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EXAMINING DISASTER MANAGEMENT
Examining Disaster Management
School of Government, Liberty University
Author Note
I have no known conflict of interest to disclose.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Ali Davis.
Email:
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Abstract
Disaster management is an all-encompassing term that is used to describe numerous types of
disasters, disaster responses, and disaster organizations. How an organization deals with disasters
affects the municipalities and locations it serves. The multiple agencies that handle disaster
management include government agencies and emergency services, with the help of faith-based
organizations, community organizations, and individuals in the mental health field. How a
disaster is handled can affect how a community recovers and rebuilds.
Keywords: Emergency management, disaster management, FEMA, community
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Examining Disaster Management
A disaster, by its very definition, refers to a phenomenon that causes widespread
destruction and distress (Rubin & Sylves, 2020). Disasters are concentrated events that result in
severe danger and incur losses, disrupt the social structure, and prevent the essential functions of
the society from occurring (Das, 2018). Disasters affect all areas, across all socioeconomic
statuses. Natural disasters in the United States appear to be killing or injuring fewer people yet
damaging more property and infrastructure (Rubin & Sylves, 2020). This is directly affected by
the four phases of disaster management (Rubin & Sylves, 2020).
Disaster management is divides into phases: mitigation, preparedness, response, and
recovery. Phillips et al. (2018) state that mitigation refers to the preparations made that reduce or
exclude the chance of a disaster occurring. This includes risk assessment and post-disaster
activities According to Rubin and Sylves (2020), the responsibility for disaster mitigation and
prevention lies in the hands of everyone and should be practiced in the workplace, homes, and
school. Preparedness recognizes that disasters do occur and consists of actions such as
developing disaster plans, participating in training exercises, stocking food, water, and medical
supplies, and installing warning systems (Phillips et al., 2018). Response refers to the actions
taken after a disaster occurs. This includes detecting threats, evacuating at-risk populations,
search and rescue, as well as providing emergency shelter, food, and medical care (Das, 2018).
Recovery “aims to repair, rebuild, and reconstruct damaged properties and to restore disrupted
community social routines and economic activities” (p. 153).
The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)
The Federal Emergency Management Agency, or FEMA, was created in 1979 as an
independent federal agency with no regulatory powers (Rubin & Sylves, 2020). This agency
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proved to be quite proficient in the meeting a majority of the United States’ disaster management
need, which included deploying contractors and temporary workers to disaster areas. FEMA has
relied on paid reservists, highly trained volunteers, nonprofit organizations, and private
contractors to serve the American public in times of great need (Rubin & Sylves, 2020). From
1979 to 1992, “FEMA assisted state and local government in their response to several major
hurricanes, earthquakes, a great many floods, severe storms, and winter blizzards, as well as a
volcanic eruption (1980) in Washington State” (Rubin & Sylves, 2020, p. 116).
Local Government
According to Rubin and Sylves (2020), the mission of FEMA and the involvement of the
federal government in emergency management has always been convoluted by the role that local
government plays in disaster management. Because local government (villages, towns, cities,
counties, etc.) have the principal responsibility for disaster preparation and the evacuation of
residents, mitigation actions fall under the scope of local government. This includes building and
zoning codes (Rubin & Sylves, 2020).
Additionally, local governments manage their response to disaster, as well as their
recovery from it (Rubin & Sylves, 2020). State governments often aid local governments with
disaster aid. Accordingly, the federal government sometimes aids state and local governments,
but only under specific emergency conditions (Rubin & Sylves, 2020).
Terrorism
Terrorism, while considered to be a manmade disaster, is included under the umbrella of
disaster management. In the latter part of the twentieth century, terrorism became a major
concern for emergency management (Rubin & Sylves, 2020). While the United States has dealt
with terrorism for a number of years, “the first presidential disaster declaration for a terror-
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caused incident” did not occur until after the 1993 truck bomb attack on the World Trade Center
in New York City (Rubin & Sylves, 2020, p. 128). Two years after this event, another
presidential disaster declaration went to Oklahoma City and the State of Oklahoma following the
terrorist bombing of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building (Rubin & Sylves, 2020). This attack
marked the first time that FEMA was paired with the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI),
which was tasked with the apprehension of Timothy McVeigh and his accomplice, Terry Nichols
(Rubin & Sylves, 2020).
The beginning of the U.S. War on Terrorism in 2001 was precipitated by the terror attacks
on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon. Between the end of the Cold War (1989-1990) and
the beginning of the War on Terrorism, “terror attacks in the United States were addressed
domestically as crimes and internationally as surgical military strikes on terrorist compounds”
(Rubin & Sylves, 2020, p. 135). Terrorist attacks occurring outside of the U.S. contributed to the
concerns about the U.S. terrorism preparedness. The argument of some policy makers and
professional in emergency management was that devastation caused by manmade disasters
would have the potential to surpass damage caused by natural disasters. This is particularly true
of manmade disaster that are inflicted to generate terror (Rubin & Sylves, 2020).
Factors Affecting Relief Demand
Disasters place incredible stress on communities. Numerous factors influence the demand
for disaster relief. Disasters vary by frequency, familiarity, duration, severity, scope of impact,
potential for destruction, and the length of the period of warning for communities (Das, 2018).
When a disaster affects a limited area of impact, fewer relief is needed by that community. Along
the same lines, disasters that are large in scope cause more issues that require disaster relief.
There is more widespread damage to infrastructure (Das, 2018).
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Emergency sheltering affects the demand for relief. Emergency shelters following a
disaster are temporary. According to Das (2018), there are several types of emergency housing.
Emergency sheltering “takes place in the immediate pre- and post-impact periods,” and is
spontaneous and based on expediency (p. 154). Temporary sheltering is typically provided by
organizations such as the American Red Cross, or informally by friends, family, or neighbors
(Das, 2018). This type of housing requires food, facilities for sleeping, and other provision.
While brief, this type of housing can last for weeks until individuals can find more permanent
housing (Das, 2018). Temporary housing differs from temporary sheltering. This type of housing
implies more temporary housing than shelters, and also implies the understanding that there is a
requirement for more permanent housing (Das, 2018). Lastly, permanent housing is housing that
is acquired where the individual or family is no longer in need of housing following a disaster.
Special Needs Populations
Special needs populations face particular challenges during disasters. In counties along
the Gulf Coast of the U.S., higher social vulnerabilities correlate with a higher amount of damage
from disasters (Karaye et al., 2019). Hurricane Katrina had the largest impact on individuals who
were more likely to live in poverty, rent their homes, be of African American decent, female, and
suffer from declining physical health (Karaye et al., 2019). Individuals who lived closest to the
failed levees were those of limited income. Following Hurricane Katrina, a survey of residents
who chose not to evacuate found that 55% of these individuals did not evacuate due not owning
a car or having access to other transportation (Karaye et al., 2019). Additionally, “most
evacuation decisions in Hurricane Katrina were shaped by social vulnerabilities like poverty,
preexisting medical conditions, and minority status” (Karaye et al., 2019, p. 5).
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Das (2018) states that minority individuals have less access to emergency-related
information. The inability to evacuate an impending storm has been shown to result in deaths
from both direct causes (trauma, drowning, and carbon monoxide poisoning) and indirect causes,
such as complications resulting from the worsening of chronic health conditions (diabetes or
cardiovascular disease) (Karaye et al., 2019).
Age
Senior citizens face many challenges during disasters. Due to age, physical limitations,
and disabilities, seniors tend to suffer more injuries during a disaster than younger individuals
(Das, 2018). Karaye et al. (2019) state that disabilities and poor physical health limit the elderly
during the evacuation process. Concerns about disruptions to scheduled medical care or access to
an elderly individual’s durable medical equipment can result in them refusing to leave their
residence, despite the dangers (Karaye et al., 2019).
Income
According to Das (2018), an individual’s income is directly related to access to housing,
as well as the safety of housing. Elderly individuals tend to live in structures that are vulnerable
to disaster because these structures are within a fixed income budget (Das, 2018). In cities that
are prone to earthquakes, affordable housing tends to be available in structures that are older,
masonry buildings that are not reinforced. These types of structures are more susceptible to
collapse during an earthquake (Das, 2018). Lower income individuals also have less of a
financial stockpile, are more likely to be unemployed or disabled, and are less likely to hold
disaster insurance (Das, 2018). Lack of access to a personal vehicle or another means of
transportation can prevent low-income individuals from seeking shelter or moving to higher
ground during a storm (Karaye et al., 2019).
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Low-Income Housing Tax Credit (LIHTC)
In the United States, the Low-Income Housing Tax Credit (LIHTC) is the most common
financing tool for subsidized housing (Mehta et al., 2020). The LIHTC program was created in
1986 “to leverage federal tax credits for private investment in the construction of affordable
housing” (Mehta et al., 2020, p. 77). Low-income individuals are often the hardest hit during a
disaster, but they receive little the least amount of federal disaster assistance, which is typically
disbursed to homeowners (Mehta et al., 2020). Returning to normal activities is important
following a disaster, and this includes the reestablishment of a permanent residence.
Non-white, lower income areas usually sustain more damage during disasters, and low-
income renters are more likely than homeowners to live in buildings that were built to meet
“less-rigorous codes” (Mehta et al., 2020, p. 76). As a result, constructing affordable housing
after a disaster is more time consuming than it is to repair high-income housing that has been
built to code, resulting in lower income individuals having to move or face deepening poverty
levels in their low-income neighborhood (Mehta et al., 2020).
Faith-Based Organizations
Faith-based organizations and other nongovernmental organizations often join with local
health departments for an increased capacity for disaster preparedness and response (Adams et
al., 2017). According to Adams, et al. (2020), because of their knowledge of their community
and its cultures, resources, and structures, local health departments rely on community and faith-
based organizations; churches know their parishioners and their families, and schools know the
children in their building. This knowledge and familiarity allows for outside agencies to gain
first-hand knowledge that can prove helpful before, during, and after a disaster.
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U.S. policy documents advocate for collaborations between government and non-
government agencies by participating in a community approach. FEMA outlines a framework for
executing the whole-community approach, which includes understanding the needs of a
community while “engaging and empowering all parts of the community, and strengthening
existing community relationships” (Adams et al., 2020, p. 57).
Local health departments engage in four categories of activities when collaborating with
community faith-based organizations (Adams et al., 2020). First, communication and outreach is
important for the creation, promotion, and distribution of disaster information resources and
materials. Second, resource sharing occurs when local health departments utilize the resources of
community faith-based organizations for disaster preparedness and response; particularly, the use
of services, space, and volunteers. Third, capacity building allows for local health departments to
train and work with community faith-based organizations to prepare for disasters in their own.
This allows for community faith-based organizations to help their community in the face of
disaster. Lastly, partnership planning includes community-based planning between local health
departments and community faith-based organizations. This results in developing and enacting
community-wide preparedness and response plans, the participation of community faith-based
organizations in community drills and continuing the coordination between the local health
department and community faith-based organizations before and after a disaster (Adams et al.,
2020).
Christians are commanded to help those in need. “When God’s people are in need, be
ready to help them. Always be eager to practice hospitality” (Rom 12:13, New Living
Translation, 2004). Faith-based organizations, in particular, focus on brining the commandments
of Jesus to those who are hurting. Showing love and compassion to those who are hurting and
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broken can be a vital part of their healing. Faith-based organizations that open their doors to
others in time of need are practicing the very words of Jesus. “Yes, I am the gate. Those who
come in through me will be saved. They will come and go freely and will find good pastures”
(John 10:9, New Living Translation, 2004).
Debris Removal
Debris removal is an important part of the disaster recovery process. Crowley and
Flachsbart (2018) state that the management of debris from a disaster has been linked to
inhibiting a disaster because of the cost and time it takes to remove debris. When there are
inadequate debris removal practices, the outcome is depletion of community resources that could
be put to better use elsewhere (Crowley & Flachsbart, 2018).
Disposing of disaster debris is complicated due to the sheer quantity of the debris.
Disaster debris is about five to ten times the yearly solid waste that is generated by a community
(Kim et al., 2018, p. 674). According to Kim et al. (2018), “in the past, a primary objective was
to transport the debris generated by disasters from an original site to its final destination as soon
as possible” (p. 674). Disaster debris causes delays in removal operations and other processes
(Kim et al., 2018).
The two phases of debris removal are recovery and response (Kim et al., 2018). During
the response phase, the main objective is to clean up the debris on emergency routes used for
evacuations, while the recovery phase involves removing of debris on public roads not cleared
during the response phase (Kim et al., 2018). After a disaster, a temporary debris management
site (TDMS) is sometimes used, where debris is sorted, recycled, and disposed of (Kim et al.,
2018). Typically, 100 acres of land is required per one million cubic yards of debris, but this land
must be clear of playgrounds and swamps due to damage to the environment and the effects on
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the community, and it should ideally be located where noise, pests, vermin, and odors will not
affect the community (Kim et al., 2018).
Mental Health and Disasters
According to Bobbitt (2018), “with the evolution of technology, media exposes
individuals to natural disasters more immediately, and often creates a sense of obsession, fear,
and fascination surrounding the disaster” (p. 56). While disasters affect individuals on a physical
and material level, they also cause psychological impairments that need to be addressed. The
American Red Cross was the first agency to recognize the need for mental health care specific to
disasters (Bobbitt, 2018).
The Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs
(CACREP) states that counselors must understand and be trained in the effects that crisis,
disaster, and trauma have on an individual (Bobbitt, 2018). The Code of Ethics for the American
Counseling Association (ACA) states that mental health counselors must understand trauma, and
they must take precautions that protect their clients from unnecessary trauma that is emotional,
physical, or psychological in nature (Bobbitt, 2018).
Purpose of Disaster Mental Health Interventions
Mental health interventions serve three purposes. First, acute support is necessary to
reduce an individual’s stress. Acute support also increases the understanding of reactions,
reduces negative coping skills, and increases the individual’s knowledge of additional resources
that are available to them (Bobbitt, 2018). Second, immediate support helps clients to cope with
the daily stresses involved with a natural disaster. Immediate support is when the client-
counselor relationship is formed. Lastly, in ongoing treatment. Ongoing treatment allows for the
client and counselor to work on the individual needs of the client (Bobbitt, 2018).
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Impact of Disasters on Clients
Disasters affect individuals on a number of levels, resulting in emotional, psychological,
behavioral, and spiritual issues. Common responses to disaster include anxiety, shock, anger, fear
of both death and dying, sleep disturbances, social isolation, a change in appetite, grief,
loneliness, posttraumatic stress disorder, and increased suicide rates (Bobbitt, 2018). Women
typically experience higher levels of emotional difficulty in disaster situations than men (Das,
2018). Additionally, disasters affect communities. Bobbitt (2018) states that disaster communities
face widespread grief, economic changes, disorientation, and behaviors that are unconstructive.
Impact of Disasters on Counselors
Counselors are also affected by the disasters they help others to work through. A common
reaction to disaster trauma for those who help others is vicarious trauma. According to Bobbitt
(2018), vicarious traumatization occurs as a result of working with and engaging with an
individual who is experiencing a great amount of stress.
Compassion fatigue occurs when a counselor is exposed to a great deal of pain and
suffering of clients. This usually results in the decreased ability to display empathy (Bobbitt,
2018). Counselors who experience compassion fatigue perceive that they have little to no
emotional support in the place of employment. In addition to poor self-care, counselors who
experience compassion fatigue are faced with sleep disturbances, decreased ability to maintain
normal levels of functioning, loss of hope, and these individuals typically leave the profession
prematurely, and encounter boundary and ethical violations with clients (Bobbitt, 2018).
Conclusion
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Disasters impact communities and individuals in numerous ways. Effective disaster
management is important, as it affects how a community prepares for a disaster, how the disaster
is dealt with, and how the recovery process is carried out following a disaster. Communities that
affectively mitigate and prepare for a disaster are more likely to face the devastation of
communities who are entirely unprepared. Disaster plans are an effective way of ensuring that
communities and individuals are fully prepared for the disasters they will face.
References
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