessive force is
permissible in the process of detaining an individual suspected of using PCP. The
occurrence involving Rodney King in 1991 serves as a singular illustration. Mr. King was
subjected to brutal physical assault by four members of the Los Angeles Police
Department, who suspected him of being under the influence of PCP. He was not. The
toxicology report indicated that the individual had exclusively ingested alcoholic
beverages.
This section will cover all the naturally occurring agents found within the potato
family. The three genera, namely Atropa, Hyoscyamus, and Mandragora, hold
significance due to their singular species and were predominantly confined to the
European region. The Datura genus, which encompasses numerous species with potent
active agents, is distributed globally. The plant genera under discussion belong to the
Solanaceae family, commonly referred to as "herbs of consolation". The pharmacological
activity of these plants is attributed to three alkaloids. Atropine, also known as
dlhyoscyamine, scopolamine, or l-hyoscine, along with l-hyoscyamine, exhibit robust
inhibitory effects on both central and peripheral cholinergic receptors. The
aforementioned pharmaceuticals bind to the acetylcholine receptor site without eliciting
its activation, thereby exerting their primary influence on the inhibition of muscarinic
cholinergic neurons, which includes the parasympathetic system.
Atropine, the principal alkaloid of Atropa belladonna, was first isolated in 1831.
The nomenclature of the botanical specimen is indicative of its significant applications
during the medieval era and preceding periods. The nomenclature of the genus is
indicative of its historical application as a toxic agent. The plant known as deadly
nightshade has been widely utilized by both expert and non-expert individuals who
engage in the act of poisoning. It has been observed that the ingestion of 14 berries of this
plant is sufficient to induce fatality due to the presence of a significant amount of
alkaloid. The nomenclature of Belladonna, derived from the Latin term for "beautiful
woman," is attributed to the historical application of its extract for the purpose of pupil
dilation. It is noteworthy that women in ancient Rome and Egypt possessed knowledge
that was not discovered by science until a more contemporary era. During the 1950s, a
study was conducted wherein pairs of photographs were utilized, with the only difference
being the degree of pupil dilation. The results of the study indicated that a majority of
individuals perceived the girl with more dilated pupils to be more attractive.
In contrast to the notorious and mythological associations of Atropa belladonna
and Mandragora officinarum, Hyoscyamus niger has been characterized by a relatively
unremarkable history. This phenomenon is peculiar, as the substance in question
possesses notable pharmacological activity and comprises of scopolamine and
lhyoscyamine. Several plants belonging to this genus possess significant levels of
alkaloids. However, Hyoscyamus niger has been historically recognized as henbane, a
potent toxicant that has been detrimental to hens and other creatures. In AD 60, Pliny
made a statement regarding the consumption of henbane, stating that exceeding four
leaves in a drink would result in a state of delirium. It can be inferred that Shakespeare's
character, Hamlet's father, may have consumed a quantity of henbane greater than four
leaves, as it was the substance used to poison him.
The Amanita muscaria fungus is commonly referred to as "fly agaric," potentially
due to its effects on flies. While the consumption of its juice does not result in fatality, it
induces a state of stupor in the consumer for a duration of 2 to 3 hours. This particular
fungus is a frequently encountered toxic mushroom species that is distributed throughout
numerous global forest ecosystems. According to earlier literature, the consumption of 5
to 10 Amanita mushrooms is associated with pronounced symptoms of intoxication,
including muscular twitching that can lead to limb twitches, as well as intense
drunkenness, restlessness, and vivid hallucinations. Subsequently, a prolonged period of
incomplete muscle function and altered consciousness characterized by sleep and
associated mental imagery ensues. Upon their arrival in India 3,500 years ago, the ancient
Aryan invaders partook in the consumption of soma, which held a revered status as a
deity. For a considerable period, the religion and culture of India were dominated by the
cult of Soma, which was extolled in the Rig Veda's poems for its sacramental usage. The
identification of soma as Amanita has been a subject of scholarly debate until the last
three decades, during which scholars have reached a consensus on this matter.
The plant commonly referred to as Salvia Divinorum is recognized by its
botanical nomenclature, which denotes it as the "diviner's sage." Its historical usage dates
back several centuries among the Mazatec community of Oaxaca, Mexico, where it was
employed in sacred rituals. Conventional practices of utilizing the plant encompass
masticating the foliage, consuming an infusion derived from the pulverized leaves, or
inhaling the desiccated leaves. Over the past few years, individuals in the United States
and Europe who engage in recreational activities have been growing and consuming the
plant through smoking. Salvia divinorum is not classified as a controlled substance by the
U.S. government; however, several states have independently prohibited its use by
enacting legislation.
