TERRORISM
An Examination of Terrorism
Andrew Langstaff
Liberty University
HLSC 610 Understanding Terrorism and Homeland Security
Research Paper 1
Professor Richards
November 24, 2019
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Abstract
This paper presents an analysis of the broad global issue that is terrorism. An in-depth
examination of terrorism will be provided through the use of various articles. This paper will be
organized in a way that offers the best understanding of terrorism. The history of terrorism and
how it has developed over time will be thoroughly explored through the class textbook,
“Introduction to homeland security: understanding terrorism prevention and emergency
management”, by David A. McEntire, the article, “The analytical study of terrorism: Taking
stock”, by Todd Sandler, and archived material from the FBI and U.S. Department of State.
Definitional issues will be distinguished with the use of “Terrorism-The Definitional Problem”
by Alex Schmid. Further, terrorist ideologies and typologies; terrorist’s structure, operations,
tactics, behaviors, financing and methodologies of interest including the use of force multipliers
will be discussed. Organizations at the larger level, such as left, right, single interests, domestic
and international will be briefly reviewed and clearly conveyed. Lastly, a Christian worldview
will be applied at the end of this paper, and how, or if the Bible speaks about terrorism in detail.
Matthew 24:9-14, “Then they will deliver you up to tribulation and put you to death, and you
will be hated by all nations for my name's sake. And then many will fall away and betray one
another and hate one another. And many false prophets will arise and lead many astray. And
because lawlessness will be increased, the love of many will grow cold. But the one who endures
to the end will be saved…”
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An Examination of Terrorism
There are hundreds of definitions that capture the perceptions of terrorism but the one
that stands out the most is the Department of Defense definition. The DOD defines terrorism as
“The calculated use of violence to inculcate fear; intended to coerce or to intimidate governments
or societies in the pursuit of goals that are generally political, religious or ideological”
(McEntire, 2019, p. 32). The reason why this paper identifies this definition over the rest is
because it validates that terrorism has existed throughout human civilizations. Terrorism comes
in may forms, “one person’s terrorist can just as well be another person’s freedom fighter
(Martin, 2003, p. 22). History has shown that terrorism, doesn’t matter what form it comes in,
seems to exhibit either political, religious or ideological beliefs. These core beliefs are the
motivation, the fuel that drives terrorist organizations to do what they do. Whether it be political,
religious or ideological, this paper will discuss these beliefs. In order to achieve what this paper
is intended to; this paper must first understand the history of terrorism and how it has developed
over time. Definitional issues, the challenge of how society distinguishes types of terrorism or
simply classifies terrorism as just terrorism will be studied. Groups at the “larger level”, for
example far left, right, single interests, domestic and international will be reviewed. The inner
workings of terrorist organizations will be explored and thoroughly discussed. These inner
workings include, the structure/leadership, operations, tactics, behaviors, methodologies and
financing. The typology financing will be a key talking point in this paper because finance is
what enables terrorist organizations, or freedom fighters, however one sees them, to continue the
fight. Lastly, from a Christian worldview this paper will assess how or if the bible speaks about
terrorism.
A system of ideologies, the history and development of terrorism
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The term terrorist and terrorism are believed to have originated in the “Reign of Terror”.
The “Reign of Terror” was a period in history that took place in the French Revolution where
state-sponsored violence took place. France’s Committee of Public Safety killed an estimated
20,000 people during the French Revolution. The term terrorist and terrorism may have been
conceived in part of the French Revolution, but aspects of terrorism are seen further back in time.
In the Age of Enlightenment period, which took place just before the French Revolution, 1715-
1789. This period in history was a time when the people started to question the crown, the
common people demanded freedoms, and democratic governments emerged. Capitalism and
sociopolitical formations were changed. Which was seen in the American and French
Revolution, when the people wanted independence. Terrorism can be seen again in 1605, when
Guy Fawkes was apprehended in the murder attempt on King James I and members of
parliament with political and religious motives. This was called the “Gunpowder Plot”. Finally,
going back to the 4th Century, a famous Greek philosopher, Aristotle, stated that killing of
tyrannical rulers could be justified, for if the ruler didn’t serve the interests of the people. As did
Brutus did when he killed Julius Caesar, thus rationalizing violence based on perceptions and
behaviors, and the just cause in it.
How has terrorism developed over time? The evolution of terrorism is rather complex, it
is best understood by the distinct forms that it took over time and with different countries. Since
the Enlightenment, various forms of Nationalists movements, Anarchists, Fascism, Communism,
and Islamic Fundamentalists took place. Nationalist Movements such as the black hand (Serbian
Terrorist organization) opposed the Austro-Hungarian Empire and countless others in the Middle
East, Ireland, and India who strived for political independence and autonomy. Anarchists such as
Michail Bakunin who opposed the government, sought merciless destruction of Russian officials,
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and added that whoever stands in their way of achieving their goal, they too must be eliminated.
Fascism is an ideology that promotes unity of the people in support of the state, but fascists
regimes like Spain’s Francisco Franco, Italy’s Benito Mussolini, and Germany’s Adolf Hitler
were involved in attacks on own citizens in support to unify the state. Communism, sympathized
with the poor, and attempted to do away with private property, in a sense advocating for a class
war. Finally, terrorism today has developed to a more radical Islamic fundamentalists, which are
those who violently oppose western influence. Arab and Muslim extremists can be found
throughout Europe, Africa, the Middle East, Philippines, and Indonesia (McEntire, 2019). The
extremist organizations are responsible for the attacks in the United States during 9/11, other
bombings on transportation hubs in Spain and England. The evolution of terrorism will have at
least one of the three core principles that give cause to commit such heinous crimes; Political,
Ideological, or Religious motives.
Definitional Issues
The definitional issue of terrorism is that there is no definite definition, there is no exact
meaning of the word/concept terrorism. There are hundreds of definitions that capture the
concepts of terrorism but the is no one universal definition. The United States of America has
several definitions of terrorism, all based on the various government agencies; The Department
of State (DOS), Department of Defense (DOD), the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), and
Department of Homeland Security (DHS). In the article, “Terrorism: the definitional problem”
by Alex Schmid, terrorism is difficult to define because it is a “contested concept”. There are
multiple meanings, and the term has changed dramatically over the years of existence.
Additionally, the lack of a definition will lead to future terrorism. Without a common
understanding of terrorism, there will be a lack of cooperation amongst agencies within a nation
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and between nations when dealing with international terrorism. Furthermore, controversial issues
such as applying the term to the actions of government/states to that of non-state groups,
differentiating between rights of the people to self-determinate and terrorism, to include national
armed forces, and relationships between existing and future counter-terrorism strategies.
Typologies of Terrorist Financing
The sources of terrorist financing are broad. Through the use of the article “Sources of
Terrorist Financing: Theory and Typology” by Michael Freeman, the sources are separated and
defined through four classifications; State Sponsorship, illegal activities, legal activities, and
popular support. There are advantages and disadvantages to all classifications. State sponsorship
which has been seen when the United States supported the Mujahedin in Afghanistan, and Iran
being the most active one today in supporting terrorist organizations. Advantages are the
abundancies of funds that are available to these organizations with little effort in acquiring them.
Disadvantages are control that these organizations have, and the reliability of funding. Thus,
illegal activities can take place in place of state sponsorship. These activities include extortion,
kidnapping, ransom, pirating, theft, etc. Illegal activities give more control to the organization
but those concerned with legitimacy would prove difficult with continued illegal activities. Legal
activities such as legitimate business’s give terrorist organizations security, and the opportunity
to generate funding for their organization as the IRA did. Disadvantages of legal activities are the
greater risk to authorities, these methods are necessarily simple, and the profits aren’t as great as
illegal activities nor state sponsorship. Popular support proves the legitimacy of the organization,
the process is quite simple, and it can be a reliable source. Disadvantages of this could the
quantity of funds and a change in behavior of the organization based upon the popular support.
Terrorist Methodologies and Force Multipliers
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Terrorists are involved in various methodologies, all of which are seen across different
terrorist organizations. Terrorist are known to be heavily involved in propaganda, recruiting,
training, and financing. Through the use of technology, social media is a major outlet that pushes
terrorist propaganda and recruiting agendas. Training camps are like those seen in the military;
where terrorist educate themselves and learn the trade. These camps are where terrorists learn to
be proficient in their craft; weapons, explosives, language, and other skills needed to accomplish
their mission. Financing, as was mentioned previously, financing is what supports their activities,
and these are usually obtained by a state sponsor, illegal or legal activities, or by popular support.
Other tactics and behaviors terrorists use are in regard to travel, communications, planning, and
seeking weapons to obtain and use in attacks. Travel consists of acquiring falsified documents to
move around freely, safe havens where shelter, food and other supplies are provided. Secrecy is
of the upmost importance in terrorist activities, so the use of code words or other secret means to
communicate is utilized. Terrorist are very deliberate in their planning. These organizations
believe that the more meticulous they’re in the planning phase, will just increase the damage
done, death toll, social disorder, and coverage of the event through media outlets. Terrorist are
always seeking weapons to use to carry out their attacks. In most cases terrorist will find a way
to implement whatever weapons they can get their hands on, but terrorists are always seeking
more advanced weaponry so that they can inflict more damage and add to the mass casualty.
Advanced weaponry like CBRNE (chemical, biological, radiological, nuclear, or explosive)
devices, something that can cause mass destruction.
Force multipliers are abilities, or capabilities that when included and used, the ability to
achieve greater things only increase for that group or force. Force multipliers utilized in
terrorism are fear, technology and mass media. Terrorism uses fear as a force multiplier in a way
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that causes public panic. Fear of larger, more frequent and deadlier attacks, acquiring CBRNE
devices and deployed to cause mass destruction, all of which are amplified/publicized through
mass media. Mass media as a force multiplier enables terrorist organizations propaganda,
recruiting, threats, and attacks heard around the world nearly instantaneously. Regarding
propaganda, recruiting, and publicizing events, technology such as social media is used to
expand the message that these terrorist organizations are trying to get out to the public.
Additionally, with technology, terrorist attacks will continue to improve and complicate on how
agencies counter these individuals and organizations.
Organizational Structures in Terrorism
Organizational structures in terrorism can be classifies into four categories: market,
all-channel, hub-spoke, and bureaucracy according to the article “A Basic Model Explaining
Terrorist Group Organizational Structure” by Joshua Kilberg. Bureaucracy is like most hierarchal
structures, departmental boundaries are clear, there are levels of authority, in other words a chain of
command, communication in the organization is downward, where superiors pass down information to
subordinates. Hub-spoke structures are those generally seen in cartels or pre 2001 Al Qaeda, there is a
central leader that employs different nodes that carry out separate functions. All-Channel structures have a
leader but there is little chain of command and no central control or variation of function between groups
within the organization, like there is in Hub-spoke structures. Market Structures have little to no
organization, with no central control or separate functions, and no discernible leadership.
Terrorism and The Bible
The bible doesn’t necessarily speak about the term terrorism or terrorist, but the bible
speaks in detail about violence, and terrorism is a form of violence, whether it is considered just
or unjust. Psalm 11:5 says “The Lord tests the righteous, but his soul hates the wicked and the
one who loves violence.” The lord tries man, and then those that take pleasure in violence will be
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reserved everlasting punishment. Or Romans 13:4, “For he is God's servant for your good. But if
you do wrong, be afraid, for he does not bear the sword in vain. For he is the servant of God, an
avenger who carries out God's wrath on the wrongdoer.” In this verse, proper punishment is
delivered by the defender of laws, who was appointed by God. Religion and violence have gone
hand in hand for centuries, and there are times where religion is either the topic or the issue of
violent behavior.
References
McEntire, D. A. (2019). Introduction to homeland security: understanding terrorism prevention
and emergency management (2nd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
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Schmid, A. P. (2004). Terrorism: the definitional problem. Cleveland, OH: The students of Case
Western Reserve School of Law.
Blomberg, S. B., Gaibulloev, K., & Sandler, T. (2011). Terrorist group survival: ideology, tactics,
and base of operations. Public Choice, 149(3-4), 441–463. doi: 10.1007/s11127-011-9837-4
Freeman, M. (2016). Sources of Terrorist Financing: Theory and Typology. Financing Terrorism,
7–26. doi: 10.4324/9781315582429-2
Pain, R. (2014). Everyday terrorism. Progress in Human Geography, 38(4), 531–550. doi:
10.1177/0309132513512231
McCormick, P. T. (2006). VIOLENCE: RELIGION, TERROR, WAR. Theological
Studies, 67(1), 143-162. Retrieved from http://ezproxy.liberty.edu/login?url=https://search-
proquest-com.ezproxy.liberty.edu/docview/212711005?accountid=12085
Watson, D. L. (2002, February 6). The Terrorist Threat Confronting the United States. Retrieved
from https://archives.fbi.gov/archives/news/testimony/the-terrorist-threat-confronting-the-united-
states.
Kilberg, J. (2012). A Basic Model Explaining Terrorist Group Organizational Structure. Studies
in Conflict & Terrorism, 35(11), 810–830. doi: 10.1080/1057610x.2012.720240
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